Republic of the Philippines

NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.3: Physics 1-2S-2020-2021

College of Engineering
Bambang Campus

DEGREE Bachelor of Science in COURSE NO. Physics 1

PROGRAM Mechanical Engineering
SPECIALIZATION Mechanical COURSE Physics for Engineers
TITLE
YEAR LEVEL 1st Year TIME FRAME 6 WK NO. 2-3 IM 3
hrs/week NO.

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE: Kinematics

II. LESSON TITLE:

3.1 Motion Along a Straight Line
3.1A Position, Displacement, and Average Velocity
3.1B Instantaneous Velocity and Speed
3.1C Average and Instantaneous Acceleration
3.1D Motion with Constant Acceleration
3.1E Free Falling Bodies
3.2 Motion in a Plane
3.2A Average and Instantaneous Velocity
3.2B Acceleration Vector
3.2C Projectile Motion
3.2D Uniform Circular Motion

III. LESSON OVERVIEW:

Kinematics is a subfield of physics, developed in classical mechanics, that describes the motion
of points, bodies, and systems of bodies without considering the forces that cause them to move.
Kinematics involves describing motion through properties such as position, time, velocity, and
acceleration.
In this lesson we discuss mathematical methods for describing motion and the relationship of
motion to force.

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES:

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Calculate the total displacement given the position as a function of time, and calculate the
average velocity given the displacement and elapsed time.
2. Describe the difference between velocity and speed.
3. Explain the difference between average velocity and instantaneous velocity.
4. Calculate the instantaneous acceleration given the functional form of velocity.
5. Use the kinematic equations to analyze free-fall motion.
6. Calculate the acceleration vector given the velocity function in unit vector notation.
7. Use one-dimensional motion in perpendicular directions to analyze projectile motion.
8. Solve for the centripetal acceleration of an object moving on a circular path.

V. LESSON CONTENT:

3.1 Motion Along a Straight Line

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Motion is a continuous change of position. We can think of a moving body is a particle when it is
small and when there is no rotation or change of shape. We say that the particle is a model for a moving
body; it provides a simplified, and idealized description of the position and motion of the body.
The simplest case is motion of a particle along a straight line, and we will always take that line to
be a coordinate axis.

3.1A Position, Displacement, and Average Velocity

Position
To describe the motion of an object, you must first be able to describe its position (x): where it is
at any particular time. More precisely, we need to specify its position relative to a convenient frame of
reference. A frame of reference is an arbitrary set of axes from which the position and motion of an object
are described. Earth is often used as a frame of reference, and we often describe the position of an object
as it relates to stationary objects on Earth. For example, a rocket launch could be described in terms of
the position of the rocket with respect to Earth as a whole, whereas a cyclist’s position could be described
in terms of where she is in relation to the buildings she passes. In other cases, we use reference frames
that are not stationary but are in motion relative to Earth. To describe the position of a person in an
airplane, for example, we use the airplane, not Earth, as the reference frame. To describe the position of
an object undergoing one-dimensional motion, we often use the variable 𝑥. Later in the chapter, during
the discussion of free fall, we use the variable 𝑦.

Displacement
If an object moves relative to a frame of reference—for example, if a professor moves to the right
relative to a whiteboard then the object’s position changes. This change in position is called displacement.
The word displacement implies that an object has moved, or has been displaced. Although position is
the numerical value of x along a straight line where an object might be located, displacement gives the
change in position along this line. Since displacement indicates direction, it is a vector and can be either
positive or negative, depending on the choice of positive direction. Also, an analysis of motion can have
many displacements embedded in it. If right is positive and an object moves 2 m to the right, then 4 m to
the left, the individual displacements are 2 m and – 4 m, respectively.
The magnitude of the displacement is always positive. This is the absolute value of the
displacement, because displacement is a vector and cannot have a negative value of magnitude. The
magnitude of the total displacement should not be confused with the distance traveled. Distance traveled
is the total length of the path traveled between two positions.

Average Velocity
To calculate the other physical quantities in kinematics we must introduce the time variable. The
time variable allows us not only to state where the object is (its position) during its motion, but also how
fast it is moving. How fast an object is moving is given by the rate at which the position changes with
time.
For each position 𝑥𝑖 , we assign a particular time 𝑡𝑖 . If the details of the motion at each instant are
not important, the rate is usually expressed as the average velocity 𝑣̅ . This vector quantity is simply the
total displacement between two points divided by the time taken to travel between them. The time taken
to travel between two points is called the elapsed time 𝛥𝑡.

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠

𝛥𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑣̅ (𝑡) = =
𝛥𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1

It is important to note that the average velocity is a vector and can be negative, depending on positions
𝑥1 and 𝑥2 .

Example:
A cyclist rides 3 km west and then turns around and rides 2 km east. (a) What is his displacement? (b)
What is the distance traveled? (c) What is the magnitude of his displacement?

