Construction

CONSTRUCTION
PROJECT
ENGINEERING
OCTAVIAN G. ILINOIU
M.Sc., Ph.D., C.Eng., Lecturer
Department of Civil, Urban and Construction Engineering

Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest
First Edition
-Bucharest 2004-
Construction Project Engineering
PREFACE
The Construction Project Engineering handbook is one of the Construction Engineering’s
main references, set up to assist students now enrolled within the framework of the Civil Engineering
Department – English Section of the Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest.
The purpose of this present handbook is to present fundamental and practical information in
the field of plain and reinforced concrete, ensuring that works are undertaken in an orderly manner, as
sequence, and follow the required principles of execution.
The handbook covers the whole project cycle for workers, equipment, materials, procedures,
organization and quality control for concrete, reinforced concrete and precast concrete, serving as a
reference guide for general contractors, construction managers, specialty subcontractors, estimators,
project engineers, project managers, construction superintendents, scheduling engineers, sales
engineers, or inspectors.
The content of this book is arranged in 6 chapters that are summarized below.
Chapter 1. Concrete Mix Design, addresses the design requirements and methodology regarding
selection and proportioning of ingredients for concrete to meet its desired properties for concrete
works.
Chapter 2. Rate of Concrete Placement Rough Estimate, presents basic information and specifies
simplified means of estimating concrete rate of placement in formwork.
Chapter 3. Concrete Formwork Design, specifies the materials, construction and removal of
formwork and shoring made for wood and steel, including fundamental concepts and equations that
are used to design and execute them.
Chapter 4. Concrete Maturity, provides an overview regarding concrete maturity determination,
outlining current experience in relation to using an effective and rational method in evaluating in-situ
concrete strength at different ages.
Chapter 5. Estimates, establishes guidance in describing methods, procedures, and formats for the
preparation of construction project cost estimates, from planning phases through modification
estimates during concrete construction.
Chapter 6. Concrete Warehouse Structural Frame Erection, provides information concerning
planning, detailing, sequencing and erection of concrete warehouse structural frames using precast
reinforced and prestressed concrete members.
O.G. Ilinoiu, Bucharest 2004
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
These notes were originally based on ideas of Drs. Mihai Teodorescu and Radu Popa.
However, sketches, views, calculations and preference regarding comments are the writer's own. The
author has written this presenting some positions as starting points for drafting a handbook rather than
as the only positions that can be adopted.
The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance and support of a number of organizations,
institutions, trade associations and manufacturers and who have provided information and
photographs, and by permitting reproduction of certain elements of their material: American Concrete
Institute - ACI, USA; American Society of Civil Engineers - ASCE, USA; American Society for
Testing and Materials - ASTM, USA; APA. The Engineering Wood Association – USA; Building
Science Insight - BSI, Canada; BUMAR – LABEDY S.A., Poland; Canadian Building Digest - CBD,
Canada; Civil Engineering Corps Washington – CECW, USA; Cement and Concrete Association
Australia; ECCON, ZIPACON, Romania; EFCO, USA; Heidelberg Cement AG, Germany; IPCT,
Romania; International Council for Building Research and Documentation - CIB, Canada;
International Union of Testing and Research Laboratories for Materials and Structures – RILEM;
Institute for Research in Construction - IRC, Canada; IPC, Romania; LIEBHERR-Werk Nenzing
Gmbh, Germany; MACON SA, Romania; National Research Council - NRCC, Canada; National
Institute of Standards and Technology - NIST, USA; Preconstructa AEBTE, Greece; Prefabricate
Vest, Romania; UBEMAR S.A., Romania; UMT Timisoara, Romania; TELEMAC, UBEMAR,
Romania; US Army Corps of Engineers. Directorate of Military Programs, Engineering Division,
USA and The Engineering Wood Association - APA, USA
2
CONTENTS
PREFACE ........................................................2 4.5. Rate of Concrete Hardening in Accordance
with its Thermal History ....................................55
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...............................2 4.6. Concrete Curing Minimum Duration ..........55
CONTENTS.....................................................3 4.7. Example ......................................................57
References..........................................................58
TABLE OF FIGURES ....................................4
CHAPTER 5. ESTIMATES ........................ 59
TABLES ...........................................................5
5.1. General Considerations ...............................59
CHAPTER 1. CONCRETE MIX DESIGN ..6 5.2. Types of Estimates ......................................59
5.2.1. Rough Estimating................................59
1.1. General Considerations ................................ 6 5.2.2. Detailed Estimate ................................60
1.2. Designing the Concrete Mix......................... 6 5.3. Example of Project Estimates .....................62
1.2.1. Mix Design Procedure .......................... 6 5.3.1. Estimate Quantity of Materials, Labor
1.2.2. Quality Requirements and Factors and Cost for Concrete, Reinforcement and
Affecting Designed Concrete ......................... 6 Formwork......................................................62
1.3. Determination of Job Parameters ................. 8 5.3.2. Estimate Calculation of Labor
1.4. Example of Concrete Mix Design .............. 10 Consumption for Concrete, Reinforcement
1.5. Appendix .................................................... 15 and Formwork Placement..............................64
References ......................................................... 23 5.4. Item tabulations of material consumption
CHAPTER 2. RATE OF CONCRETE and labor costs for construction works...............65
PLACEMENT ROUGH ESTIMATE .........25 References..........................................................70
2.1. General Considerations .............................. 25 CHAPTER 6. CONCRETE WAREHOUSE

2.2. Example 1................................................... 25 STRUCTURAL FRAME ERECTION....... 71
2.3. Example 2................................................... 25 6.1. General Considerations ...............................71
References ......................................................... 26 6.2. Job Planning................................................72
CHAPTER 3. CONCRETE FORMWORK 6.3. Preliminary Execution Works .....................73
DESIGN..........................................................27 6.3.1. Standardized Prefabricated Reinforced
and Prestressed Concrete Members...............73
3.1. General Considerations .............................. 27 6.3.2. Manufacturing, Transport and Storage
3.2. Modular Plywood Formwork ..................... 27 of Precast Units .............................................90
3.3. Shoring Members ....................................... 30 6.3.3. Inspection of Units After Transport and
3.4. Formwork Principles .................................. 32 Storage ..........................................................92
3.4.1. Formwork Loads ................................ 32 6.3.4. Unit Preparation ..................................92
3.4.2. Formwork Pressures ........................... 32 6.3.5. Lifting Devices....................................92
3.4.3. Form Material Properties.................... 35 6.3.6. Selection of Lifting Equipment ...........99
3.5. Wall, Slab Formwork and Shoring Systems 6.4. Erection of Precast Units...........................114
Design ............................................................... 36 6.4.1. Sequence, Schemes and Procedures for
3.5.1. Slab Formwork and Shoring System Unit Erection ...............................................114
Design........................................................... 36 6.4.2. Unit Erection Detailing Sequences....115
3.5.2. Wall and Column Formwork Design.. 40 6.5. Erection characteristics calculation...........116
3.6. Example Working Drawings ...................... 43 6.6. Connections...............................................118
3.7. Steel Modular Panel Formwork.................. 49 6.7. Inspection of Erection and Correction of
3.7.1. General Considerations....................... 49 Dimensional Tolerances...................................119
3.7.2. Modular Steel Column Formwork...... 49 6.8. Construction Project Planning and
3.7.3. Example of Working Drawing............ 52 Scheduling .......................................................120
References ......................................................... 52 6.8.1. Example Bar Chart Schedule – GantT
Chart and Labor Schedule ...........................121
CHAPTER 4. CONCRETE MATURITY...53
6.8.2. Example Network Schedules.............122
4.1. General Considerations Regarding Concrete 6.9. Health, Safety and Welfare Regulations ...123
Maturity............................................................. 53 6.10. Example Working Drawings...................124
4.2. Maturity Index Method .............................. 53 References........................................................135
4.3. Minimum Duration for Concrete Strength
Attainment......................................................... 53 ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS ...... 135
4.4. Critical Concrete Hardening Level............. 54 CONVERSION TABLE ............................ 135
3
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 3-1. Typical plywood panel ....................................................................................................... 27
Figure 3-2 (a). Plywood panel formwork .............................................................................................. 28
Figure 3-2 (b). a,b,c and d- panel accessories ....................................................................................... 28
Figure 3-3. Typical steel telescopic joists. ............................................................................................ 30
Figure 3-4. Typical adjustable steel pipe shore (prop) .......................................................................... 31
Figure 3-5. Lateral pressure on wall form according to rate of concrete placement ............................. 33
Figure 3-6. Symbols for cross section of rectangular beam .................................................................. 36
Figure 3-7. Typical view of joist and prop ............................................................................................ 38
Figure 3-8. Schematic view of prop (shore).......................................................................................... 40
Figure 3-9. Pressure distribution of lateral face of panel ...................................................................... 40
Figure 3-10. Pressure of concrete on wall form .................................................................................... 41
Figure 3-11. Spacing between ties ........................................................................................................ 42
Figure 3-12. Typical assembly of steel modular panels ........................................................................ 49
Figure 3-13. Typical E75 scaffold, view and assembly phases a, b and c ............................................ 51
Figure 3-14. Assembly phases of steel modular column formwork a to g ............................................ 51
Figure 4-1. Temperature variation of concrete for different ages and freezing temperatures .............. 54
Figure 6-1. Transverse girder beam warehouse .................................................................................... 71
Figure 6-2. Longitudinal girder beam warehouse. ................................................................................ 72
Figure 6-3. Standardized catalog prefabricated reinforced and prestressed concrete members used for
ground floor warehouses............................................................................................................... 75
Figure 6-4 Typical trailers..................................................................................................................... 90
Figure 6-5. Typical storage of reinforced and prestressed concrete members ...................................... 91
Figure 6-6. Typical prefabricated cup shaped foundations ................................................................... 91
Figure 6-7. Typical lifting devices for precast concrete members ........................................................ 92
Figure 6-8. Track-mounted crane .......................................................................................................... 99
Figure 6-9. Lorry mounted crane ........................................................................................................ 100
Figure 6-10. Self propelled crane ........................................................................................................ 100
Figure 6-11. Crane clearances ............................................................................................................. 101
Figure 6-12. AMT 950. Source: ECCON ........................................................................................... 102
Figure 6-13. DST-0285. Source: BUMAR – LABEDY S.A. ............................................................. 103
Figure 6-14. DST-0505. Source: BUMAR – LABEDY S.A. ............................................................ 104
Figure 6-15. DUT-0502. Source: BUMAR – LABEDY S.A............................................................. 105
Figure 6-16. TELEMAC HT – 15. Source: UBEMAR...................................................................... 106
Figure 6-17. TELEMAC HTA -7. Source: UBEMAR S.A. .............................................................. 107
Figure 6-18. LIEBHERR LHM 100. Source: LIEBHERR-Werk Nenzing Gmbh.............................. 108
Figure 6-19. LIEBHERR LHM 150. Source: LIEBHERR-Werk Nenzing Gmbh.............................. 109
Figure 6-20. LIEBHERR LHM 1060/2. Source: LIEBHERR-Werk Nenzing Gmbh ....................... 110
Figure 6-21. LIEBHERR LHM 1040/4. Source: LIEBHERR-Werk Nenzing Gmbh ....................... 111
Figure 6-22. LIEBHERR LHM 1030. Source: LIEBHERR-Werk Nenzing Gmbh........................... 112
Figure 6-23. LIEBHERR LHM 1160. Source: LIEBHERR-Werk Nenzing Gmbh............................ 113
Figure 6-24. Erection characteristics of columns ................................................................................ 116
Figure 6-25. General view typical assembly procedure of columns ................................................... 116
Figure 6-26. Erection characteristics of bridge beams ........................................................................ 116
Figure 6-27. Erection characteristics of girder beams......................................................................... 117
Figure 6-28. Erection characteristics of roof slabs .............................................................................. 117
Figure 6-29. General view typical assembly procedure of roof slabs ................................................. 118
Figure 6-30. Typical warehouse connections...................................................................................... 118
4
TABLES
Table A. Characteristic strength of concrete .......7 Table 3-5. Coefficient α according to rate of
Table 1-1. Recommended concrete slump for concrete placement. ................................. 35
various types of construction ....................15 Table 3-6. Combination of loads according to
Table 1-2. Exposure class for concrete in member .................................................... 35
different environmental conditions...........15 Table 3-7. Nomenclature of symbols ............... 36
Table 1-3. Minimum requirements for concrete Table 3-8. Modular steel formwork components
durability assurance according to exposure ................................................................. 50
conditions..................................................16 Panel ................................................................. 50
Table 1-4. Minimum cement content for concrete Table 4-1 Recommended critical cold weather
durability assurance ..................................16 maturity level for concrete (Mk)............... 54
Table 1-5. Requirements for concrete durability Table 4-2. Recommended striking off maturity
assurance according to type of environment level for concrete (Mβ)............................. 54
conditions..................................................17 Table 4-3. Values of coefficient kθi of
Table 1-6. Grading classes ................................17 equivalency .............................................. 56
Table 1-7. Upper and lower limits of gradation 18 Table 4-4. Striking time for concrete formwork56
Table 1-8. Standard types of Portland cement...18 Table 4-5. Control chart for calculating the
Table 1-9. Cement types according to Romanian concrete maturity index ........................... 57
standards (SR)...........................................19 Table 5-1. Estimate schedule............................ 60
Table 1-10. Recommended types of cement used Table 5-2. Concrete .......................................... 65
for concrete works in normal exposure Table 5-3. Formwork........................................ 67
conditions..................................................20 Table 5-4. Reinforcement ................................. 69
Table 1-11. Recommended types of cements for Table 6-1. Erection characteristics table........... 73
plain and reinforced concrete works Table 6-2. Typical prefabricated ground floor
exposed to sea water and severe freezing .21 warehouse concrete members .................. 73
Table 1-12. Recommended types of cements for Table 6-3. Lifting devices for columns ............ 93
plain and reinforced concrete works Table 6-4. Lifting devices for beams................ 94
subjected to aggressive waters..................21 Table 6-5. Lifting devices for beams and roof
Table 1-13. Estimated mixing water requirement slabs ......................................................... 95
for various slumps ....................................22 Table 6-6. Universal lifting devices ................. 98
Table 1-14. Relative density..............................22 Table 6-8. Lifting Capacities for Telescopic
Table 1-15. Approximate volume of air- Boom DST-0285.................................... 103
entrainment according to maximum size Table 6-9. Lifting Capacities for Telescopic
aggregates .................................................22 Boom DST-0505.................................... 104
Table 1-16. Maximum values for w/c ratio after Table 6-10. Lifting Capacities for Telescopic
preliminary tests (grade II concrete Boom DUT-0502 ................................... 105
homogeneity) ............................................22 Table 6-11. Lifting Capacities for Telescopic
Table 1-17. Concrete strength at 28 days after Boom TELEMAC HT ........................... 106
preliminary tests for grade II homogeneity Table 6-12. Lifting Capacities for Telescopic
..................................................................23 Boom TELEMAC HTA -7 .................... 107
Table 1-18. Values that will be subtracted or Table 6-13. Lifting Capacities for Telescopic
added to the recommended values for grade Boom LIEBHERR LHM 1060/2 ........... 110
II ...............................................................23 Table 6-14. Lifting Capacities for Telescopic
Table 1-19. Concrete mix design parameters ....23 Boom LIEBHERR LHM 1040/4 ........... 111
Table 3-1. Panel nominal dimensions ...............27 Table 6-15. Lifting Capacities for Telescopic
Table 3-2. Allowable spans “d” (m) between Boom LIEBHERR LHM 1030 .............. 112
joists in accordance with span and load....30 Table 6-16. Lifting Capacities for Telescopic
Table 3-3. Allowable axial load “P” (daN) on Boom LIEBHERR LHM 1160 .............. 113
shore in accordance with length. ..............32
Table 3-4. Characteristics of concrete pressure on
formwork ..................................................34
5
CHAPTER 1. CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