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Solution:
(a) 𝛥𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = 2 km − 3 km = −1 km
(b) 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 2 km + 3 km = 5 km
(c) 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = |−1 km| = 1 km

3.1B Instantaneous Velocity and Speed

We have learned how to calculate the average velocity between two positions. However, since
objects in the real world move continuously through space and time, we would like to find the velocity of
an object at any single point. We can find the velocity of the object anywhere along its path by using
some fundamental principles of calculus. This section gives us better insight into the physics of motion
and will be useful in later chapters.

Instantaneous Velocity
The quantity that tells us how fast an object is moving anywhere along its path is the instantaneous
velocity, usually called simply velocity. It is the average velocity between two points on the path in the
limit that the time (and therefore the displacement) between the two points approaches zero. To illustrate
this idea mathematically, we need to express position 𝑥as a continuous function of t denoted by 𝑥(𝑡).

𝛥𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑣(𝑡) = lim =
Δt→0 𝛥𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Since 𝛥𝑡 is assumed positive, 𝑣 has the same algebraic sign as 𝛥𝑥. Hence if the positive 𝑥-axis points to
the right, a positive velocity indicates motion toward the right.

Example: Average velocity versus instantaneous velocity

A cheetah is crouched in ambush 20 m to the north of an observer’s blind. At time 𝑡 = 0, the cheetah
charges an antelope in a clearing 50 m north of the observer. The observer estimates that during the first
2 s of the attack, the cheetah’s motion is described by the equation 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑡 2 , where 𝑎 = 20 m and 𝑏 =
5 m/s2.
(a) Find the displacement of the cheetah in the time interval between 𝑡1 = 1 s and 𝑡2 = 2 s.
(b) Find the average velocity in this time interval.
(c) Find the instantaneous velocity at time t = 1 s and t = 2 s.

Antelope

x2 t= 2 s 50 m

x1 t= 1 s
x0 Cheetah
20 m t= 0
0
Blind

Solution:
(a) At 𝑡1 = 1 s,
𝑥1 = 20 m + (5m/s 2 )(1 s)2 = 25 m
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At 𝑡2 = 2 s,
𝑥2 = 20 m + (5m/s 2 )(2 s)2 = 40 m

𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = 40 𝑚 − 25 𝑚 = 15 m
(b)
𝑑𝑥 15 m
𝑣̅ = = = 15 m/s
𝑑𝑡 2 s − 1 s

(b) Since 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑡 2 ,
𝑑𝑥
𝑣= = 2𝑏𝑡 = (10 m/s 2 )𝑡
𝑑𝑡

At 𝑡 = 1 s,
𝑣 = (10 m/s 2 )(1 s) = 10 m/s
At 𝑡 = 2 s,
𝑣 = (10 m/s 2 )(2 s) = 20 m/s

Speed
In everyday language, most people use the terms speed and velocity interchangeably. In physics,
however, they do not have the same meaning and are distinct concepts. One major difference is that
speed has no direction; that is, speed is a scalar.

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑠̅ =
𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Average speed is not necessarily the same as the magnitude of the average velocity, which is found by
dividing the magnitude of the total displacement by the elapsed time. For example, if a trip starts and
ends at the same location, the total displacement is zero, and therefore the average velocity is zero. The
average speed, however, is not zero, because the total distance traveled is greater than zero. If we take
a road trip of 300 km and need to be at our destination at a certain time, then we would be interested in
our average speed.
However, we can calculate the instantaneous speed from the magnitude of the instantaneous
velocity:

𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = s = |𝑣 |

If a particle is moving along the 𝑥-axis at +7.0 m/s and another particle is moving along the same axis at
−7.0 m/s, they have different velocities, but both have the same speed of 7.0 m/s.

Example: Instantaneous velocity versus speed

Consider the motion of a particle in which the position is 𝑥(𝑡) = (3.0𝑡 − 3𝑡 2 ) m.
(a) What is the instantaneous velocity at t = 0.25 s, t = 0.50 s, and t = 1.0 s?
(b) What is the speed of the particle at these times?

Solution:
The instantaneous velocity is the derivative of the position function and the speed is the magnitude of the
instantaneous velocity.

𝑑𝑥
(a) 𝑣(𝑡) = = (3.0 − 6𝑡) m/s
𝑑𝑡

𝑣(0.25) = 3.0 − 6(0.25) = 1.50 m/s

𝑣(0.50) = 3.0 − 6(0.50) = 0 m/s
𝑣(1.0) = 3.0 − 6(1.0) = −3.0 m/s

(b) 𝑠 = |𝑣 |
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𝑠(0.25) = |1.50| m/s = 1.50 m/s

𝑠(0.50) = 0 m/s
𝑠(1.0) = |−3.0| m/s = 3.0 m/s

3.1C Average and Instantaneous Acceleration

The importance of understanding acceleration spans our day-to-day experience, as well as the
vast reaches of outer space and the tiny world of subatomic physics. In everyday conversation, to
accelerate means to speed up; applying the brake pedal causes a vehicle to slow down. We are familiar
with the acceleration of our car, for example. The greater the acceleration, the greater the change in
velocity over a given time. Acceleration is widely seen in experimental physics. In linear particle
accelerator experiments, for example, subatomic particles are accelerated to very high velocities in
collision experiments, which tell us information about the structure of the subatomic world as well as the
origin of the universe. In space, cosmic rays are subatomic particles that have been accelerated to very
high energies in supernovas (exploding massive stars) and active galactic nuclei. It is important to
understand the processes that accelerate cosmic rays because these rays contain highly penetrating
radiation that can damage electronics flown on spacecraft, for example.
Average Acceleration
Average acceleration is the rate at which velocity changes:

𝛥𝑣 𝑣2 − 𝑣1
𝑎̅(𝑡) = =
𝛥𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1

Acceleration is a vector in the same direction as the change in velocity,𝛥𝑣. Since velocity is a vector, it
can change in magnitude or in direction, or both. Acceleration is, therefore, a change in speed or direction,
or both. Although acceleration is in the direction of the change in velocity, it is not always in the direction
of motion. When an object slows down, its acceleration is opposite to the direction of its motion. This is
commonly referred to as deceleration. The term deceleration can cause confusion in our analysis
because it is not a vector and it does not point to a specific direction with respect to a coordinate system,
so we do not use it. Acceleration is a vector, so we must choose the appropriate sign for it in our chosen
coordinate system. For example, if a train is slowing down acceleration is in the negative direction in the
chosen coordinate system, so we say the train is undergoing negative acceleration.
If an object in motion has a velocity in the positive direction with respect to a chosen origin and it
acquires a constant negative acceleration, the object eventually comes to a rest and reverses direction.
If we wait long enough, the object passes through the origin going in the opposite direction.

Example:
A racehorse coming out of the gate accelerates from rest to a velocity of 15.0 m/s due west in 1.80 s.
What is its average acceleration?

Solution:
First, we draw a sketch and assign a coordinate system to the problem. This is a simple problem, but it
always helps to visualize it. Notice that we assign east as positive and west as negative. Thus, in this
case, we have negative velocity.

𝛥𝑣 −15 m/s
𝑎̅ = = = −8.33 m/s
𝛥𝑡 1.80 s

Instantaneous Acceleration

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Instantaneous acceleration 𝑎, or acceleration at a specific instant in time, is obtained using the

same process discussed for instantaneous velocity. That is, we calculate the average velocity between
two points in time separated by 𝛥𝑡 and let 𝛥𝑡 approach zero. The result is the derivative of the velocity
function v(t), which is instantaneous acceleration and is expressed mathematically as

𝑑 𝑑2𝑥
𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡) = 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Example: Calculating instantaneous acceleration

A particle is in motion and is accelerating. The functional form of the velocity is 𝑣 = (20𝑡 − 5𝑡 2 ) m/s.
(a) Find the functional form of the acceleration.
(b) Find the instantaneous velocity at t = 1, 2, 3, and 5 s.
(c) Find the instantaneous acceleration at t = 1, 2, 3, and 5 s.

Solution:
(a)
𝑑
𝑎(𝑡) = (20𝑡 − 5𝑡 2 ) = (20 − 10𝑡) m/s 2
𝑑𝑡

(b) 𝑣(1) = [(20)(1) − (5)(1)2 ] m/s = 15 m/s

𝑣(2) = [(20)(2) − (5)(2)2 ] m/s = 20 m/s
𝑣(3) = [(20)(3) − (5)(3)2 ] m/s = 15 m/s
𝑣(5) = [(20)(5) − (5)(5)2 ] m/s = −25 m/s

(c)
𝑎(1) = [20 − (10)(1)] m/s 2 = 10 m/s 2
𝑎(2) = [20 − (10)(2)] m/s 2 = 0 m/s 2
𝑎(3) = [20 − (10)(3)] m/s 2 = −10 m/s 2
𝑎(5) = [20 − (10)(5)] m/s 2 = − 30 m/s 2

3.1D Motion with Constant Acceleration

The simplest accelerated motion is a straight-line motion with constant acceleration, when the
velocity changes at the same rate throughout the motion. We can replace the average acceleration 𝑎̅ by
the constant (instantaneous) acceleration 𝑎. We then have

𝑣2 − 𝑣1
𝑎=
𝑡2 − 𝑡1

Solving for Final Velocity from Acceleration and Time

Let 𝑡1 = 0 and let 𝑡2 be any arbitrary later time 𝑡𝑓 . Let 𝑣0 represent the velocity when 𝑡 = 0 (called
the initial velocity), and let 𝑣𝑓 be the velocity at the later time 𝑡𝑓 .

𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣0
𝑎=
𝑡𝑓 − 0

𝒗𝒇 = 𝒗𝟎 + 𝒂𝒕𝒇

Solving for Final Position with Constant Acceleration

We can use a similar procedure to find an expression for the position 𝑥𝑓 by starting with the
average velocity
𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥0 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥0
𝑣̅ = =
𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡0 𝑡𝑓

̅𝒕𝒇
𝒙𝒇 = 𝒙𝟎 + 𝒗

Take note that when acceleration is constant the average velocity equals to
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𝑣0 + 𝑣𝑓
𝑣̅ =
2

Thus, the position 𝑥𝑓 is

𝑣0 + 𝑣𝑓 𝑣0 + 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡𝑓
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥0 + ( ) 𝑡𝑓 = 𝑥0 + ( ) 𝑡𝑓
2 2

2𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡𝑓
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥0 + ( ) 𝑡𝑓
2
𝟏
𝒙𝒇 = 𝒙𝟎 + 𝒗𝟎 𝒕𝒇 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐𝒇
𝟐

Solving for Final Velocity from Distance and Acceleration

By algebraic manipulation of the equation for final velocity and the equation of final position;

𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡𝑓

𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣0
𝑡𝑓 =
𝑎
𝑣0 + 𝑣𝑓 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣0
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣̅ 𝑡𝑓 = 𝑥0 + ( )( )
2 𝑎

𝑣0 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣02 + 𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑣0 𝑣𝑓 𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑣02

𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥0 + = 𝑥0 +
2𝑎 2𝑎

𝒗𝟐𝒇 = 𝒗𝟐𝟎 + 𝟐𝒂(𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝟎 )

Example 1:
An airplane lands with an initial velocity of 70.0 m/s and then decelerates at 1.50 m/s 2 for 40.0 s. What is
its final velocity?

Solution:
m m m
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡𝑓 = 70.0 + (−1.50 2 ) (40.0 s) = 10
s s s

Example 2:
Dragsters can achieve an average acceleration of 26.0 m/s 2. Suppose a dragster accelerates from rest
at this rate for 5.56 s.
(a) How far does it travel in this time?
(b) Calculate the final velocity of the dragster without using information about time.

Solution:
(a)
1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 𝑡𝑓 + 𝑎𝑡𝑓2
2

Since the car starts from rest, 𝑣0 = 0 and 𝑥0 = 0,

1 1 m
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑎𝑡𝑓2 = (26.0 2 ) (5.56 s)2 = 401.88 m
2 2 s
(b)
m m2
𝑣𝑓2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎(𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥0 ) = 2𝑎𝑥𝑓 = 2 (26.0 2 ) (401.88 m) = 20897.76 2
s s

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m2 m
𝑣𝑓 = √20897.76 2 = 144.56
s s

3.1E Free Falling Bodies

Free fall describes the motion of an object falling in a gravitational field, such as near the surface
of Earth or other celestial objects of planetary size. Let’s assume the body is falling in a straight line
perpendicular to the surface, so its motion is one-dimensional. For example, we can estimate the depth
of a vertical mine shaft by dropping a rock into it and listening for the rock to hit the bottom. But “falling,”
in the context of free fall, does not necessarily imply the body is moving from a greater height to a lesser
height. If a ball is thrown upward, the equations of free fall apply equally to its ascent as well as its
descent.
The most remarkable and unexpected fact about falling objects is that if air resistance and friction
are negligible, then in a given location all objects fall toward the center of Earth with the same constant
acceleration, independent of their mass. This experimentally determined fact is unexpected because we
are so accustomed to the effects of air resistance and friction that we expect light objects to fall slower
than heavy ones. Until Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) proved otherwise, people believed that a heavier
object has a greater acceleration in a free fall. We now know this is not the case. In the absence of air
resistance, heavy objects arrive at the ground at the same time as lighter objects when dropped from the
same height.
For the ideal situations an object falling without air resistance or friction is defined to be in free
fall. The force of gravity causes objects to fall toward the center of Earth. The acceleration of free-falling
objects is therefore called acceleration due to gravity. Acceleration due to gravity is constant, which
means we can apply the kinematic equations to any falling object where air resistance and friction are
negligible.
Acceleration due to gravity is so important that its magnitude is given its own symbol,𝑔. It is
constant at any given location on Earth and has the average value

m ft
𝑔 = 9.81 2 = 32.2 2
s s

Note that whether acceleration 𝑎in the kinematic equations has the value +𝑔 or −𝑔 depends on how we
define our coordinate system. If we define the upward direction as positive, then 𝑎 = −𝑔, and if we define
the downward direction as positive, then 𝑎 = 𝑔.