1.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Concrete is a conglomerate of hydraulic cement, sand, stone, and water. The sand and
stone are dispersed particles in a multiphase matrix of cement paste. When mixed with water,
the cement powder hydrates to form cement paste (through a chemical reaction called
hydration), which is an interconnected network of solid and semi-solid phases that gives
concrete its strength, forming a natural stone imitation, known as concrete. Within this
process lies the key to a remarkable characteristic of concrete: it is plastic and malleable when
freshly mixed, strong and durable when hardened. The key to achieving a strong, durable
concrete rests in the careful selection and proportioning of its constituent ingredients.
1.2. DESIGNING THE CONCRETE MIX
The necessary first step to be taken to design a concrete mix is to establish clearly the
requirements that the mix design must meet. These generally include one or more of the
followings: mechanical strength, durability, characteristics of concrete member, and special
requirements specified by the project design.
1.2.1. MIX DESIGN PROCEDURE
The mix design cannot be resolved totally analytically, it requires, after the
determination of job parameters (e.g. quantities of water, cement, aggregate, w/c ratio),
calculation of weights, experimental adjutants (trial) tests on concrete for ensuring that it
meets the design specifications.
With this information and the aid of tables or simple calculations, the quantities (kg)
of cement, coarse aggregate, water, and entrained air required per cubic meter can be
determined. The absolute volumes of the ingredients can be calculated and totaled. Based on a
1 m3 of mix, subtracting the total of the four ingredients from 1 will provide the absolute
volume of the fine aggregate required. From the absolute volume, the mass of the fine
aggregate can then be calculated.
The quantities of materials required for 1 m3 of concrete shall be estimated and trial
batches of 30 l made based on the quantities calculated. If adjustments are necessary further
batches should be made by keeping the quantity of water and aggregate constant and only by
adjusting the cement content to produce the desired slump and compressive strength.
1.2.2. QUALITY REQUIREMENTS AND FACTORS AFFECTING DESIGNED
CONCRETE
The physical characteristics, chemical composition, and the proportions of the
ingredients from mix affect the properties of concrete, in its fresh and hardened state. When
designing, we must consider the following quality requirements of concrete:
- Fresh concrete: air content, flow behavior (workability/consistency), bleeding,
cement type, setting time, hydration heat limitation.
- Hardened concrete: strength at specified age - short term (e.g. initial pre stress force
and long term), durability – environment / exposure (e.g. carbonation, chloride
penetration, acid resistance, sulfate resistance), frost-thaw resistance, permeability
(fluids, gas), resistance against early age cracking.
Factors to be considered regarding durability:
- Choice of slump.
- Environment conditions (dry, humid, humid with frost, marine and chemical
aggressiveness).
6
- Exposure conditions (constructions protected against rain and humidity, frost-thaw

saturated (no saturated) with water, exposure to water under pressure, exposed to
marine or chemical environment etc.).
- Maximum size of aggregate.
- w/c ratio.
- Type of additive / admixture used.
- Minimum cement content:
Factors to be considered:
̇ Watertightness (grades: P410 , P810 , P1210 , P420 , P820 , P1220 – it may be tested by
measuring the flow through a saturated specimen, of 100 mm respectively 200
mm, subjected to pressure.
̇ Freeze-thaw resistance G50, G100, G150.
Proportioning relates to the following aspects:
- Workability (regarding fresh concrete).
- Durability, strength (regarding hardened concrete).
- Economy by:
̇ Minimizing the amount of cement and w/c ratio.
̇ Minimizing the amount of water, to reduce cement content, and to increase
strength durability.
- Batch weights calculations.
- Adjustments.
Factors to be considered when choosing aggregates:
- Economical consideration:
̇ Minimize water and cement, stiffest possible mix;
̇ Largest particle max size of aggregate, shape, surface texture;
̇ Optimize ratio of fine to coarse;
̇ Grading and its significance: consistency and strength.
- Size and shape of members: maximum size aggregate;
- Physical properties: strength;
- Exposure condition: air entraining or not, sulfate attack;
- Maximum aggregate size: The largest maximum aggregate size that will conform to
limitations given below:
̇ Nominal maximum size aggregate (Dmax) should not be larger than:
Dmax ≤1/4 of narrowest dimension of structural member;
≤1/3 thickness of slab
≤1/6 reservoir wall thickness
≤spacing between re-bars – 5 mm
≤1,3 x concrete cover of re-bars
≤1/3 concrete pump piping
Factors to consider when choosing water to cement ratio:
- Compressive strength is inversely proportional to w/c:
- Economical consideration: minimize water and cement, stiffest possible mix.
Table A. Characteristic strength of concrete
Concrete C* C C* C C C C* C C C* C C* C C C C
grades 2,8/ 4/ 6/ 8/ 12/ 16/ 18/ 20/ 25/ 28/ 30/ 32/ 35/ 40/ 45/ 50/
(MPa) 3,5 5 7,5 10 15 20 22,5 25 30 35 37 40 45 50 55 60
Characteristic strength of concrete Source: NE 012-1999
fc,28 cylinder 2,8 4 6 8 12 16 18 20 25 28 30 32 35 40 45 50
fc,28 cube 3,5 5 7,5 10 15 20 22,5 25 30 35 37 40 45 50 55 60
* concrete classes that remain effective until Romanian Design Codes come into effect (accordance Eurocode 2).
7
1.3. DETERMINATION OF JOB PARAMETERS
Environment conditions (table 1-2) ⇒ class of exposure

Step 1: Durability conditioning of concrete
Requirements of grade and durability (table 1-3 and 1-4).
Table 1-3 ⇒ suggested w/c ratio.

1. W/C ratio:
Table 1-4 ⇒ suggested minimum cement content C (kg/m3).

2. Cement content:
Step 2: Preliminary procedures for determining the quality mix proportions of concrete
constituents
Table 1-1 ⇒ suggested slump T (mm).

1. Slump:
Table 1-5 ⇒ suggested minimum cement content c (kg/m3).

2. Minimum cement content:
3. Aggregates:
a) Selection of aggregates by type (table 1-14).
b) Nominal maximum size of aggregates:
Dmax ≤ minimum dimension of bearing member/4;

Computed according to the following restrictions:
Dmax ≤ thickness of slab/3;

Dmax ≤ thickness of reservoir (tank) wall/6;
Dmax ≤ minimum distance between re-bars – 5 mm;
Dmax ≤ 1,3 x reinforcement concrete cover;
Dmax ≤ diameter of pump hose/3 ~ 31 mm
Table 1-6 ⇒ suggested grading curve ⇒ table 1-7 ⇒ upper and lower
4. Gradation of aggregate particles:
gradation limits.
Table 1-10, 1-11, 1-12 ⇒ Recommended cement type and grade.

5. Cement:
Table 1-5 ⇒ recommended water-cement maximum ratio.

6. Water-cement maximum ratio:
Step 3: Procedures for determining the batch weights for mix proportions of
constituents
Table 1-13 ⇒ w (kg/m3)

1. Estimate mixing water and air content:
Correction of water quantity according to maximum nominal size aggregate ⇒

w' = w x c (kg/m3).
Table 1-15 ⇒ suggested volume of air-entrainment
Table 1-16 ⇒ suggested w/c ratio.

2. Water-cement ratio:
Final adopted value of w/c = minimum value between (step 2.6. and step 3.2)
3. Cement:
C '=
w'
[kg/m3]
w/c
Final adopted value of C = maximum value between (step 2.5. and step 3.3)
4. Estimate coarse aggregate: (First estimate of aggregate weight)
V=m/ρ
The total amount of dry aggregates will be calculated as follows:
Knowing that
8
Ag = ρag x (1000 – C/ρc - A'/ρa - p) [kg/m3]

V ag = V total – V water = V cement – V air
Where:ρag = relative density of aggregates (2,7 kg/dm3);

ρc = relative density of cement (3,0 kg/dm3);
p = void parameter (table 11), when not using additives, (when using additives
the parameter will be computed according to laboratory tests).
Table 1-7 ⇒ percentage limits of aggregate passing.

5. Gradation of aggregate:
p i − p i−1
The amount of aggregate for each grade is found as follows:
A gi = A g x (kg/m3)
100
Where:Ag = amount of aggregates (kg);
pi = percent passing by mass through sieve "i";
pi-1= percent passing by mass through sieve "i-1";
6. Adjustment for moisture in aggregate:
ΔA = ΣA gi x i (l/m )
u 3
100
Where: Agi = amount of aggregate form sieve "i' (kg);
ui = free moisture of sieve "i" (%);
n = total numbers of sieves.
A* = A' - ∆A (l/m3)
The free amount of moisture form fine aggregates (UFA%), is calculated as follows:
ΔAn = ΣAgi x
ui
kg/m3
100
The free amount of moisture form coarse aggregates (UCA%), is calculated as follows:
ΔA p = ΣAgi x
ui
kg/m3
100
ΔA = ΔAn + ΔA p kg/m3
The total amount of free moisture is calculated as follows:
Adjusted amount of water: A* = A' - ∆A (kg/m3)

7. Adjustment of total amount of aggregates by sieve sizes:
⎛ u ⎞
The of total amount of aggregates by sieve sizes, is found as follows:
A *gi = A gi x ⎜1 + i ⎟ (kg/m )
⎝ 100 ⎠
3
Where:Agi - amount of aggregate form sieve "i' (kg);

ui = free moisture of sieve "i" (%).
8. Final adjustment of aggregate weight:
The of total amount of aggregates, is found as follows:
Ag* = ∆ Agi * (kg/m3)
*
Where:Ag = adjusted amount of aggregate form sieve "i' (kg);
Ag * = Σ A*gi kg/m3
n = number of sieves sizes.
9. Total mass of concrete produced:

The total mass of concrete produced will be calculated as follows: ρ b = A* + C’ + Ag*
ρ b will be compared with the value of normal weight concrete that ranges between 2160 to
2560 kg/m3
9
1.4. EXAMPLE OF CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

Design a normal weight concrete mix that is to test C 12/15 at 28 days, that will be located in
definite site. Determine the correct amount of ingredients for the concrete mix in accordance
to the following characteristics:
A. Data required:
1. Specified concrete (grade/class): C 12/15
2. Characteristics of bearing member:
a) Type of bearing member: bearing walls.
b) Minimum section (dimension) of concrete member: b = 200 mm
c) Concrete cover of reinforcing bars: c = 25 mm
d) Minimum spacing of reinforcing bars: D = 100 mm
3. Conditions (class) of exposure and environment conditions:
Dry moderate environment, concrete member protected against weather or aggressive
conditions.
4. Work conditions: Normal conditions, using plywood form panels.
5. Transport and placement of concrete: Transit mix trucks and concrete pumps.
6. Aggregates: Siliceous riverbed.
7. Relative density: 2.70 (kg/dm3)
8. Moisture content in aggregates:
- F.A. (fine aggregate) (0 - 7 mm): uS = 2%;
- C.A. (coarse aggregate) (7 - 71 mm): uG = 1%.
9. Grade of homogeneity: II.
10. Air content: 2% (20 dm3/m3).
11. Permeability grade: P10 4
12. Freeze thaw grade: G100
B. Durability conditioning of concrete:

From table 1-2, in accordance with the type environment conditions (moderate dry),
we find the conditions (class) of exposure 1.a.
The concrete mix will be designed according to the requirements of grade and
durability (table 1-3 and 1-4).
The requirements for durability assurance will be specified according to rules that
consider the concrete mix and the choosing of its components (cement type, maximum w/c
ratio, permeability grade, freeze-thaw grade etc.).
1. W/C ratio:
From table 1-3, in accordance with the environmental conditions, concrete grade and
permeability grade, results a suggested w/c ratio 0,65.
2. Cement content:
A minimum cement content is necessary to be adopted to assure no alkalinity reaction
of concrete, a main condition for protection against re-bar corrosion and for workability
assurance for a known w/c ratio.
From table 4, in accordance with the exposure conditions and aggressiveness intensity,
results the minimum cement content. C= 250 kg/m3.
C. Preliminary procedures for determining the quality mix proportions of concrete

constituents:
1. Concrete consistency (slump):
From table 1-1, in accordance with the type of structural member (bearing wall),
transport equipment (transit mix truck), technology of concrete placing (pump) and type of
10
100 ±20 mm).

concrete (reinforced), results from item no. 3 the recommended consistency T3/T4 (slump
2. Minimum cement content:

From table 1-5 we find the minimum cement content of 300 kg/m3, according to the
type of concrete (reinforced) and the conditions of exposure (1.a.).
3. Aggregates:
riverbed aggregates with the relative density ρ ag = 2,7 kg/dm3 (see table 1-14).
a) Selection of aggregates by type: natural or crushed aggregates. We will use natural
b) Nominal maximum size of aggregates:
Dmax ≤ minimum dimension of bearing member/4;

Is computed according to the following restrictions:
Dmax ≤ thickness of slab/3;

Dmax ≤ thickness of reservoir (tank) wall/6;
Dmax ≤ minimum distance between re-bars – 5 mm;
Dmax ≤ 1,3 x reinforcement concrete cover;
Dmax ≤ diameter of pump hose/3 ~ 31 mm
According to the assignments initial data: type of concrete member (bearing walls),
minimum length of section being formed (b = 200 mm), minimum distance between re-bars
(D = 100 mm), transport and placement of concrete and minimum concrete cover of
D max ≤ 1/3 x c = 1/3 x 25 = 32,5 mm ;

reinforcing bars (c = 25 mm):
D max ≤ 1/4 x b = 1/4 x 200 = 50 mm ;

D max ≤ D – 5 mm = 100 - 5 = 95 mm ;
Pumpability D max = 31 mm.
According to the exposure conditions (dry environment), the concrete cover of
to be simultaneously respected, results Dmax ≤ 31 mm. We chose Dmax = 31 mm.

reinforcing bars do not condition the maximum size of aggregates. All these conditions have
c) Gradation of aggregate particles:

From table 1-6 results the grading zone (I) according to the minimum cement content
300 kg/dm3. Knowing the grading curve (I) and the maximum size of aggregate 31 mm, from
table 1-7.4. results the following upper and lower gradation limits:
sieve 0 - 0,2 mm : recommended 10 - 15% : we chose 12%;
sieve 0,2 – 1 mm : recommended 30 - 40% : we chose 33%;
sieve 1 - 3 mm : recommended 40 - 50% : we chose 43%;
sieve 16 –31 mm : recommended 95 - 100%: we chose 97%.
4. Cement: According to the exposure conditions (concrete surfaces protected against
weather or aggressive conditions) and environment conditions (moderate dry) results the type
of cement form table 1-10, conditioned by the type and section of concrete element (bearing
wall) and concrete class (C 12/15). Recommended cement type CEM II A - 32,5 N.
5. Water-cement maximum ratio:
From table 1-5, according to the type of concrete (reinforced) and the exposure
conditions (1.a.) results the water-cement maximum ratio (w/c maximum = 0,65).
D. Procedures for determining the batch weights for mix proportions of constituents
1. Estimate mixing water and air content:
The estimated water quantity needed (w) is determined according to the concrete grade
(C 12/15) and the slump (T3/T4).
11
From table 1-13, w = 200 l/m3