Kinematics Equations for Objects in Free Fall

We assume here that acceleration equals −g (with the positive direction upward).

𝒗𝒇 = 𝒗𝟎 − 𝒈𝒕𝒇
𝟏
𝒚𝒇 = 𝒚𝟎 + 𝒗𝟎 𝒕𝒇 − 𝒈𝒕𝟐𝒇
𝟐

𝒗𝟐𝒇 = 𝒗𝟐𝟎 − 𝟐𝒈(𝒚𝒇 − 𝒚𝟎 )

Example:
A batter hits a baseball straight upward at home plate and the ball is caught 5.0 s after it is struck. Assume
the ball is hit and caught at the same location. (a) What is the initial velocity of the ball? (b) What is the
maximum height the ball reaches? (c) How long does it take to reach the maximum height? (d) What is
the acceleration at the top of its path? (e) What is the velocity of the ball when it is caught?

Solution:
Choose a coordinate system with a positive y-axis that is straight up and with an origin that is at the spot
where the ball is hit and caught.
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hmax

yo v
o

(a) Since the ball returns to its original position with the given time, 𝑦𝑓 = 𝑦0 = 0
1
𝑦𝑓 = 𝑦0 + 𝑣0 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑔𝑡𝑓2
2
1 m
0 = 0 + 𝑣0 (5.0 s) − (9.81 2 ) (5.0 s)2
2 s
0 = 𝑣0 (5.0 s) − 122.63 m
122.63 m m
𝑣0 = = 24.53
5.0 s s
(b) At the maximum height 𝑣 = 0.

𝑣𝑓2 = 𝑣02 − 2𝑔(𝑦𝑓 − 𝑦0 )

m 2 m
0 = (24.53 ) − 2 (9.81 2 ) (𝑦𝑓 )
s s
m2 m
0 = 601.72 2 − 19.62 2 (𝑦𝑓 )
s s
𝑦𝒇 = ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 30.67 m

(c)
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣0 − 𝑔𝑡𝑓
m m
0 = 24.53 − 9.81 2 (𝑡𝑓 )
s s
𝑡𝑓 = 2.5 s
The ball takes 2.5 s to rise and 2.5 s to fall.

(d) The acceleration is 9.81 m/s2 everywhere, even when the velocity is zero at the top of the path.
Although the velocity is zero at the top, it is changing at the rate of 9.8 m/s 2 downward.
(e)
m m m
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣0 − 𝑔𝑡𝑓 = 24.53 − (9.81 2 ) (5.0 s) = −24.52
s s s
The negative sign indicates that the ball goes down.

3.2 Motion in a Plane

Motion in a plane is called as motion in two dimensions. A few familiar examples are the flight of
a thrown or batted baseball, a projectile shot from a gun, a ball whirled in a circle at the end of a cord.

3.2A Average and Instantaneous Velocity

To begin our study of motion along a curved path in a plane, we consider the situation of the figure
below.
A particle moves along a curved path in the 𝑥𝑦-plane; points P and Q represents the positions of
the particle at two different times. We can describe the position of the particle at P by means of the

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displacement vector r from the origin 0 to point P; we call the r the position vector of the particle. The
components of r are the coordinates 𝑥 and 𝑦.

𝒓 = 𝑥𝒊 + 𝑦𝒋

where 𝒊 and 𝒋 are the unit vectors.

y y y
v v
𝑣̅
Δy Q Q vy
Δx v
P Δr P P
vx
r
x x x
0 (a) 0 (b) 0 (c)

(a) The displacement Δr between the points P and Q has components Δx and Δy. The average velocity 𝑣̅ has
the same direction as Δr. (b) The instantaneous velocity v at each point is always tangent to the path at
that point. (c) Components of the instantaneous velocity at P are shown.

Let 𝛥𝑡 be the time interval during which the particle moves from P to Q. The average velocity 𝑣̅ during
this interval is defined to be a vector quantity equal to the displacement divided by the time interval:

𝛥𝒓
𝑣̅ =
𝛥𝑡

𝛥𝒙 𝛥𝒚
𝑣̅𝑥 = , 𝑣̅𝑦 =
𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡

The instantaneous velocity 𝑣 at point P is defined in magnitude and direction as the limit approached by
the average velocity when point Q is taken closer and closer to point P (as 𝛥𝑡 → 0).

𝛥𝒓 𝑑𝑟
𝑣 = lim =
𝛥𝑡→0 𝛥𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝛥𝒙 𝑑𝑥 𝛥𝒚 𝑑𝑦
𝑣𝑥 = lim = , 𝑣𝑦 = lim =
𝛥𝑡→0 𝛥𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝛥𝑡→0 𝛥𝑡 𝑑𝑡

The magnitude of the instantaneous velocity and the angle θ is given by

|𝑣 | = √𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2

𝑣𝑦
tan 𝜃 =
𝑣𝑥

In terms of unit vectors,

𝑑𝒓 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑣= = (𝑥𝒊 + 𝑦𝒋) = 𝒊+ 𝒋
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

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Example:
The position function of a particle is 2𝑡 2 𝒊 + (2 + 3𝑡) 𝒋 + 5𝑡 𝒌 m.
(a) What is the instantaneous velocity at t = 2.0 s?
(b) What is the average velocity between 1.0 s and 3.0 s?

Solution:
(a)
𝑑𝒓 m
𝑣= = (4𝑡 𝒊 + 3𝒋 + 5𝒌 )
𝑑𝑡 s
m
𝑣2.0 𝑠 = (8𝒊 + 3𝒋 + 5𝒌)
s
m m
𝑣2.0 𝑠 = √82 + 32 + 52 = 9.9
s s
(b)
m
𝑟1.0 𝑠 = (2 𝒊 + 5𝒋 + 5𝒌 )
s
m
𝑟3.0 𝑠 = (18 𝒊 + 11𝒋 + 15𝒌 )
s

m m
𝛥𝒓 (18 𝒊 + 11𝒋 + 15𝒌 ) s − (2 𝒊 + 5𝒋 + 5𝒌 ) s m m
𝑣̅ = = = (8𝒊 + 3𝒋 + 5𝒌) = 9.9
𝛥𝑡 3−1 s s

3.2B Acceleration Vector

v2
v1 Q v
V1
ΔV
P
𝑣̅ V2
P a

(a) (b) (c)

(a) The vector 𝑎̅ = 𝛥𝑣/𝛥𝑡 represents the average acceleration between P and Q. (b) Construction
for obtaining 𝛥𝑣 = 𝑣 − 𝑣1 . (c) Instantaneous acceleration 𝑎 at point P. Vector 𝑣 is tangent to
the path; vector 𝑎 points toward the concave side of the path.

The vectors 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 represent the instantaneous velocities, at points P and Q, of a particle in
curved path. The velocity 𝑣2 may differ in both magnitude and direction from the velocity 𝑣1 .
The average acceleration 𝑎̅ of the particle as it moves from P to Q is defined as the vector change
in, 𝛥𝑣, diviedd by the time interval 𝛥𝑡:

𝑑𝑣
𝑎̅ =
𝑑𝑡

Average acceleration is a vector quantity, in the same direction as the vector 𝛥𝑣. The vector change, 𝛥𝑣,
means the vector difference 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 :
𝛥𝑣 = 𝑣2 = 𝑣1 ,
𝑣2 = 𝑣1 + 𝛥𝑣.

The instantaneous velocity at point P is defined in magnitude and direction as the limit approached
by the average acceleration when point Q approaches point P and 𝛥𝑣 and 𝛥𝑡 both approach zero:
𝛥𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑎 = lim =
𝛥𝑡→0 𝛥𝑡 𝑑𝑡

In terms of unit vectors;

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𝑑2𝑥 𝑑2𝑦
𝑎𝑥 = , 𝑎𝑦 = ,
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑣𝑦 𝑑2𝑥 𝑑2𝑦

𝑎= 𝒊+ 𝒋= 2𝒊+ 2𝒋
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Example:
A particle has a velocity of 𝑣 = 5𝑡 𝒊 + 𝑡 2 𝒋 − 2𝑡 3 𝒌 m/s. (a) What is the acceleration function? (b) What is
the acceleration vector at t = 2.0 s? Find its magnitude.

Solution:
(a)
𝑑𝑣
𝑎= = 5𝒊 + 2𝑡𝒋 − 6𝑡 2 𝒌 m/s 2
𝑑𝑡
(b)

m m
𝑎2.0 = [5𝒊 + 2(2.0)𝒋 − 6(2.0)2 𝒌] 2 = 5𝒊 + 4𝒋 − 24𝒌 2
s s
m m
|𝑎2.0 | = √52 + 42 + (−24)2 = 24.84 2
s2 s

3.2C Projectile Motion

Projectile motion is the motion of an object thrown or projected into the air, subject only to
acceleration as a result of gravity. The applications of projectile motion in physics and engineering are
numerous. Some examples include meteors as they enter Earth’s atmosphere, fireworks, and the motion
of any ball in sports. Such objects are called projectiles and their path is called a trajectory. Vertical and
horizontal motions are independent. The key to analyzing two-dimensional projectile motion is to break it
into two motions: one along the horizontal axis and the other along the vertical. (This choice of axes is
the most sensible because acceleration resulting from gravity is vertical; thus, there is no acceleration
along the horizontal axis when air resistance is negligible.) As is customary, we call the horizontal axis
the x-axis and the vertical axis the y-axis. It is not required that we use this choice of axes; it is simply
convenient in the case of gravitational acceleration. In other cases, we may choose a different set of
axes.

y 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑥
𝑣
𝑣𝑦
𝑣𝑥
𝑣0 𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑦 θ
𝑣0𝑥
ℎ
𝑣0𝑦
θ0 𝑥
0 R θ= -θ0
𝑣𝑦
𝑣𝑥
𝑣𝑥
θ
Trajectory of a body projected with an initial
velocity 𝑣0 at an angle of departure 𝜃0 . The 𝑣𝑦 𝑣
distance R is the horizontal range, and ℎ is the
maximum height.