This quantity will be adjusted with a coefficient (c= 1) determined by the maximum
aggregate size 31 mm, as follows:
w' = w x c = 200 x 1 = 200 l/m3
2. Water-cement ratio:
From table 1-14, according to the concrete grade (C 12/15) and cement grade (32,5N),
concrete homogeneity grade II, results the water: cement ratio A/C = 0,70. The value will be
adjusted with a coefficient for crushed aggregates if it is necessary and the resulting value of
A/C will be compared with the maximum value calculated of A/C, determined at section 2.5.
From the two values the minimum one will be chosen A/C maxim = 0,65.
3. Cement:
The cement quantity is calculated as follows: C '= W ' = 200 = 308 [kg/m3] >
W /C 0,65
minimum cement contents 250 and 300 kg/m3 (see section B and C). From the three values
the maximum one will be chosen C = 308 kg/m3.
4. First estimate of aggregate weight:
Knowing that V = m / ρ:
The total amount of dry aggregates will be calculated as follows:
Aag = ρag x (1000 – C/ρc - A'/ρa - p) [kg/m3]

V ag = V total – V water - V cement – V air
From table 1-15 the approximate volume of air-entrainment will be chosen according
to maximum size aggregates. For 31 mm maximum size the mix will have 4,5 % air
entrainment volume (4,5% = 45 dm3/m3).
Aag = 2.7 x (1000 – 308/3 – 200/1 - 45) = 1761.3 [kg/m3]
Where:ρag = relative density of aggregates (2,7 kg/dm3);
ρc = relative density of cement (3,0 kg/dm3);
p = void parameter (table 1-15), when not using additives, (when using additives the
parameter will be computed according to laboratory tests).
5. Gradation of aggregate:
According to the lower and upper limits of gradation recommended table 1-7.4, it can
be determined the right amount of each grade of fine and coarse aggregate (this determination
can be made by plotting the cumulative percent passing by mass through each sieve, see table
1-7.
p i − p i−1
The amount of aggregate for each grade is found as follows:
A gi = A g x (kg/m3)
100
Where:Ag = amount of aggregates (kg);
pi = percent passing by mass through sieve "i";
pi-1= percent passing by mass through sieve "i-1";
First correction:
12
33 − 12
Sieve 0 - 0,2 mm; 100 x 1761.3 = 211.35 kg/m3 ;
43 − 33
Sieve 0,2 – 1 mm; 100 x 1761.3 = 369.87 kg/m3 ;
63 − 43
Sieve 1 – 3 mm; 100 x 1761.3 = 176.13 kg/m3 ;
83 − 63
Sieve 3 –7 mm; 100 x 1761.3 = 352.26 kg/m3 ;
Sieve 7 – 16 mm; 100 x 1761.3 = 352.26 kg/m3 ;
12
97 − 83
Sieve 16 – 31 mm; 100 x 1761.3 = 246.58 kg/m3.
Total: 1708.45 kg/m3
Second correction (to produce 1 m3 per trial batch the quantities must be adjusted):
12
33 − 12
Sieve 0 - 0,2 mm; 100 x (1761.3-1708.45) = 6,4 kg/m3 ;
43 − 33
Sieve 0,2 – 1 mm; 100 x 52.84 = 10,8 kg/m3 ;
63 − 43
Sieve 1 – 3 mm; 100 x 52.84 = 5,4 kg/m3 ;
83 − 63
Sieve 3 –7 mm; 100 x 52.84 = 10,8 kg/m3 ;
97 − 83
Sieve 7 – 16 mm; 100 x 52.84 = 10,8 kg/m3 ;
Sieve 16 – 31 mm; 100 x 52.84 = 7,5 kg/m3.
Total: 51,7 kg/m3
The correct masses according to corrections for achieving the total amount of aggregate
required is 1829 kg/m3:
Sieve 0 - 0,2 mm; 211,35 + 6,4 = 217,75 kg/m3;
Sieve 0,2 – 1 mm; 369,87 + 10,8 = 380,5 kg/m3;
Sieve 1 – 3 mm; 176,13 + 5,4 = 181,53 kg/m3;
Sieve 3 –7 mm; 352,26 + 10,8 = 363,06 kg/m3;
Sieve 7 – 16 mm; 352,26 + 10,8 = 363,06 kg/m3;
Sieve 16 – 31 mm; 246,58 + 7,5 = 254,08 kg/m3.
Total: 1759,98 kg/m3
6. Adjustment for moisture in aggregate:
The right adjustment of water will be found according to the exact free moisture of the
aggregates, as follows:
ΔA = ΣAagi x i (l/m )
u 3
100
Where: Aagi = amount of aggregate form sieve "i' (kg);
ui = free moisture of sieve "i" (%);
n = total numbers of sieves.
A* = A' - ∆A (l/m3)
x(217,75 + 380,5 + 181,53 + 363,06) = 22,85 kg/m

The free amount of moisture form fine aggregates (2%), is calculated as follows:
ΔAn = ΣAgi x =
ui 2 3
100 100
x(363,06 + 254,08) = 6,17 kg/m

The free amount of moisture form coarse aggregates (1%), is calculated as follows:
ΔA p = ΣAgi x =
ui 1 3
100 100
ΔA = ΔAn + ΔA p = 22,85 + 6,17 = 29,02 kg/m3

The total amount of free moisture is calculated as follows:
Adjusted amount of water: A* = A' - ∆A = 200 – 29,02 = 170,97 kg/m3

7. Adjustment of total amount of aggregates by sieve sizes:
⎛ u ⎞
The of total amount of aggregates by sieve sizes, is found as follows:
A *gi = A gi x ⎜1 + i ⎟ (kg/m )
⎝ 100 ⎠
3
Where:Aagi - amount of aggregate form sieve "i' (kg);

ui = free moisture of sieve "i" (%).
2
Sieve 0 - 0,2 mm; 217 x (1+ 100 ) = 222,10 kg/m3;
13
2
Sieve 0,2 – 1 mm; 380,5 x (1+ 100 ) = 388,11 kg/m3 ;
2
Sieve 1 – 3 mm; 181,53 x (1+ 100 ) = 185,16 kg/m3 ;
2
Sieve 3 –7 mm; 363,06 x (1+ 100 ) = 370,32 kg/m3 ;
1
Sieve 7 – 16 mm; 363,06 x (1+ 100 ) = 366,69 kg/m3 ;
1
Sieve 16 – 31 mm; 254,08 x (1+ 100 ) = 256,62 kg/m3.
Total: 1789,0 kg/m3
8. Final adjustment of aggregate weight:
The of total amount of aggregates, is found as follows:
Aag* = ∆ Aagi * (kg/m3)
*
Where:Aag = adjusted amount of aggregate form sieve "i' (kg);
Aag * = Σ A*agi = 1789,0 kg/m3

n = number of sieves sizes.
9. Total mass of concrete produced:

The total mass of concrete produced will be calculated as follows:
ρ b = A* + C’ + Aag*
G b = A + C’ + Aag* = 170,97 + 308 + 1789 = 2267,97 kg/m3
*
ρ b = 2335,9 kg/m3 will be compared with the value of normal weight concrete that ranges
between 2160 to 2560 kg/m3
10. Summary of mix design:
Concrete class C 12/15
Batch percentage: 100 %
Compressive strength at 28 days: 15 MPa
Slump: Maximum 120 mm
Minimum 80 mm
Nominal maximum size of aggregate: 31 mm
Cement type: CEM II A - 32,5N
Water-cement ratio: 0.65
Concrete type: Reinforced
Air content: 4.5 %
Permeability: P10 4
Freeze-thaw: G100
Unit weight of aggregates: F.A. 1165,59 kg/m3
C.A. 623,97 kg/m3
Mass of batched concrete: ρc = 2268 kg/m3
14
1.5. APPENDIX
Table 1-1. Recommended concrete slump for various types of construction
Item Type of concrete member Type of Transport Consistency
no. Grade Slump
(mm)
1 Plain or reinforced foundations /footings, massive Truck, bucket, belt conveyor T2 30±10
elements
2 Plain or reinforced footings, massive elements, Transit mix truck, bucket T3 70±20
slabs, columns, beams, walls.
3 Plain or reinforced footings, massive elements, Transit mix truck T3/ 100±20
slabs, columns, beams, walls, reservoirs placed T4
by concrete pump
4 Members and small reinforced monolithic Transit mix truck, bucket T4 120±20
sections with difficulties while compacting
5 Concrete prepared with plasticizers or Transit mix truck, bucket T4/ 150±30
superplasticizers additives T5
6 Concrete prepared with superplasticizer additives Transit mix truck, bucket T5 180±30
Source: NE 012-1999
Table 1-2. Exposure class for concrete in different environmental conditions
Type of environment Type or location of structure
0 1 2
a). Concrete surfaces protected against weather or aggressive conditions
1. Dry Moderate
environment b). Severe Concrete surfaces exposed permanent to temperatures grater that 30 oC
a). Concrete surfaces exposed to freezing whilst sheltered form severe rain or
Moderate freezing whilst wet
2. Hummed b). Severe Concrete surfaces exposed to freezing whilst continuously submerged under
environment water;
Concrete surfaces exposed to condensation or alternant wetting and drying;
Concrete surfaces exposed to continuous water pressure on one side
3. Hummed environment
subjected to freezing and Concrete interior or exterior surfaces exposed to freezing and de-icing salts
deicing salts
1).Weak Concrete surfaces exposed permanent to sea water;
aggressive Concrete surfaces situated over the variation level of the sea
a).No conditions
4. Marine environment
freezing 2).Intensive Concrete surfaces situated over the variation level of the sea
aggressive
conditions
1).Weak Concrete surfaces exposed indirectly to marine environment
aggressive Concrete surfaces exposed to freezing sheltered from wetting
conditions Concrete surfaces protected against weather without heating
b).With
freezing Concrete surfaces exposed to marine environment by alternant
2).Intensive wetting, drying and salts. Concrete surfaces exposed industrial
aggressive technological condensation of vapors.
conditions
a). Mild chemical aggressive environment
environment
5. Chemical
aggressive
b). Moderate chemical aggressive environment

c). Severe chemical aggressive environment
d). Very severe chemical aggressive environment
Source: NE 012-1999
15
Table 1-3. Minimum requirements for concrete durability assurance according to exposure
conditions
Concrete Freeze-
Permeability w/c
Exposure conditions grade thaw
min. max
min. min.
1. Dry a). Moderate
C 12/15 P4 - 0,65
environment b). Severe
a). Moderate C 16/20 P4 - 0,50
2. Hummed
environment b). Severe G100
C 18/22,5 P8 0,45
(150)
3. Hummed environment subjected to freezing and deicing
P12 G150 0,40
salts
1).Weak aggressive conditions
a).No
environment
C 20/25 P8 - 0,45
freezing 2).Intensive aggressive
4. Marine
conditions
1).Weak aggressive conditions
b).With
2).Intensive aggressive C 25/30 P12 G100 0,40
freezing
conditions
a). C 18/22,5 P8 - 0,50
environment
5. Chemical
aggressive
b). C 18/22,5 P8 - 0,50

c). C 18/22,5 P12 - 0,45
d). C 25/30 P12 - 0,45
Source: NE 012-1999
Table 1-4. Minimum cement content for concrete durability assurance
Exposure Minimum cement content (kg/m3)
Aggressiveness
conditions
grade Plain concrete Reinforced concrete
a - 150 250
1
b - 180 275
a - 200 290
2
b - 300 325
3 - 325 365
severe 300 325
a
extreme 350 390
4
severe 300 325
b
extreme 325 365
Natural Sulfate Natural aggressive Sulfate
aggressive water aggressiveness water aggressiveness
a mild 225 (180) 2401 260 2701
3301 3601
b moderate 300 (230) 325
3002 3402
3302 3652
c severe 350 (280) 390
3103 3503
5 4102(+) 4502
d extreme 1*
3703 4103
390 (+)
4102(+) 4502 (+)
extreme 2* 350 (+) (280)
4103 4503
4103
extreme 3* 4503 (+)
Note: * extreme 1, 2 or 3 according to the SO4 content mg/dm3.
1) Cement type CEM II A-S; Cement type H I; H II A-S; Cement type SR I; SR II A-S;
(+) Special measures of protection;
() the values between parentheses will be adopted for base layers or leveling concrete layers.
Source: NE 012-1999
16
Table 1-5. Requirements for concrete durability assurance according to type of environment
conditions
Concrete Environment conditions for concrete table 1-2.
Item no.
mix
components
1a 1b 2a 2b 3 4a1 4a2 4b1 4b2 5a 5b 5c 5d
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
1 Water : Cement Ratio
Plain - 0,65 0,55 0,55 0,50 0,55 0,55 0,50 0,50 0,55 0,50 0,45 0,40
concrete
Reinforced 0,65 0,60 0,55 0,50 0,50 0,50 0,50 0,45 0,45 0,55 0,50 0,45 0,40
concrete
Prestressed 0,60 0,55 0,55 0,50 0,50 0,50 0,50 0,45 0,40 0,55 0,50 0,45 0,40
concrete
2 Minimum cement content (kg/m3).
Plain 150 300 250 300 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 400 450
concrete
Reinforced 300 300 350 350 350 350 400 400 400 350 350 400 450
concrete
Prestressed 350 350 350 350 350 350 400 400 450 350 350 400 450
concrete
3 Percent of air entrained (%), min.
Max. size - - 4 4 4 - - 4 4 - - - -
aggregate
31 mm
Size - - 5 5 5 - - 5 5 - - - -
aggregate
16 mm
Max. size - - 6 6 6 - - 6 6 - - - -
aggregate
7 mm
4 Frost - - Yes Yes Yes - - Yes Yes - - - -
resisting
aggregates
5 Watertightness grade, min.
Plain - P410 P410 P810 P410 P410 P810 P810 P410 P810 P1210 P1210
concrete
Reinforced - P410 P810 P810 P810 P810 P1210 P1210 P410 P810 P1210 P1210
concrete
Prestressed - P410 P810 P810 P810 P810 P1210 P1210 P410 P810 P1210 P1210
concrete
6 Frost resistance
Plain G50 G100 G150 - - G150 G150 - - - -
concrete
Reinforced G100 G150 G150 - - G150 G150 - - - -
concrete
Prestressed G100 G150 G150 - - G150 G150 - - - -
concrete
Table 1-6. Grading classes
Grading class in accordance to the cement content (Kg/m3)
≤ 300
Consistency
300-450 > 450
T2 I (II)* II (III)* III
T3 and T3/T4 I (II)* II (III)* III
T4, T4/T5, T5 I I (II)* II (III)*
* Recommended when the concrete does not have tendency of honeycombing
Upper and lower limit of gradation are as follows (annex 5): Table 5.1. to 5.6 for aggregate size 0...7
mm; 0...16 mm; 0...20 mm; 0...31 mm; 0...40 mm; 0...71 mm. Source: NE 012-1999
17
Table 1-7. Upper and lower limits of gradation