There is no acceleration in the horizontal direction, and the acceleration in the vertical direction is the
acceleration due to gravity,

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𝑎𝑥 = 0, 𝑎𝑦 = −𝑔

The negative sign arises because we chose the positive 𝑦-axis to be upward, while the
acceleration due to gravity is downward. The kinematic equations for motion in a uniform gravitational
field become kinematic equations with 𝑎𝑦 = −𝑔, 𝑎𝑥 = 0.

Formulas for Projectile Motion:

Horizontal Motion Vertical Motion

𝑣0𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0 cos 𝜃0 𝑣0𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃0

𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑡 = (𝑣0 cos 𝜃0 )𝑡 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 − 𝑔𝑡 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃0 − 𝑔𝑡

2
𝑣𝑦2 = 𝑣0𝑦 − 2𝑔𝑦 = 𝑣02 sin2 𝜃0 − 𝑔𝑡

1 1
𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2 = (𝑣0𝑦 + 𝑣𝑦 )𝑡
2 2

At any time, if we know the 𝑥 and 𝑦 position and the components of the velocity 𝑣, we can compute
for the vector position 𝑟 of the projectile from the origin, the projectile’s speed, and the angle θ it makes
with the positive 𝑥-axis. The velocity 𝑣 is tangent to the trajectory at each point.

𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

𝑣 = √𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2

𝑣𝑦
tan 𝜃 =
𝑣𝑥

We can also obtain an equation for the shape of the trajectory in terms of 𝑥 and 𝑦 by eliminating 𝑡.

𝑥 = (𝑣0 cos 𝜃0 )𝑡 , 𝑡 = 𝑥/𝑣0 cos 𝜃0

𝑔𝑡 2
𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃0 𝑡 −
2
𝑥 2
𝑥 𝑔( )
𝑣0 cos 𝜃0
𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃0 ( )−
𝑣0 cos 𝜃0 2

𝒈 𝟐
𝒚 = (𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽𝟎 )𝒙 − 𝒙
𝟐𝒗𝟐𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝜽𝟎

The quantities 𝑣0 , tan 𝜃0 , cos 𝜃0 , and 𝑔 are constant, so the equation has the form

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑥 2

where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are constant. This is the equation of a parabola.

Example 1:
A dart is thrown horizontally at a speed of 10 m/s at the bull’s-eye of a dartboard 2.4 m away. Does the
dart hit the bull’s-eye?

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𝑦
𝑣0 = 10m/s
Dart Bull’s-eye 𝑥

𝑥 = 2.4 m

Solution:
We need to find first the time for the dart to reach 2.4 m.

𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑡
m
2.4 m = 10 (𝑡)
s
𝑡 = 0.24 s

Then we need to know the vertical position of the dart at 𝑡 = 0.24 s.

1
𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
1 m
𝑦 = 0 − (9.81 2 ) (0.24 s)2 = −0.28 m
2 s

Thus, the dart will miss the bull’s-eye. The dart is 0.28 m below the target.

Example 2:
A tennis player hits a ball into the stands at 30 m/s and at an angle 45° above the horizontal. On its way
down, the ball is caught by a spectator 10 m above the point where the ball was hit. (a) Calculate the
time it takes the tennis ball to reach the spectator. (b) What is the magnitude and direction of the ball’s
velocity at impact?

Solution:
(a)
1
𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃0 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2

m 1 m
10 m = (30 ) (sin 45°)𝑡 − (9.81 2 ) 𝑡 2
s 2 s
m m
10 m = (21.21 ) 𝑡 − (4.91 2 ) 𝑡 2
s s
m 2 m
(4.91 2 ) 𝑡 − (21.21 ) 𝑡 + 10 m = 0
s s

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By quadratic formula;

−(−21.21) ± √(−21.21)2 − 4(4.91)(10)

𝑡=
2(4.91)
𝑡 = 0.54 s and 3.78 s

Since the ball is at a height of 10 m at two times during its trajectory—once on the way up and
once on the way down—we take the longer solution for the time it takes the ball to reach the
spectator.
(b)

m m
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0 cos 𝜃0 = (30 ) (cos 45°) = 21.21
s s
m m m
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 − 𝑔𝑡 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃0 − 𝑔𝑡 = (30 ) (sin 45°) − (9.81 2 ) (3.78 s) = −15.86
s s s
The negative sign indicates that 𝑣𝑦 is going down.

m 2 m 2 m
𝑣 = √𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 = √(21.21 ) + (−15.86 ) = 26.48
s s s

m
𝑣𝑦 −15.86 s
tan 𝜃 = = m = −0.75
𝑣𝑥 21.21
s
𝜃 = −36.87°

3.2D Uniform Circular Motion

When a particle moves along a curved path, it must have a component of acceleration
perpendicular (normal) to the path, even if its speed is constant. When the path is a circle, there is a
relation between the normal component of acceleration, the speed of the particle, and the radius of the
circle.