Table 7.1. Aggregates between 0...7 mm. Source: NE 012-1999
Cumulative percent passing by mass (%)
Limits
0,2 1 3 7
Max. 12 40 70 100
Min. 3 25 54 95
Grading Limits Cumulative percent passing by mass (%)
class 0,2 1 3 7 16
I Max. 15 45 65 85 100
Min. 10 35 55 75 95
II Max. 10 35 55 75 100
Min. 5 25 45 65 95
III Max. 5 25 45 65 100
Min. 1 15 35 55 95
Class 0,2 1 3 (9) 7 (10) 20
I Max. 15 40 60 80 100
Min. 10 30 50 70 95
II Max. 10 30 50 70 100
Min. 5 20 40 60 95
III Max. 5 20 40 60 100
Min. 1 10 30 50 95
Grading Cumulative percent passing by mass (%)
Limits
Class 0,2 1 3 7 16 31
I Max. 15 40 50 70 90 100
Min. 10 30 40 60 80 95
II Max. 10 30 40 60 80 100
Min. 5 20 30 50 70 95
III Max. 5 20 30 50 70 100
Min. 1 10 20 40 60 95
Class 0,2 1 3 (5) 7 (10) 20 40
I Max. 15 30 45 60 80 100
Min. 10 20 35 50 70 95
II Max. 10 25 35 50 70 100
Min. 5 15 25 40 60 95
III Max. 5 15 25 40 60 100
Min. 1 5 15 30 50 95
Limits Cumulative percent passing by mass (%)
0,2 1 3 7 16 25 31 40 71
Max. 8 18 32 45 61 70 77 84 100
Min. 1 6 13 22 38 50 57 68 95
Table 1-8. Standard types of Portland cement
1. According to national standards (S.R.)
The S.R. has defined five types of Portland cement, identified in the specification (NE 012-99) by the Roman
numerals I to V. These types, discussed below serve to indicate variations in properties that is brought about by
varying composition and fineness. These types are identical with the European norm ENV 197 they are as
follows:
Type I - (SR 388), this cement is intended for general concrete construction where special properties are not
necessary. It is a "ordinary" Portland cement. Type I is less restricted in chemical composition than the other
types;
Type II - (SR 1500), this cement is intended for use where concrete may be exposed to moderate sulphate action
or where no more than moderate liberation of heat is advisable;
18
Type III – (SR 3011), this cement is high-early-strength Portland cement it is called "rapid hardening." It is high
in fineness. It develops good strength within one day, and is used where concrete must be placed in service as
soon as possible (hydrotechnical cement);
Type IV - this is called low heat cement. It is used where considerable thickness of concrete is required and
temperature rise might be excessive, thus leading to excessive volume change and cracking. It is generally
produced only for special, large projects.
Type V - (SR 3011), this cement, which also is not always available, is for use severe high sulphate resistance is
required.
Air - entraining cement. - the norm adds "A" to its type numbers to indicate air-entraining cement. Various
organic chemicals are added in amounts up to a few hundredths (by weight of cement) to entrain fine bubbles in
the mix. The concrete containing by volume of these fine air bubbles has greatly increased resistance to scaling
from frost action. The entrained air also produces a more workable mix.
2. Cement agreements
2.1. Other types of cements can be used, manufactured by the European norm ENV 197 special cements or
manufactured by agreement.
These will be used only when it is specified agreements certified by testing, by the manufacturers at a
certified agreement institute, that will put the products to test. If the results are satisfactory a certificate is issued,
and can then be used by the manufacturer. The certificates are widely recognized and can be used until such
times, as the S.R. is prepared.
2.2. White and colored cements. According to S.R. 1055 and colored cements, according to S.P.
Source: NE 012-1999
Table 1-9. Cement types according to Romanian standards (SR)
Admixture
Type Sort SR Grade
% Type
1 2 3 4 5 6
Portland Cement (without admixtures)
Normal Portland cement (without 32,5N;42.5N; 52.5N
CEM I SR388 - -
admixtures) 32.5R;42.5R;52.5R
Composite Cements (with admixtures)
CEM SR Mixture of slag, ash, lime,
Portland cement composite 6-20
II A-M 1500 pozzolan
CEM Granulated blast furnace
Portland cement with slag
II A-S slag
CEM 32,5N;42.5N;52.5N
Portland cement with ash Pulverized fuel ash
II A-V 32.5R;42.5R;52.5R
CEM Portland cement with natural
Natural pozzolan
II A-P pozzolan
CEM
Portland cement with lime Lime
II A-L
CEM Mixture of slag, ash, lime,
Portland cement composite SR 1500 21-35
II B-M pozzolan
CEM Granulated blast furnace
Portland cement with slag
II B-S slag 32,5N; 42.5N
CEM Portland Cement with natural 32.5R; 42.5R
Natural pozzolan
II B-P pozzolan
CEM
Portland cement with lime Lime
II B-L
Granulated blast furnace
CEM III A Blast furnace cement SR 1500 36-65 32,5N; 32,5R
slag
CEMIV A Pozzolan cement SR 1500 11-35 Pozzolan and ash 32,5N; 42.5N;32.5R
CEM V A Composite cement SR 1500 18-30 32.5N; 32.5R
slag + ash Pozzolan
Hydrotechnical cements
HI Cement without mixture - -
HII/A-S 6- 20
SR 3011 Granulated blast furnace 32,5N;42,5N;52,5N
HII/B-S Cement with slag 21-35
slag
HIII/A 36-65
19
Sulfate resistant cements

SRI Cement without admixture - -
SRII/A-S Cement with slag 6-20
slag
SRII/A-P Pozzolan cement SR 3011 6-20 Natural pozzolan 32,5N;42,5N;52,5N
SRII/B-S Cement with slag 21-35
slag
SRIII/A Cement with slag 36-65 Pulverized fuel ash
Source: NE 012-1999
Table 1-10. Recommended types of cement used for concrete works in normal exposure
conditions
Item Work conditions and/or Concrete Type of concrete Recommended Usable types of
no. member characteristics grade types of cement cement
0 1 2 3 4 5
1 Members or constructions C 4/5 Plain (CEMIIIA, (CEMIIIA, CEM
with thickness smaller … CEMIVA,CEMVA) IVA,CEM
than 1,5m produced in C 8/10 32,5 N VA)32,5 N
periods other that winter CEM IIB - 32,5 N CEM IIA 32,5 N
C 12/15 Reinforced CEM IIA - 32,5 N CEMIIB- 32,5(1)N;

… CEMIIB- 42,5(1)N;
C 16/20 CEM I 32,5 N
CEM IIA- 42,5 N
C 20/25 Reinforced CEM I - 32,5 N CEM IIA - 32,5R;
C 25/30 CEM IIA - 42,5N;
C 35/ CEM I - 42,5 N
C 30/37 Reinforced CEM I - 42,5 N CEM I- 32,5(2)N;
C 40/ (prestressed) CEM I -42,5A N CEM I- 52,5N;
C 35/45 CEM I 52,5A N
C 40/50
C 45/55 High strength CEMI52,5N/
C 50/60 reinforcement 52,5R;
C 60/70 (prestressed) CEMI52,5AN/
C 70/80 52,5AR
2 Massive members or < C 12/15 Plain H III/A - 32,5 N H II/B-S;

constructions with C 12/15 CEMII B-S 32,5N;
thickness equal or larger CEM I A-S 32,5N
than 1,5m C 16/20 Reinforced H II/A - 32,5 N H I-32,5;
HII/B-S32,5(1);
CEMII A-S 32,5N
C 20/25 Reinforced H I - 32,5 N CEMII A-S 32,5N;
C 25/30 H II/A-S32,5;
C 35/- CEM I 32,5N
C 30/37 Reinforced H I - 42,5 N H I-32,5(2);
C 40/- (prestressed) CEM I 42,5N;
C 35/45 HII/A-S 42,5;
C 40/50 H42,5/42,5 RA;
CEMII A-S 42,5 N
C 50/60 Reinforced H I - 52,5 N HII/A-S52,5N;
C 60/70 (prestressed) H52,5/52,5-A N
C 70/85
Technical notes: 1. During winter conditions it is recommended to use, for members that have thickness over 1,5
m, cements with rapid setting time noted with R.
2. The setting for cement types CEM II B, II H, H II/B-S (that have a maximum amount of mixture of 35%), for
reinforced concrete members will be made only with the approval of a specialist institute.
Source: NE 012-1999
20
Table 1-11. Recommended types of cements for plain and reinforced concrete works exposed to
sea water and severe freezing
Item Work conditions and/or Type of Recommended types
Concrete grade Usable types of cement
no. Member characteristics concrete of cement
0 1 2 3 4 5
< C 16/20 Plain CEMIIA-32,5N/32,5R CEMI-32,5N/32,5R
Members or constructions CEMIIA-32,5N/32,5R
1 with thickness smaller C16/20-C35/ - Reinforced CEMI-32,5N/32,5R CEMI- 42,5AN;
than 1,5m CEMI- 42,5N/42,5R
CEMI-42,5N CEMI-32,5N/32,5R;
C30/37-C40/50 Reinforced
CEMI-42,5N/42,5R CEMI-52,5N/52,5R
CEMI-52,5AN
C 45/55-C70/85 Reinforced
CEMI-52,5N/52,5R
Massive members or H I-32,5;
< C 16/20 Plain H II/A-S32,5
constructions with II A-S32,5
2
thickness equal or larger C 16/20-C 35/ Reinforced CEMIII-32,5N CEMIII-42,5N
that 1,5m H I-52,5;
C 30/37-C40/50 Reinforced H I-42,5
CEMI-52,5N
C 45/55-C70/85 Reinforced H I-52,5
Source: NE 012-1999
Table 1-12. Recommended types of cements for plain and reinforced concrete works subjected
to aggressive waters
Nature of Recommended types of cement Usable types of cement
Item Grade of
aggressive Reinforced Reinforced
no. aggressive Plain concrete Plain concrete
environment concrete concrete
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
CEMI 32,5N CEMI 32,5N;
CEMII A- CEMII A-
1 Alkalis Mild HI H I;
S32,5R/42,5N S32,5R/42,5N
H II/A-S H II/A-S
CEMI 32,5N; CEMI 32,5N;
CEMII A-S CEMII A-S
Mild H I;H II/A- H I;H II/A-
2 Carbon 32,5N/42,5N 32,5R/42,5R
S32,5N/42,5N S32,5N/42,5N
Severe very H I32,5N/42,5N H I32,5N/42,5N;
CEMI 42,5N; CEMI 42,5R
severe SRI32,5N/42,5N SR I32,5N/42,5N
Mild CEMIII A;CEM IV A;
CEMII A- H II A- H II/A-
Moderate CEMV A; CEMII B;
S32,5N/42,5N S32,5N/42,5N S32,5N/42,5N
Moderate CEMII A32,5N/42,5N
3 Sulfate H I32,5N/42,5N;
Severe or very H II/A-
SR II/B-S32,5N/42,5N
sever (for all SR I SR II/A-S H II/B-S H III/A S32,5N/42,5N;
SR III/A32,5N/42,5N
cases) CEMII A-
S32,5N/42,5N
H A-S;
H III/A32,5N/42,5N H II/A- H A-
Mild H I; Sr I;
H II/B-S32,5N/42,5N S32,5N/42,5N S32,5N/42,5N
SR II/A-S
4 Magnesium
H A-
H A-S;
Severe or very SR II/B-S32,5N/42,5N SR II/A- S32,5N/42,5N
H II/A-S;
sever SR III/A32,5N/42,5N S32,5N/42,5N H II/A-
H I; SR I
S32,5N/42,5N
H III A32,5N/42,5N H II/A- H A- H A-S;
Mild
5 Nitrogen salts H II/B-S32,5N/42,5N S32,5N/42,5N S32,5N/42,5N H I; SR I; SR II/A-S
Severe or very SR II/B-S 32,5N/42,5N SR II/A- H II/A-
SR I; H I; H II/A-S
sever SR III/A32,5N/42,5N S32,5N/42,5N S32,5N/42,5N
H II/A-S; II/A-S;
Mild H II/A-S32,5N/42,5N H I H A-S
6 Base SR I
H I;
Severe SR II/A-S32,5N/42,5N SR I H II/A-S
H II/A-S
21
Table 1-13. Estimated mixing water requirement for various slumps

Concrete grade Water (l/m3) of concrete indicated by consistency
T2 T3 T3/T4 T4
C 4/5 160 170 - -
C 8/10...C 20/25 170 185 200 220
> C 25/30 185 200 215 230
Source: NE 012-1999. Technical notes:
The values concerning the quantities of water required for mix specified in annex 13. are valid only if used with
natural aggregates size 0...31 mm. They will be increasing or decreasing as follows: -
decrees with 10% when using aggregates size 0...71 mm;
- decrees with 5% when using aggregates size 0...40 mm;
- decrees with 10-20% when using additives;
- increase with 10% when using crushed stone;
- increase with 20% when using aggregates size 0...7 mm;
- increase with 10% when using aggregates size 0...16 mm;
- increase with 5% when using aggregates size 0...20 mm.
Table 1-14. Relative density
Type of material Density ( Kg/dm3 )
Siliceous (stream deposits) 2,7
Calcareous 2,3...2,7
Ceramic 2,7
Basalt 2,9
Cement 3,0
Table 1-15. Approximate volume of air-entrainment according to maximum size aggregates
Maximum size of 7 10 16 20 31 40 71
aggregates (mm)
Air-entrainment % 6 6 6 5 4,5 4 3,5
Table 1-16. Maximum values for w/c ratio after preliminary tests (grade II concrete
homogeneity)
Concrete grade Cement grade
32,5 42,5 52,5
C 8/10 0,75
C 12/15 0,70
C 16/20 0,60
C 20/25 0,55
C 25/30 0,50 0,55
C 35/ - 0,45 0,50
C 30/37 0,40 0,47
C 40/ - 0,35 0,45 0,50
C 35/45 0,40 0,45
C 40/50 0,35 0,40
C 45/55 0,33 0,38
C 50/60 0,30 0,35
C 70/-
Source: NE 012-1999
Technical notes:
1. The values for the table are valid for grade II homogeneity. For grade I, the values rise with 0,05 and for grade
III they decrease with 0,05.
2. When using crushed stone the values form the table rise with 10%.
3. According to the environment conditions and exposure the w/c ratio, resulted form annex 2, should not be
exceeded.
4. When the concrete is cured in steam rooms, according to the final decrease of strength, the w/c ratio values
will be adopted as follows: for grade I of homogeneity see table and - for grade II of homogeneity, the proposed
values for the table decreased by 0,05 (corresponding to grade III).
22
Table 1-17. Concrete strength at 28 days after preliminary tests for grade II homogeneity
Characteristic strength Characteristic strength
Concrete grade fc preliminary (N/mm2) Concrete grade fc preliminary (N/mm2)
Cube Cylinder Cube Cylinder
C 8/10 18 14,5 C 40/- 51,5 41
C 12/15 23,5 19 C 45/35 56,5 45
C 16/20 29 23 C 50/40 62,5 50
C 20/25 36 29 C 55/45 68 54,5
C25/30 42 33,5 C 60/50 73 58,5
C 35/- 47 37,5 C 70/60 84,5 67,5
C 30/37 48 38,5 C 87/70 101 81
Technical notes: For grade I, respectively grade III of homogeneity, of the values required in the table, a certain
value will be subtracted or added. Source: NE 012-1999
Table 1-18. Values that will be subtracted or added to the recommended values for grade II
Concrete grade (N/mm2) (Cube) (N/mm2) (Cylinder)
C 10/8 - C 20/16 3 2,5
C 25/20 - C 37/30 4 3
C 40/- - C 55/45 5 4
C 60/50 - C 85/70 6 5
Table 1-19. Concrete mix design parameters
Item Concrete parameters Basic requirements
1 Type of cement Concrete grade, Conditions of exposure, Characteristics of member
2 Type of additive Transport conditions, Placement, Characteristic required of concrete
(durability, grade), Characteristics of member (section reinforcement)
3 w/ c ratio Concrete grade, Homogeneity grade achieved at batching, Water
tightness, Conditions of exposure
4 Minimum content of cement Conditions of exposure
5 Workability Conditions of transport and placement, Form and dimensions of member,
Dense reinforcement
6 Maximum size aggregate Form and dimensions of member, Reinforcement, Conditions of transport
and placement
7 Water requirement Workability (consistency), Type of admixture
8 Aggregate grading Cement content, Consistency, Technology of concrete placement
REFERENCES
1-1 ACI Committee Report, Guide of Concrete 309R-96 ACI Manual of Concrete Practice 1998. Part 2.
1-2 Asian Concrete Model Cod, Part II – Materials and Construction, Level 1, 2001.
1-3 Carare T., Cartea Fierarului Betonist. Editura Tehnica Bucuresti, 1986. pag.158-186.
1-4 Cement & Concrete Association of Australia, The housing concrete handbook, 2000.
1-5 Crainic L., Reinforced Concrete. Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest, 1993. pag. 4-
38.
1-6 Dabija F.E., Buildings II. Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest, 1994.
1-7 Dean Y., Mitchell’s Building Series. Materials Technology. Pearson Education Ltd, 1999.
1-8 Ilinoiu G. Quality of Concrete. Study on Code NE 012-1999. Nr. 3, Bulletin AICPS (2001), pp. 114-120.
1-9 Ilinoiu G. Concrete durability. Journal Civil and Industrial Constructions. 2001, No. 24, pp. 36-37.
1-10 Ilinoiu G. Decision making modeling of concrete requirements. Dimensi Teknik Sipil, Indonesia.
Research Center of Petra Christian University. Vol. 3, no. 2, September 2001.
1-11 Ilinoiu G. Conceptual approach of repair and rehabilitation works of structural members. Journal Civil and
Industrial Constructions. 2001, No. 26, pp. 30-34.
1-12 Ilinoiu G. Structural and mixture characteristics of Portland cement. Journal Civil and Industrial
Constructions, 2002, No. 30, pp. 16-22.
1-13 Ilinoiu G. Concrete permeability. Journal Civil and Industrial Constructions. 2001, No. 31, pp.18-24.
1-14 Ilinoiu G. Concrete freeze-thaw. Journal Civil and Industrial Constructions, 2002, No. 33, pp.18-21.
1-15 Ilinoiu G., Criteria for measuring concrete conformity. Journal Civil and Industrial Constructions, IV, Nr.
41 May 2003, pp.14-20.
1-16 Ilinoiu G., Uncertainty modeling measurement of concrete quality. Journal Civil and Industrial
Constructions, IV, Nr. 44 August 2003, pp.16-21.
1-17 Ilinoiu G., Compliance criteria for concrete conformity. Journal AICPS, 2/2003, pp.49-55.
1-18 Ilinoiu G., Construction Engineering. Conspress, Bucharest 2003.
23
1-19 Ionescu I., Ispas T., Proprietăţile şi tehnologia betoanelor. Editura Tehnică, Bucureşti, 1997.
1-20 Neville A.M. Concrete properties. Fourth edition. Editura Tehnica, 2003.
1-21 Popa R., Popa E., Tehnologia lucrarilor de constructii. Prepararea betonului. ICB, 1986.
1-22 Popa R., Teodorescu M., Tehnologia lucrarilor de constructii. ICB, 1984.
1-23 Teodorescu M. Utilizarea cimenturilor o chestiune de professionalism. Antrepenorul 3/2003, pag. 20.
1-24 Teodorescu M. Utilizarea cimenturilor in constructii o chestiune de professionalism (II). Antrepenorul
4/2003, pag. 37-38.
1-25 Teodorescu M., Tsicura A., Ilinoiu G., Compozitia betonului. UTCB, 1997.
1-26 Teodorescu M., Tsicura A, Ilinoiu G., Îndrumator pentru examenul de licenta la disciplina “Tehnologia
lucrarilor de constructii” UTCB, 1998.
1-27 ENV 206, 1990. Concrete Performance, Production, Placing and Compliance Criteria.
1-28 STAS 1275-1988. Tests of concrete. Tests of hardened concrete. Determination of mechanical strengths.
1-29 STAS 9602-90. Reference Concrete. Specifications for manufacturing and testing.
1-30 NE 012-1999. Practice code for the execution of concrete, reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete
works, Part 1 – Concrete and reinforced concrete.
1-31 NE 13-2002. Practice code for the execution of prefabricated elements.
1-32 STAS 10107/0-1990. Calculul si alcatuirea elementelor structurale din beton, beton armat si beton
precomprmat.
1-33 STAS 3622-86. Cement concretes. Classification.
1-34 STAS 1759-88. Tests on concretes. Tests on fresh concrete. Determination of apparent density,
consistence fine aggregates content and setting time.
1-35 ISO 9812. Concrete consistency. Slump test.
1-36 STAS 2414-91. Tests on concrete. Determination of density, compactness, and porosity of hardened
concrete.
1-37 STAS 3519-76. Tests on concretes. Inspection of waterproofness.
1-38 ISO 7031. Tests on concrete watertightness.
1-39 STAS 5479-88. Tests on concrete. Tests on fresh concrete. Determination of air content.
1-40 STAS 2833-80. Tests on concrete. Determination of axial shrinkage of hardened concrete.
1-41 STAS 3518-89. Tests on concretes. Strength determination at frost-thawing.
1-42 SR EN 196-4/95. Methods of testing cement. Quantity determination of constituents
1-43 EN 196-2. Methods of testing cement. Chemical analysis of cement.
1-44 SR 6232-96. Cements, mineral admixtures and additives. Vocabulary.
1-45 SR 388-95. Portland cement.
1-46 SR 1500-96. Usual composite cements, type II, III, IV and V.
1-47 SR 3011-96. Limited hydration warmth cements and resistant to water damage with sulphates content.
1-48 SR 7055-96. White Portland Cement.
1-49 SR 227/2-98. Cements. Physical tests. Determination of grinding fineness.
1-50 SR EN 196/6-94. Methods of testing cement. Determination of grinding fineness.
1-51 SR 227/5- 96. Cements. Physical tests. Determination of hydration heat.
1-52 SR EN 196/3-97. Methods of testing cement. Determination of setting time and soundness.
1-53 SR 227/4-86. Cements. Physical tests. Setting time determination.
1-54 SR EN 196/1-95. Methods of testing cement. Determination of strength.
1-56 STAS 1667-76. Heavy aggregates for concrete and mortars with mineral binder.
1-57 STAS 2386-79. Lightweight mineral aggregates. General technical requirements for quality.
1-58 STAS 4606-80. Natural heavy weight aggregate for concrete and mortars with mineral binding material.
Testing method.
1-59 STAS 1667-76. Natural heavy weight aggregate for concrete and mortars with mineral binding material.
1-60 STAS 8625-90. Mixed plasticized additive for concretes.
1-61 STAS 8573-78. Waterproofing additive cement mortars.
1-62 STAS 790-84. Water for concretes and mortars.
1-63 STAS 1799-88. Concrete reinforced and prestressed concrete buildings. Type and frequency checks of
materials and concrete quality used for civil engineering execution.
1-64 STAS 6657/3-89. Concrete, reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete elements – procedures,
instrumentation and devices for characteristic geometry checks.
24
CHAPTER 2. RATE OF CONCRETE PLACEMENT ROUGH

ESTIMATE
The rate of concrete placement (pour) depends on a multitude of factors that influence
the process, such as:
- concrete characteristics (i.e. w/c ratio, consistency, workability etc.);
- structural member characteristics (i.e. dimensions);
- site organization (i.e. type of equipment used to prepare, transport, distribute and compact
the concrete, labor/ crews);
• when using a concrete pump, because it normally delivers concrete continuously, only
- type of distributing equipment:
• when using a crane with buckets, the rate of pour depends on the total time that it takes
the capacity of the pump need be considered in the calculation of the rate of pour;
for one cycle of the crane to pick up a bucket, unload it and return it to the ground.
- type of concreting procedure adopted (i.e. concreting in predetermined lifts or whole
heights of members);
- environmental conditions (i.e. humidity, temperature), etc.
2.2. EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the rate of concrete placement, rough estimate, for a section of a wall (wall
height 2,62 m, wall thickness 250 mm and wall length 30,5m), of a high-rise building, located
at 16,5 m from ground level, using a tower crane and a concrete bucket with the capacity of 1
m3. Crane characteristics: rate of travel of 30 m/min up, 25 m/min rate of travel down, pickup
time 20 sec dump time is 3 min. (Andres C., Smith R., 1998, 2003)
Cycle time calculation: Rate of pour calculations:
16,5m
Time to travel up = 0,55 min Volume of concrete to be poured:
30m / min
16,5m 250
Time to travel down = 0,66 min V = H x l x L = 2,62 x x 30,5 = 19,98 m3
25m / min 1000
20s Time required to pour 19,98 m3 of concrete:
Pickup time = 0,33 min V 19,98
60s t= = = 1,52 hr
Dump time 3,00 min R 13,16
3
Total: 4,54 min = 0,076 hr Rate of pour in m /hr:
H wall 2,62
3
Rate of concrete delivery in m /hr: r = = = 1,72 m/hr
t 1,52
3 1m 3
R = V/t (m /hr) = = 13,16 m3/hr
0,076hr
2.3. EXAMPLE 2
Calculate the rate of concrete placement, rough estimate, for a section of a wall located
on the ground floor, using a concrete pump with the rate of delivery of 25 m3/hr (product
specifications).
Pour conditions: wall height 2,62 m, wall thickness 350 mm and wall length 10,30m.
(Andres C., Smith R., 1998, 2003)
350
Volume of concrete to be poured: V = H x l x L = 2,62 x x 10,30 = 9,45m3
1000
25
V 9,45
Time required to pour 9,45 m3 of concrete: t = = = 0,38 hr
R 25
wall
H 2,62
Rate of pour in m3/hr: r = = = 6,98 m/hr
t 0,38
REFERENCES
2-1 Andres C., Smith R. Principles and Practices of Heavy Construction. Prentice Hall, USA, 1998.
2-2 Andres C., Smith R. Principles and Practices of Commercial Construction. Prentice Hall, USA, 2003.
2-4 La Londe W., Janes M., Concrete Engineering handbook. McGraw-Hill Company Inc., 1961
2-5 Peurifoy R., Oberlender G., Formwork for concrete structures. McGraw-Hill, 1996.
2-6 APA. The Engineering Wood Association, 1999. Concrete forming. Design and Construction Guide.
26
CHAPTER 3. CONCRETE FORMWORK DESIGN

If concrete is to be poured, in place-monolithically, on the job site some means of
support, known as formwork, is necessary to shape, to position it precisely (level and
location) and to retain it until it sets. In other words, it is a temporary “mould” into which
fresh concrete and reinforcement are placed to form a particular reinforced concrete element
with a predetermined strength.
3.2. MODULAR PLYWOOD FORMWORK
Plywood is a sheathing product
made of several wood veneers with their
grain lying (normal to one another) at right
angles and firmly glued together under
pressure, producing a panel that has uniform
properties in both directions, an advantage
regarding increased bending, shear, and
deflection properties.
The usual format consists of framed
panels on a timber studwork principle with a
plywood-facing sheet screwed to the studs
so that it can be easily removed and
reversed to obtain the maximum number of
uses.
The modular plywood formwork
consists of standard framed panels tied
together over their backs with horizontal
members called walings. The wales provide
resistance to the horizontal force of wet
concrete, supporting the studs and
facilitating panel alignment. The wales are
usually double square pipes (40 x 40 x 3,5;
45 x 45 x 4 or 55 x 55 x 4 mm). They are
usually doubled so to allow the placing of
tension ties, without any supplementary
works regarding drilling of wales.
Figure 3-1. Typical plywood panel
Caption: 1. Plywood sheathing; 2. Batten
(Stud); 3. Brace; 4. Transverse frame: e = 8;
15 mm, d = 92; 85 mm, c = 48 mm, i = 68
mm, f = 38 mm. Source: Popa R., 1978.
Table 3-1. Panel nominal dimensions
Type of Size Components Thickness
panel Length (mm) Width (mm) No. of studs No. of traverse frames No. of braces of panel
P1 2400 300 2 2 3
P2 2400 400 3 2 6
P3 2400 600 3 2 6
P4 1200 300 2 2 1
100 mm
P5 1200 400 3 2 2
P6 1200 600 3 2 2
P7 600 300 2 2 -
P8 600 400 3 2 -
27
Figure 3-2 (a). Plywood panel formwork

Caption: 1. Plywood sheathing; 2. Wooden wedges; 3. Wale; 4. Plate washer; 5. Bolt/Nut - Latch; 6.
Tie rod; 7. Pipe spacer; 8. Plastic cone; 9. Shoe; 10. Clamp; 11. Wedge; 12. Concrete kicker.
Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1978.
Figure 3-2 (b). a,b,c and

d- panel accessories
Caption: a. PVC pipe spacer; b. Plastic cone; c. Latch; d. Clamp