Δs
p 𝛥𝑣
P
Δθ 𝑣1 q
R Δθ
o
O
(a) (b)

In the figure, a particle moves in a circular path of radius R with center at O. The particle moves
from P to Q in a time 𝛥𝑡.
The triangles OPQ and opq are similar, since both are isosceles triangles and the angles labeled
𝛥𝜃 are the same.

𝛥𝑣 𝛥𝑠 𝑣1
= 𝑜𝑟 𝛥𝑣 = 𝛥𝑠
𝑣1 𝑅 𝑅
The magnitude of the average normal acceleration during 𝛥𝑡 is therefore

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𝛥𝑣 𝑣1 𝛥𝑠
𝑎̅𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = =
𝛥𝑡 𝑅 𝛥𝑡

The instantaneous normal acceleration at point P is the limit of this expression, as point Q is taken closer
and closer to point P.

𝑣1 𝛥𝑠 𝑣1 𝛥𝑠
𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = lim = lim
𝛥𝑡→0 𝑅 𝛥𝑡 𝑅 𝛥𝑡→0 𝛥𝑡

However, the limit of 𝛥𝑠/𝛥𝑡 is the speed 𝑣1 at point P, and since P can be any point in the path, let 𝑣1 =
𝑣, and let 𝑣 represent the speed at any point.

𝑣2
𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 =
𝑅

The equation is called centripetal acceleration because the acceleration is always directed toward the
center of the circle.
The magnitude of the speed can also be expressed in terms of the period τ (the time for one
revolution) and the circumference of the circle (2πR).

2𝜋𝑅
𝑣=
𝜏
Thus,
4𝜋 2 𝑅
𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 =
𝜏2

Example 1:
A car travelling at a constant speed of 20 m/s rounds a curve of radius 100m. What is its acceleration?

Solution:
m 2
𝑣 2 (20 s ) m
𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = = = 4.0 2
𝑅 100 m s

Example 2:
In a carnival ride, the passengers travel in a circle of radius 5.0 m, making one complete circle in 4.0 s.
What is the acceleration?

4𝜋 2 𝑅 4(3.14)2 (5.0 m) m
𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = 2 = 2 = 12.32 2
𝜏 (4.0 s) s

VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. A cyclist rides 8.0 km east for 20 minutes, then he turns and heads west for 8 minutes and 3.2 km.
Finally, he rides east for 16 km, which takes 40 minutes. (a) What is the final displacement of the
cyclist? (b) What is his average velocity?
2. An airplane accelerates down a runway at 3.20 m/s 2 for 32.8 s until is finally lifts off the ground.
Determine the distance traveled before takeoff.
3. A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly over a time of 5.21 seconds for a distance of 110 m.
Determine the acceleration of the car.
4. A race car accelerates uniformly from 18.5 m/s to 46.1 m/s in 2.47 seconds. Determine the
acceleration of the car and the distance traveled.
5. A feather is dropped on the moon from a height of 1.40 meters. The acceleration of gravity on the
moon is 1.67 m/s2. Determine the time for the feather to fall to the surface of the moon.
6. A boy throws his mother's crystal vase vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 26.2 m/s. Determine
the height to which the vase will rise above its initial height.
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7. A worker drops a pile of roof shingles from the top of a roof located 8.52 meters above the ground.
Determine the time required for the shingles to reach the ground.
8. For a projectile launched with speed 𝑣0 at initial angle 𝜃0 , derive general expressions for the
maximum height ℎ and range 𝑅. For a given 𝑣0 , what value of 𝜃0 gives maximum range?
9. A pool ball leaves a 0.60-meter high table with an initial horizontal velocity of 2.4 m/s. Predict the
time required for the pool ball to fall to the ground and the horizontal distance between the table's
edge and the ball's landing location.
10. A long jumper leaves the ground with an initial velocity of 12 m/s at an angle of 28-degrees above
the horizontal. Determine the time of flight, the horizontal distance, and the peak height of the long-
jumper.

VII. EVALUATION

Quiz: TBD via MS Teams (LMS)

VIII. REFERENCES:

Walker, J. (2014). Fundamentals of Physics 10th Ed. Cleveland State University: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Young, H. D. et al. (2020). University Physics 15th Ed. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.

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