A standard procedure for site formwork assembly is as follows:
- Forms shall conform to the shape and dimensions shown on the drawings and shall be
accurately set to line and grade. All sheathing in contact with concrete surfaces shall be
sized to uniform thickness and free from wane, warp, splits, loose knots or other defects
which will prevent obtaining a smooth, tight form.
- Forms shall be erected one side of the wall formwork, ensuring its correct alignment,
plumbing, and/or strutting.
- Forms shall be tightened by means of slotted wedge that passes through the lower end of
the slot. Joints in the lining shall be filled with patching plaster or other plastic filler.
Lining material may be re-used if it is in satisfactory condition, well cleaned and re-oiled
28
- Insertion and positioning of steel reinforcement cage before the formwork for the other
side is erected and fixed.
- Correct spacing of forms at specified distance from one another by using plastic spacer
tubes in which ties are inserted.
- Positioning of horizontal members (wales) to increase the overall rigidity of the formwork
panels and to align them.
- The spacing of wales varies form minimum at the bottom of the pour to a maximum
uniform spacing at the top. The spacing depending on the maximum allowable span of the
studs.
- Insertion of ties between wales, covering them at the outside with plate washers to ensure
that the loads are evenly distributed over the wales.
- The size and spacing of the ties depend on the load on the wales.
- Forms for walls, etc., shall have large cleanout openings at their lowest points, which
shall not be closed until just before placing concrete. All forms shall be thoroughly
cleaned and soaked with water immediately before filling.
General requirements for slab forming design:
1. The panels preferred for use will be those that have the maximum size 600 x 2400 mm.
2. On every direction of the formwork design a panel removal (strike off) joint will be
positioned with the size of 50 or 100 mm in accordance to the modular span of the slab.
3. The positioning of removal joints will be continuous, and will be placed towards the
middle of the formwork paneling.
4. Removal joints can be adopted with the thickness of 150 or 200 mm, when these are the
only solutions to complete the formwork.
5. On a slab formwork if the standard size panels cannot close the entire area, a filler panel
can be used (square or rectangular wooden lumber plank) with the maximum size of 500 x
500 mm.
6. The filler panel is recommended to be positioned at the intersection of the removal joints.
7. All slabs will be formed in two variants, respecting the main directions of form
disposition. From the two the economical one will be chosen in regard of the minimum
number of joists that are used. In case of equality of joists between the two variants, the
one with the minimum number of panel forms will be chosen
8. Every panel will be supported at two sides by two joists. These will not be positioned on
adjoining sides or a side in console.
9. The joists will be positioned in accordance with a main direction of form placement for
every slab.
10. A minimum number of reuses for panels should be assured. We are not allowed to cut or
deteriorate them (10 reuses).
General requirements for wall forming design:
1. The panels preferred for use will be those that have the maximum size 600 x 2400 mm.
2. On the vertical face of the wall formwork a panel removal (strike off) joint will be
positioned with the size of 50 or 100 mm in accordance to the modular span of the wall.
3. The removal joints will be continuous on the height of the wall, and will be put one in
front of the other in the thickness of the wall, and will be positioned at the middle of the
formwork paneling.
4. The forming paneling should begin from the interior of the building; more precisely form
the intersection of walls, towards the middle.
5. A minimum number of reuses for panels should be assured. We are not allowed to cut or
deteriorate them.
29
3.3. SHORING MEMBERS

Shoring members support formwork and their contents, bearing loads and limiting
their deflections.
They can be divided into two major categories according to type and shape of concrete
member that will be formed:
a. Horizontal shores (telescopic joists) range from small units 1,8 m, to large members 9,0
m, used to carry much heavier loads.
Telescopic joists known also as centers present the following characteristics:
- They are manufactured from wood or high-tensile steel.
- Load bearing capacity according to span.
- Possibility of precambering to compensate any deflections when loaded.
- Requirement of propping and bracing.
- Lightweight so that it can be carried by one-two workers.
Figure 3-3.
Typical
steel
telescopic
joists.
Source: Chudley
R., 1999.
Table 3-2. Allowable spans “d” (m) between joists in accordance with span and load
Telescopic joist 1,8…3,0 m Source: Teodorescu M.; Tsicura A.; Ilinoiu G., 1997
Load of Span of joist “D” in accordance with “d” distance between joists
panel 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000 8500 9000
and
concrete
N/m2
d (m)
0.5 2.97 2.82 2.69 2.58 2.39 2.34 2.31 2.24 2.18 2.17 2.06 2.01 1.96 1.92 1.80
0.6 2.77 2.62 2.50 2.39 2.30 2.21 2.14 2.07 2.01 1.96 1.91 1.86 1.82
0.7 2.60 2.46 2.34 2.24 2.15 2.07 2.00 1.94 1.88 1.83
0.8 2.46 2.33 2.21 2.12 2.03 1.96 1.89 1.83
0.9 2.34 2.21 2.10 2.01 1.93 1.86
1.0 2.24 2.12 2.01 1.92 1.84
1.1 2.15 2.03 1.93 1.84
1.2 2.07 1.96 1.86
30
d (m)
0.5 5.00 4.93 4.68 4.47 4.29 4.13 3.98 3.85 3.74 3.63 3.53 3.44 3.36 3.28 3.21
0.6 4.83 4.55 4.32 4.13 3.96 3.80 3.67 3.55 3.44 3.34 3.25 3.17 3.09 3.02
0.7 4.51 4.25 4.04 3.85 3.69 3.55 3.42 3.31 3.21 3.11 3.03
0.8 4.23 4.01 3.80 3.63 3.47 3.34 3.22 3.11 3.02
0.9 4.04 3.80 3.61 3.44 3.29 3.17 3.05
1.0 3.85 3.63 3.44 3.28 3.14 3.02
1.1 3.69 3.47 3.29 3.14
1.2 3.55 3.34 3.16
d (m)
0.5 6.00 6.00 5.80 5.54 5.31 5.11 4.92 4.76 4.62 4.48 4.36 4.25 4.14 4.05 3.96
0.6 5.98 5.64 5.35 5.11 4.89 4.70 4.53 4.38 4.25 4.12 4.01 3.91 3.81 3.72 3.64
0.7 5.59 5.27 4.99 4.76 4.56 4.38 4.23 4.08 3.96 3.84 3.73 3.64
0.8 5.27 4.96 4.70 4.48 4.29 4.12 3.97 3.84 3.72 3.61
0.9 4.99 4.70 4.46 4.24 4.07 3.91 3.76 3.64
1.0 4.76 4.48 4.25 4.05 3.87 3.72
1.1 4.56 4.29 4.07 3.87 3.71
1.2 4.38 4.12 3.91 3.72
b. Vertical shores (also known as props) are those that support the horizontal shores (joists)
from a firm base below. They may be manufactured of wood or steel, with various shapes,
depending on the particular scope.
̇ Vertical wood shores may be single wood posts, with wedges to adjust the height, double
wood posts, two-piece adjustable posts, or T head shores.
̇ Vertical metal shores may be adjustable pipe shores or shores made up of prefabricated
steel tubing. Scaffold-type shoring, is usually assembled into towers by combining a
number of units into a single shoring structure.
Figure 3-4. Typical adjustable steel pipe shore (prop)

Source: Teodorescu M.; Tsicura A.; Ilinoiu G., 1997.
31
Table 3-3. Allowable axial load “P” (daN) on shore in accordance with length.
Item name Steel shore Steel Steel shore Steel shore Light steel Light steel
PE 3100R shore with with telescopic telescopic
PE 5100R spatial spatial shore shore
base base PU 3100 PU 1200R
PES 3100R PES 5100R
Hmax (mm) 3100 5100 3100 5100 3100 1220
Hmin (mm) 1700 3100 1700 3100 1700 232
Load (N) min 20000 18000 2000 18000 6000 3000
max 45000 45000 45000 45000 12000 45000
3.4. FORMWORK PRINCIPLES

The principles behind good formwork are based on the same basic frame theories used
in the design and construction of structural frames. Formwork must be able to withstand
construction forces that, in many respects, can be more severe than those experienced by the
completed structure. It is imperative that each component of the formwork be erected
according to the formwork drawings to ensure that all construction loads are safely supported.
Although formwork is temporary in nature, the methods used in building formwork
must adhere to the code specifications that apply to the particular material being used. Each
component of the form must be able to support its load from two points of view:
(1) strength, based on the physical properties of the material used;
(2) serviceability, the ability of the selected sections to resist the anticipated loads without
exceeding deflection limits.
3.4.1. FORMWORK LOADS
The basic consideration in form design is strength-the forms ability to support, without
excessive deflections, all loads, and forces imposed during construction. Two types of
problems arise in formwork design:
̇ Horizontal forms support gravity loads e.g. mass of the concrete and reinforcement,
construction crew and equipment, weight of the formwork itself and the vibrating
effect of the concrete compaction.
̇ Vertical forms must primarily resist lateral pressures due to a particular height of
plastic concrete (e.g. static load from lateral pressures due to a particular height of
plastic concrete, dynamic load from lateral pressures due to impact of falling concrete
during placement, and wind forces on wall forms.
The individual form panels and members may be limited to bending, shear, bearing, or
deflection and all four should be checked against the allowable values prescribed by norms
and specifications.
Two types of loads are considered in the design calculations: vertical loads and
horizontal loads.
3.4.2. FORMWORK PRESSURES
The pressure exerted by concrete on formwork is determined primarily by the
following factors: rate of concrete placement, concrete temperature, weight of concrete,
method of concrete vibration and depth of placement.
The lateral pressure exerted by plastic concrete on vertical formwork is rather complex
in nature and is affected by several factors. The freshly placed concrete initially acts as a
liquid, exerting fluid or hydrostatic pressure against the vertical form.
Because hydrostatic pressure at any point in a liquid is the result of the weight of the
fluid above, the density of the concrete mix influences the magnitude of the force acting on
the form. Nevertheless, because fresh concrete is a composite material rather than a true
32
liquid, the laws of hydrostatic pressure apply only approximately and only before the concrete
begins to set.
The rate of placement also affects lateral pressure. The greater the height to which
concrete is placed while the whole mass remains in the liquid stage, the greater the lateral
pressure at the bottom of the form.
The temperatures of concrete and atmosphere affect the pressure because they affect
the setting time. When these temperatures are low, greater heights can be placed before the
concrete at the bottom begins to stiffen, and greater lateral pressures are therefore built up.
Vibration increases lateral pressures because the concrete is consolidated and acts as a
fluid for the full depth of vibration. This may cause increases of up to 20% in pressures over
those incurred by spading. Other factors that influence lateral pressure include the consistency
or fluidity of the mix, the maximum aggregate size and the amount and location of
reinforcement.
Norm C11-1974 specifies the following loads for formwork design:
(1) VERTICAL LOADS, include:
a). Weight of the formwork itself and the scaffold:
- lumber in panels 7500 N/m3
- lumber in shoring elements 6000 N/m3
- plywood 8500 N/m3
b) Weight of fresh concrete:
- normal weight (heavy) concrete: plain 24000 N/m3
reinforced 25000 N/m3
- lightweight concrete 7000– 19000 N/m3
c). Uniform distributed load of runways for concrete transport and impact loads of the
crowding of crewmen:
- panel design 2500 N/m2
- horizontal shoring (joists) of panels 1500 N/m2
- vertical shoring elements (props, columns etc.) 1000 N/m2
d). Concentrated load form weight of work crews and transport equipment:
- one crew member that carries loads 1300 N
- wheel barrow concrete transport 2800 N
e) Load from the vibrating effect of the concrete compaction: 1200 N/m2
(2) HORIZONTAL LOADS, include:

f) Static load from lateral pressures due to a particular height of plastic concrete (placed
and compacted) according to the rate of placement (see Figure 3-5) on the panels surface.
Figure 3-5. Lateral pressure on wall form according to rate of concrete placement
Source: Teodorescu M., Tsicura A, and Ilinoiu G., 1998.
33
Two factors that affect the maximum effective horizontal pressure are seen to be: rate
of rise of the concrete in the forms and rate of setting (loss of fluidity).
The first depends on the size of form or forms being filled vs. the rate at which the
concrete is placed. The second depends on a number of factors, of which the most significant
is the temperature. The time of setting for concrete according with NE 012-99 is when the
temperature of concrete is 10o…30o C is 35…40 min and for t < 10o C is 50…70 min
according to the grade of cement used (32,5 or 42,5).
The effect of pressure in compacting the lower fluid layers by forcing out mixing
water (bleeding) has led to the belief that for very rapid rates of rise there is a maximum
pressure which cannot be exceeded. It will usually be more economical to control the rate of
rise that to try to provide form strength to resist such high pressures.
The rate of placement the relation between the height of the form H and the time
period needed for the casting of the whole element. The rate of pour is expressed in meters of
The hydrostatic lateral pressure is given by the following equation: p = ρ x H

concrete poured per hour.
p – lateral pressure [N/m2]

ρb – unit weight of fresh concrete [N/m2]
Where:
H – height of plastic concrete [m]
λ1 λ2 λ3 λ4
Table 3-4. Characteristics of concrete pressure on formwork
≤1
Characteristics
0.55
2 0.65
3 0.75
Rate of pour
4 0.85
(m/hour)
6 0.90
≥ 10
8 0.95
≤1
1.00
0.85
Workability of 1…4 0.95
concrete, 5…9 1.00
≥ 15
slump (cm) 10…15 1.05
≤ 15
1.10
0.90
Minimum section
≥ 55
16…54 0.95
of element (cm)
≤5
1.00
1.00
Concrete
≥ 25
6…24 0.95
temperature (oC)
0.90
h p = λ 1 xH
The position of the maximum pressure is determined with the following equation:
Where: λ1 – has the value according to table 3-4.

The value of the maximum pressure Pmax is determined with the following
Pmax = λ 1 xλ 2 xλ 3 xλ 4 xHxρ b (N/m2)

equation:
ρb – density of fresh concrete (kg/m3).

Where: H – the height of the poured concrete (m);
Pinf = αxPmax (N/m2)

The minimum pressure Pinf is determined with the following equation:
Where: α - has the value according to table 3-5.
34
Table 3-5. Coefficient α according to rate of concrete placement.

≥10
Rate of placement
<1 2 3 4 6 8
α
(m/hour)
0 0.25 0.45 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
g) Dynamic load from lateral pressures due to impact of falling concrete during
placement:
- for a capacity of the transport equipment: 0,2 m3 ...........................2000 N/m2
0,2...0,7 m3....................4000 N/m2
0,7 m3............................6000 N/m2
- for placement with chutes and hoppers: 2000 N/m2
- for placement with concrete pumps: 6000 N/m2
h) Wind forces on wall forms that will be taken into account only for bracings, scaffolds,
and centers. 7000 N/m2
For the design of the size and deflections of component elements of the formwork, the
loads will be taken into account differently, according to the table 3-6.
Table 3-6. Combination of loads according to member
Loads
Item name
Strength Deflection
Slab and arch forms and horizontal props (beams) a+b+c+d a+b
Vertical props for floors a+b+c a+b
Column forms with the maximum face of 30 cm and
f+g f
walls of maximum 10 cm thickness
Column forms and walls with bigger values f f
Lateral faces of forms for beams and arches f f
Bottom of beams a+b+e a+b
Centers and scaffolds < 6 m a + b + c (e) a+b
Centers and scaffolds > 6 m a + b + c (e) + h a+b
Source: Teodorescu M., Tsicura A, and Ilinoiu G., 1998 and C 11-74
The design of formwork components will be made according to the following
characteristics: type of material used, nature of the load, number of reuses, moisture
conditions and deflection limitations.
3.4.3. FORM MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Materials used for forms include lumber, plywood, plastics, steel, aluminum etc.
Additional materials that are used include: nails, bolts, screws, ties, anchors etc.
Properties of form material
- Allowable bending stress of lumber (σa) 12 N/mm2
- Allowable bending stress of plywood (σa)
- When the face grain is parallel to the span 13 N/mm2
- When the face grain is perpendicular to the span 5 N/mm2
- Allowable bending stress of steel (σa) 210 N/mm2
- Modulus of elasticity (E) lumber 10.000 N/mm2
plywood 7.000 N/mm2
steel 210.000 N/mm2
- Allowable bending deflection limitations for the various modular panels are usually:
(L maximum clear span)/300 – for concrete surfaces exposed to view;
(L maximum clear span)/200 – for concrete surfaces with finishing.
- Allowable tolerances for panels: - for length and width of panel + 2 mm;
- for thickness of panel - 5 mm;
- for length of diagonals of panel ± 5 mm.
35
3.5. WALL, SLAB FORMWORK AND SHORING SYSTEMS DESIGN
Y-Y d
y
X-X
d
b
y
Figure 3-6. Symbols for cross section of rectangular beam
b
Table 3-7. Nomenclature of symbols
List of symbols U.M. Meaning
X-X or Y-Y Neutral axes: A line through a member (beam or column)
under flexural stress, on which there is neither tension nor
compression. It is the middepth of the member and
perpendicular to the loading of the member,
B [mm] Width of beam face on which load or force is applied
H [mm] Depth or height of beam face parallel to the direction inn
δ
which the load or force is applied
[mm] Plywood thickness
h slab [mm] Thickness of slab
M [Nmm] Bending moment
I = bh3/12 [mm4] Moment of inertia of the cross section of a beam is the
(for a rectangular sum of the products of each if its elementary areas times
beam) the square of the distance from the neutral axes of the
section to the areas, multiplied by the square of their
distance from the neutral axes.
σe
y [mm] Distance from neutral axes to most distant fiber of beam
2
σa
[N/mm ] Applied bending stress
2
[N/mm ] Allowable bending design stress
2
W = I/y = bh /6 [mm3] Section modulus of the cross-section is the moment of
(for a rectangular inertia of the section divided by the distance from the
beam) neutral axes to the most distant, fiber of the section.
E [N/mm2] Modulus of elasticity
P [N] Concentrated load do to work crews and transport
equipment
q [Nml] Uniformly distributed load pre unit length (ml)
3.5.1. SLAB FORMWORK AND SHORING SYSTEM DESIGN
Formwork must be checked to ensure that they withstand bending and shear and that
deflection will not exceed 1.5 mm.
INITIAL DESIGN DATA
̇ Thickness of slab h slab,
̇ Clear span of slab.
̇ Story height H story.
36
EVALUATION OF LOADS
a. Weight of 8 (15) mm panel sheathing: δpanel x 8500 = ….. N/m2
b. Weight of fresh concrete (h slab): h slab x 25000 = .…. N/m2
c. Uniform distributed load of runways for concrete
transport and impact loads of the crowding of crewmembers: ….. N/m2
d. Concentrated load weight of work crews and transport equipment: ….. N
e. Load from the vibrating effect of the concrete consolidation; ….. N/m2
Note 1: The loads on plywood are usually considered as being uniformly distributed over the entire surface of
the plywood. The concentrated load “d” can by transformed in a uniform distributed load, by dividing it to the
span “l”.
Note 2: This design recommends three basic span conditions for computing the uniform load capacity of
plywood panels. The span may be single span, two-spans or three –span according to the panel’s width.
PLYWOOD PANEL DESIGN
Recommended thickness of plywood (δpanel) is 8 or 15 mm.
When calculating the allowable pressure of concrete on plywood as limited by the
allowable unit stress deflection of the plywood, use the clear span between supports.
a. For 30 cm width panel: q (daN/m)
q l/2 l = 25.2 cm q l/2
Reactions for a simple beam with a uniformly distributed load

Verification for bending stress: Verification for deflection:
The calculation is made for a width of b=1m. The calculation is made for a width of b=1m.
q = (a + b + c) x 1.00 + d/l (N/ml) q = (a + b) x 1.00 m (N/ml)
Where: l = span between supports (25.2 cm) For a rectangular beam subjected to bending
The maximum bending moment that will the applied deflection f can be calculated
occur at the center of the beam, will be form the following equation:
=
calculated as follows: 5 qxl 4
2
M = ql /8 f e x
384 ExI
The applied bending stress must not exceed The applied deflection must not exceed the
σe ≤σa
the allowable bending design stress:
fe ≤ fa
allowable design deflection:
Where: σ e = applied bending stress;

σ a = allowable bending design stress.
Where: f e = applied deflection;
f a = allowable design deflection.
σe = M = ≤σa
fe = ≤ fa =
y M
5 qxl 4 l
I W x
384 ExI 200
M = q x l2/8; 3 4
I = bxh /12 (mm )
W= b x h2/6
h = 8 or 15 mm
h = 8 or 15 mm
E = 7000 (N/mm2)
b. For 60 cm width panel: q (daN/m)
l = 27.6 cm l = 27.6 cm
Reactions for a simple beam with a uniformly distributed load

spanning over three or more equally spaced supports
37

The calculation is made for a width of b=1m. The calculation is made for a width of b=1m.
q = (a + b + c) x 1.00 + d/l (N/ml) q = (a + b) x 1.00 m (N/ml)
Where: l = span between supports (27,6 cm) For a rectangular beam subjected to bending
The maximum bending moment that will the applied deflection f can be calculated
occur at the center of the beam, will be form the following equation:
f e = 0.005 x
calculated as follows: qxl 4
M = ql2/10 ExI
The applied bending stress must not The applied deflection must not exceed the
σe ≤σa
exceed the allowable bending design stress:
fe ≤ fa
allowable design deflection:
Where: σ e = applied bending stress;

σ a = allowable bending design stress.
Where: f e = applied deflection;
f a = allowable design deflection.
σe = M = ≤σa
f e = 0.005 x ≤ fa =
y M
qxl 4 l
I W
ExI 200
M = q x l2/10; 3 4
I = bxh /12 (mm )
W= b x h2/6
h = 8 or 15 mm
h = 8 or 15 mm
E = 7000 (N/mm2)
HORIZONTAL STEEL TELESCOPIC JOIST DESIGN
q Requirement: Spacing of joists under paneling
“d” (m).
15 Joist Loads: q = a + b (N/m2)
From table 3-2, according to the type of joist
used, the load “q” and the span of the joist “D”
the spacing “d” of joists under paneling is given.
H Technical note: If the value “d” is not a
Shore (prop)
common measure of the standard panel length,
the joists will be placed at equidistance, but not
more than “dmax” for the table.
15
Figure 3-7. Typical view of joist and prop
BATTEN (STUD) DESIGN
The design will be made in the most least favorable situation, this will be the design of
the central stud of the 60 cm width plywood panel.
Loads: For verification for bending stress: q = (a + b + c) x l.00 + d/l (N/ml)

For verification of deflection: q = (a + b) x 1.00 m (N/ml)
38
P
q (daN/m)
a. For panel with L = 1.20 m and spacing

h=85 or 92
between joists d = 1.20 m L = 1.20 m
b=48

σ e = x ≤ σ a = 12 N/mm2 fe = ≤ fa =
M 5 qxl 4 l
x
W 384 ExI 200
M= + I=
2 3
qxL PxL bxh
; (mm4)
8 4 12
W= =
bxh 2 4,8x8,5 2 b=48 mm, h = 85 mm
6 6 E = 10000 (N/mm2)
h = thickness of stud 85 or 92 mm
b. For panel with L = 2.40 m and spacing P P
q (daN/m)
between joists d = 1.20 m
L = 1.20 m L = 1.20 m

σe = ≤ σ a = 12 N/mm2 f e = 0,005 x
qxl 4
≤ fa =
M l
W ExI 200
M= + 0,203 x I=
qxL2 PxL bxh 3
; (mm4)
8 4 12
W= =
bxh 2 4,8x8,5 2 b=48 mm, h = 85 mm
6 6 E = 10000 (N/mm2)
P P P
c. For panel with q (daN/m)
L = 2.40 m and spacing
between joists d < 1.20 m L L L

σe = ≤ σ a = 12 N/mm2 f e = 0,007 x
qxl 4
≤ fa =
M l
W ExI 200
M= + 0,175 x I=
qxL2 PxL bxh 3
; (cm4)
8 4 12
W= =
bxh 2 4,8x8,5 2 b=48 mm, h = 85 mm
6 6 E = 10000 (N/mm2)
39
STEEL PIPE SHORE DESIGN

P
Figure 3-8. Schematic view of prop (shore)
P = (a + b + c )xdx (daN)
The design will be made for the most loaded shore.
15
D
2
Where: d – spacing of joists support under the paneling (m);
( )
P − Pmin x(H story − H )
H D – span of telescopic steel joist (m).
The steel pipe shore will be chosen according to the equation:
Pa = Pmax − max ≥ P (daN)

(H max − H min )
15
3.5.2. WALL AND COLUMN FORMWORK DESIGN

INITIAL DESIGN DATA
̇ Member dimensions. Technical note: The design will be made for a wall
̇ Technology of concrete placement. with a thickness grater that 10 cm and respectively a
̇
column with the edge grater that 30 cm.
Rate of concrete placement.
̇ Temperature of concrete.
̇ Workability of concrete (consistency).
̇ Story height H story.
̇ Thickness of slab hslab.
LOADS
f) Static load from lateral pressures due to a particular height of plastic concrete (placed
Pmax = λ 1 xλ 2 xλ 3 xλ 4 xHxρ b (N/m2)

and compacted) according to the rate of placement on the panel’s surface.
Pinf = αxPmax (N/m2)

h p = λ 1 xH
λ1 – coefficient according to work

Where:
conditions.
H – the height of the poured concrete
ρb – unit weight of fresh concrete (2400

(level) (m).
kg/m3).
α - coefficient according to rate of pour.
Technical note: The design will be made for a
plywood sheet of 30 respectively 60 cm width. If
Figure 3-9. Pressure distribution of lateral face of in the design just one of the above panels is used
panel then the design will be made for that one.
The design will be made for a width of panel b = 1,00 m
⎛ p + p inf ⎞
The load is considered uniformly distributed, with the value of:
q = fx1,00 = ⎜ max ⎟ x1,00m (N/ml)
⎝ 2 ⎠
40
PLYWOOD SHEATHING DESIGN

Verification of plywood panel
a. For 30 cm width panel: q (daN/m)
l = 25.2 cm

σe = ≤ σ a = 13 N/mm2 fe =
5 qxl 4
≤ fa =
M l
x
W 384 ExI 200
I=
M = q x l2/8; bxh 3
W = b x h2/6 (mm4)
12
b= 100 cm
b=1.00m, h = 15 mm
h = 8 or 15 mm
E = 7000 (N/mm2)
b. For 60 cm width panel: q (daN/m)
l = 27.6 cm l = 27.6 cm

σe = ≤ σ a =13 N/mm2 f e = 0.005 x ≤ fa =
M qxl 4 l
W ExI 200
I=
M = q x l2/10; bxh 3
W = b x h2/6 (mm4);
12
h = 15 mm b=1.00m, h = 8 or 15 mm
E = 7000 (N/mm2)
D 40 cm STUD DESIGN (DISTANCES BETWEEN
WALES)
D3
C The design will be made in the most least
favorable situation, that is the design of the
D2 central stud of the 60 cm width plywood
pmax B
panel.
D1 The load is uniform distributed, with the
⎛ p + p inf ⎞
A value:
q = fx 0,276 = ⎜ max ⎟ x 0,276m N/ml
pmin 15 cm
Figure 3-10. Pressure of concrete on wall form ⎝ 2 ⎠
10 xσ a xW
σe ≤σa ⇒ ≤σa ⇒D = f e ≤ f a ⇒ 0.007 x ≤ ⇒D = 3

qxD 2 / 8 qxD 4 D ExI
W q ExI 200 1,4 xq
σa = 12 (N/mm2)
I=
bxh 3
(mm4)
W = b x h2 / 6; b = 48 mm; h = 85 mm 12
b=1.0 m; h = 15 mm.
E = 10.000 (N/mm2)
The values will be chosen as follows: D1=Dmax, like the minimum value for “D”
calculated for the verification of resistance and deformation, but not more that 60 cm.
The values for D2 and D3 will be 40% and respectively 60% of the remaining distance
B-D (where B-D = H story – D1 – 0,15 – 0,40 cm).
41
SPACING BETWEEN WALES (DISTANCES BETWEEN TIES)
D 40 cm
pD
q (daN/ml)
D3
pC C
60 cm d d
pmax D2
B
Where:d – distance between ties; pB
D1
D – distances between wales (vertical).
Figure 3-11. Spacing between ties pA A
15 cm
pmin
The wall formwork design will be made according to the lateral pressure of fresh
concrete; this may use the calculation to determine the spacing of wales. It will be assumed
that the first tie will be as close to the bottom of the form as is practical, within 150…200
mm, and that the top tie will be at or near the top.
The values for pA, pB, pC (N/m2) will be calculated according to the known values pmax
and pinf (N/ml).
The wale most stressed will be calculated (wale most near to the highest pressure point
(0,15 + D1) (N/ml)

– point B), with the following equations:
qA = pA x
(D1 + D2) (N/ml) (q + 2xq B + q C )
2
qB = pBx q= A
(D2 + D3) (N/ml)
(N/ml)
2 4
qC = pC x
2
10 xσ a xW
Verification for bending stress:
σe ≤σa ⇒ ≤σa ⇒ d=
qxd 2 / 10
Example of wale (square shape
W q
pipe): 40 x 40 x 3,5 (W=5,73x103 mm3; I=11,50 x104 mm4)
45 x 45 x 4 (W=8,25 x103 mm3; I=18,60 x104 mm4)
55 x 55 x 4 (W=12.9 x103 mm3; I=35,60 x104 mm4)
Verification of deflection:
f e ≤ f a ⇒ 0.007 x ≤ ⇒ d =3 Where: σ = 210 (N/mm2)

qxd 4 d ExI
ExI 200 1,4 xq
E = 210.000 (N/mm2)
deflection. The distance d ≤ dmax, will be adopted according to the formwork design plan, knowing that the tie
Technical note: dmax will be chosen as the minimum value resulted for both the verification of resistance and
will be put only between panels.

TIE DESIGN
Only the most loaded tie will be calculated, that is the one placed nearest to point B
(see figure). The tensile stress on the tie is: T = q x d (N)
Where: d- correct distance between ties, according to formwork design plan.
Aa =
T
; Ra = 2100 (N/mm2)
Ra
The diameter of the tie will be chosen according to Aae ≥ Aanec
42
3.6. EXAMPLE WORKING DRAWINGS

Typical Floor Level Plan Sc.: 1:100
43
Wall Formwork Plan Sc.: 1:100

P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1
P3 P3 P3 P3
P3 P3 P3 P3
P3 P3 P3 P3
P1 P1 P1 P1
P1 P1 P1 P1
P1 P1 P1 P1
P1 P1 P1 P1
P3 P3 P3 P3
P3 P3 P3 P3
P2 P2 P1 P1 P1 P2 P2
P3 P1 P1 P1 P1 P3 P3 P3 P3 P1 P1 P1 P1 P2 P2
P1 P1
P3 P1 P1 P1 P1 P3 P3P1 P3 P3 P1 P1 P1 P1 P2 P2
P3 P3 P1 P1 P3 P3
P3 P3 P3 P3
P3 P3 P3 P3
P1 P1 P1 P1
P1 P1 P1 P1
P1 P1 P1 P1
P1 P1 P1 P1
P3 P3 P3 P3
P2 P2 P2 P2
P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1
P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2
44
Slab Formwork Plan Sc.: 1:100
P1 P7 P1 P7
P2 P8 P2 P8
P2 P8 P2 P8 P8
P6 P6 P6 P6 P5 P5 P6 P6 P6 P6 P6 P5
P3 P3 P3 P3 P2 P2 P3 P3 P3 P3 P3 P2
45
Typical Transverse Cross Section of Shored and Formed Level Sc.: 1:100
Caption: 1. Plywood panel, 2. Strike off joint, 3. Steel joist, 4. Brace, 5. Steel prop, 6. Longitudinal cross bracing, 7. Transverse cross bracing, 8.
Upper horizontal brace, 9. Lower horizontal brace, 10. Prop base plate, 11. Plate washer, 12. Steel wale, 13. Tie rod, 14. Spacer, 15. Nut, 16.
Reinforced concrete wall, 17. Slab, 18. Beam.
46
Typical Longitudinal Cross Section of Shored and Formed Level Sc.: 1:100
Caption: 1. Reinforced slab. 2. Plywood panel, 3. Reinforced wall, 4. Spacer, 5. Tie rod, 6. Wale, 7. Plate washer, 8. Nut, 9. Lumber plank, 10.
Prop base plate, 11. Steel pipe shore, 12. Steel Joist, 13. Transverse cross bracing, 14. Longitudinal cross bracing, 15. Upper horizontal bracing,
16. Lower horizontal bracing, 17. Prop head, 18. Brace.
47
Details of Beam Formwork
a. Girder form details. 1. Girder; 2. Panel end support; b. Spandrel beam form details. 1. Stud; 2. Tie c. Spandrel beam form details. 1.
3. Stringer; 4. Prop; 5. Ledger; 6. Brace; 7. Prop; 8. back; 3. Plywood sheet; 4. Ledger; 5. Joist; 6. Concrete slab, 2. Decking, 3. Joist, 4.
Shore head; 9. Panel sheathing. Slab for sheathing; 7. Tie; 8. Wales; 9. Brace; Ledger, 5. Stud, 6. Kicker, 7. T head,
Source: Andres C., 1998. 10. Ledger; 11. Shore head; 12. Double shores. 8. Brace, 9. Scab, 10. Wale, 11.
Source: Andres C., 1998. Brace, 12. Stud, 13. Brace, 14. Prop.
Source: Peurifoy R., 1996.
48
3.7. STEEL MODULAR PANEL FORMWORK

3.7.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Modular steel panel forms provide several ways to form columns of various shapes
and sizes; they can be combined to form square or rectangular columns. Generally modular
steel panels provide a fast and more accurate column form than job-built forms.
The length of the steel column form is determined be subtracting the thickness of the
bottom of the girder form that the column is to carry from the column height indicated on the
plans or in the column schedule. Once the column forms are in place, they must be plumbed,
braced, and made ready to support the ends of the girder and the beam forms that will be built
to them.
3.7.2. MODULAR STEEL COLUMN FORMWORK
The steel form consists of four panels, of various widths and lengths that are fastened
together at each corner. Yokes, wedge bolts, clips and clamps are used to secure the corners
of the forms.
When positioning the yokes it will be
assumed that the first one will be at the bottom of
the form, and that the top yoke will be at top.
Steel column forms as shown in Figures 3-
10, being available for maximum forming height of
7,20 m and maximum edge of column 95 cm; 2,0
mm steel sheathing produces the finishing of
concrete. This type of formwork is available in
three variants according to the area formed,
respectively Type A – 150 m2, Type B – 300 m2
and Type C – 300 m2.
Figure 3-12. Typical assembly of steel modular panels

Source: IPC, 1977.
49
Table 3-8. Modular steel formwork components

Item Symbol l L H Q
50
Width Length Height Weight o o o o o o o o o o o o
o
(mm) (mm) (mm) (kg)
Panel P1 1190 23,52
H
Panel P2 590 12,44
Panel P3 70 500 290 6,92

o o o o o o o o o o o
Panel P4 100 3,75 o l
L
Short lower yoke * Cb1 750 5 3,39
Long lower yoke ** Cb2 1250 5 5,05
Short middle yoke * Cm1 750 10 3,39
Long middle yoke ** Cm2 70 1250 10 10,12
Short upper yoke * Cs1 750 5 3,39
Long upper yoke ** Cs2 1250 5 5,05
Clips CL1 0,28
Clips CL2 0,28
Clamps K 0,30
Inclined braces S1 min. 11,10

1700
(3000)
S2 max.
3000
(5550)
Scaffold type E75 1000 1000 nx 750

(1500) (1500)
Note 1: *Short yokes will always be used forming columns with widths of max. 500 mm.
**Long yokes will always be used for forming columns with widths of 500 to 950 mm.
Note 2: When the edge of the column is smaller than 500 mm, one single width panel will be used for forming
that particular face of the column;
When the edge of the column is smaller than 950 mm, two panels by width will be used for forming that
particular face of the column.
50
Figure 3-13. Typical E75

scaffold, view and
assembly phases a, b and c
Source: Plesca A., 1998.
Figure 3-14. Assembly phases of

steel modular column
formwork a to g
Source: IPC, 1977.
51
3.7.3. EXAMPLE OF WORKING DRAWING

Steel Modular Column Formwork Erection Plan (Elevation and Cross section)
P1 - 500 x 1190
P1 P1
P1
P1
P1 P1
REFERENCES
3-1 Andres C., Smith R.: Principles and Practices of Heavy Construction. Prentice Hall, USA, 1998.
3-2 Andres C., Smith R., Principles and Practices of Commercial Construction. Prentice Hall, USA, 2003.
3-3 APA. The Engineering Wood Association, 1999. Concrete forming. Design and Construction Guide.
3-4 Chudley R., Building site works, substructure and plant. Longman Scientific and Technical, 1988.
3-5 Chudley R., Advanced Construction Technology. Pearson Education Ltd., England. 1999.
3-7 IPC. Catalog Cofraj metallic stâlpi CMS. 1977.
3-8 Technical Specification. IPC, Steel Modular Column Formwork, 1977.
3-9 Peurifoy R., Oberlender G., Formwork for concrete structures. McGraw-Hill, 1996.
3-10 Plesca A. Manualul dulgherului. Editura Tehnica, 1998.
3-11 Popa R., Teodorescu M.: Cofraje modulate de lemn. ICB, Bucuresti, 1978.
3-12 Teodorescu M., Tsicura A, Ilinoiu G., Îndrumator pentru examenul de licenta la disciplina “Tehnologia
lucrarilor de constructii” UTCB, 1998.
3-13 C11-74. Instructiuni tehnice privind alcatuirea si folosirea in constructii a panourilor din placaj.
52
CHAPTER 4. CONCRETE MATURITY

4.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING CONCRETE MATURITY
Poor curing practices affect the desirable properties of concrete. Proper curing of
concrete is essential to obtain maximum durability, especially if the concrete is exposed to
severe environmental conditions where the surface will be subjected to excessive wear,
aggressive solutions, or severe exposure conditions (such as cyclic freezing and thawing).
Likewise, proper curing is necessary to assure that design strengths are attained.
In-situ concrete curing is perhaps the most critical factor in the concrete construction
process. Sufficient curing is essential if the concrete is to perform its intended function over
the life of the structure. The key word here is “sufficient,” because contractors are sensitive to
the time value of money. Excessive curing time can add to the construction cost of a project
and cause unnecessary delay.
4.2. MATURITY INDEX METHOD
The standard method of evaluating the concrete strength in cast concrete members is
to test specimens for compressive strengths. The main disadvantages are that the results are
not obtained immediately; the concrete in specimens may differ from that in the actual
structure because of different curing and compaction conditions; and that the strength
properties of concrete specimens depend on its size and shape.
An alternative is using the concrete maturity index determination that provides a very
important link in the chain of testing and evaluating in-situ cast concrete.
The maturity method accounts for the effects of temperature on strength development.
It is necessary to understand the temperature sensitivity of the rate of strength development of
different concrete mixtures in order to use this method to account for the effects of
temperature on the minimum required curing duration.
The maturity method is a viable method for determining curing durations under
different temperature conditions. Several studies have shown that the maturity method can be
used to estimate strength gain during concrete curing.
The advantage of the studied maturity method is the fact that the strength
determination does not involve destructive stresses, and because it can be used to estimate the
rate of hardening and strength development of concrete in the early stages in the scope of
determining:
̇ Stripping of forms and the application of load as construction proceeds.
̇ A minimum temperature to prevent freezing during winter concreting operations (to
assure a minimum rate of hydration so that the properties may develop over a reasonably
short time).
̇ Minimum concrete strength required for handling, transport and storage of precast
members.
̇ Minimum concrete strength required for prestressing force release for inducing
precompression.
4.3. MINIMUM DURATION FOR CONCRETE STRENGTH ATTAINMENT
The minimum duration for concrete strength attainment is influenced primarily by the
mix design, environmental, exposure and curing conditions.
The minimum duration of curing is based on the concrete reaching a specified
maturity. Once the specified value is defined, empirical relationships between time, cement
type, water-cement ratio, temperature and concrete grade are used to estimate the minimum
curing duration. Cementitious addition materials have slower reaction of hydration rates than
Portland cement, needing longer curing periods (Table 4-1 and 4-2).
53
Table 4-1 Recommended critical cold weather maturity level for concrete (Mk)
Critical maturity index for concrete (MK) [h O C], (at +20 O C), for different w/c ratio
w/c ratio 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7
CEM II A-S 32.5 850 1 100 1 400 1 620
CEM I 32.5 750 1 000 1 270 1 500
Where: MK - critical maturity index necessary for obtaining a quality concrete before
its complete freezing [hro C];
w/c ratio – water : cement ratio;
CEM II A - S 32.5 – Composite Portland cement
CEM I 32.5 - Ordinary Portland cement
Table 4-2. Recommended striking off maturity level for concrete (Mβ)
Striking off maturity level of concrete (Mβ) [hOC], (at +20 O C), for β= [%]
Hardening level β (%) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
CEM II A - S 32,5 600 880 1290 1880 2760 4050 5930 8700 12700
CEMI 32.5 520 740 1150 1690 2510 3720 5520 8200 12100
Mβ - maturity index necessary for striking off formwork [hro C];
β - rate of concrete hardening, percentage value according to the concrete
Where:
grade.
Figure 4-1 indicates the concrete thermal regime. It represents two characteristic
standard concrete temperature which is varying on a straight line from θi-1 value at the
variants, by discreet separation of the time variable in its steps, Figure 4-1.a., shows the
beginning to θi at the end and the second, Figure 4-1.b., for a concrete that has its freeze
temperature artificially lowered through additives.
Temperature θ [oC] Temperature θ [oC]
+40 +40
+30
+30
θ i-1 θ i-1
+20 +20
θi θi
+10 M θi +10
θ I+1 0 θ I+1
0
Time [hr] Time [hr]
-10
-10
t i-1 tI t I+1 tn t i-1 tI t I+1 tn
tk tk
(a) Normal Concrete (b) With Additives

Figure 4-1. Temperature variation of concrete for different ages and freezing temperatures
For both graphs, the lower datum temperature was considered as –10oC and the upper
datum temperature as +30oC.
4.4. CRITICAL CONCRETE HARDENING LEVEL
minimum temperature θbmin = +1 oC, that represents positive values, and the maximum
The deviation from the “normal step of temperature”, is defined by two limits. The
temperature θbmax = +30 oC, that is obtained according to the cement composition.
Beyond these limits, a series of physical and chemical phenomena appear. These
phenomena have disadvantageous effects on the concrete structure and implicit on the final
strengths that will remain inferiors to those obtained in normal environmental conditions.
54
rate of hardening (βK), in cold weather, the concrete will not be damaged, for this value
If a minimum concrete strength is developed between these limits known as critical
The attainment of the critical rate of hardening (βK), depends on certain factors such as
being defined the critical maturity index MK.
concrete mix design, type of cement, voids volume, water quantity and entrapped air do to
compaction.
4.5. RATE OF CONCRETE HARDENING IN ACCORDANCE WITH ITS
THERMAL HISTORY
The concept of maturity establishes correlations between the rate of hardening, β, and
the maturity index, Mβ, at normal temperature θij, but especially for different cement types
used in the concrete mix.
The maturity index Mβ [hoC], is defined by the content area between the concrete
temperature variation curve and the –10 oC ordinate (datum temperature - theoretical adopted
value for which the chemical reactions stop), on the tβ duration (hr).
The method accuracy regarding the correlation of determination, β - Mβ for the usual
great variations in comparison with the environmental temperature θ. However, the accuracy
cements, highlight the fact that the method accuracy decreases if the concrete temperature has
is improved by the application of kθ method, which establishes correlations between the

concrete hardening level at different temperature steps and the maturity index Mθ.
M θ = M βθ K θ
Kθi - rate constant involving the maturity index assessed at θ'i and that assessed at the
standard laboratory temperature of +20 O C; Mθβ is the maturity strike off index at a specific
temperature θ (see table 4-3).
( )
M = θ i' + 10 K θ t i [hroC]
The concrete maturity index, for time ti will be calculated as follows:
Considering a straight-line variation between θi-1 and θi temperatures, for θ’i:

θ +θi o
θ i' = i −1 [ C]
2
M = ∑ M θ' i kθi =∑ (θ i '+10)t i kθ ≥ M βN respectivelyM kN [hroC]

The maturity index shall be estimated using the relationships:
n n
i =1 i =1
Where: MNβ and MNk are the required maturity index needed for striking off formwork
respectively critical cold weather index.
M 28 = (20 + 10 ) * 28 * 24 * 1,00 = 2016 [hroC]

Example of concrete maturity achieved in normal environmental conditions (+20 oC,
28 days):
4.6. CONCRETE CURING MINIMUM DURATION

Concrete elements should normally be cured for a period not less than that given in
Table 4-4. Depending on the type of cement, the environmental conditions and the
temperature of the concrete, the appropriate period is taken from Table 4-1 and 4-2 or
calculated from the last column of that table. During this period, no part of the surface should
fall below a temperature of 5 °C.
The surface temperature depends upon several factors, including the size and shape of
the section, the cement content of the concrete, the insulation provided by the formwork or
other covering, the temperature of the concrete at the time of placing and the temperature and
55
movement of the surrounding air. If not measured or calculated, the surface temperature
should be assumed equal to the temperature of the surrounding air.
The maturity function, with a datum temperature of -10 °C, is used to establish the
minimum duration of the curing period for surface temperatures between 1 °C and 30 ºC.
Thus the numbers columns of Table 4-3 represent temperature-time factors in ºC×h. These
temperature-time factors depend on the cementitious system and the exposure conditions.
The duration of protection against freezing may be calculated from the maturity of the
concrete. Alternately protection is no longer needed if a compressive strength of 5 N/mm2 is
obtained.
Table 4-3. Values of coefficient kθi of equivalency
Values of coefficient kθi of equivalency for the maturity level assessed at θ'i temperature and
that assessed at the standard temperature of +20 oC
θi θi θi θi θi θi
1...5 6...10 11...15 16...20 21...25 26...30
Kθi Kθi Kθi Kθi Kθi Kθi
1 0,270 6 0,800 11 0,912 16 0,968 21 1,020 26 1,136
2 0,420 7 0,840 12 0,924 17 0,976 22 1,040 27 1,172
3 0,560 8 0,868 13 0,936 18 0,984 23 1,060 28 1,208
4 0,660 9 0,884 14 0,948 19 0,992 24 1,080 29 1,244
5 0,760 10 0,900 15 0,960 20 1,000 25 1,100 30 1,280
A special attention should be given, after form removal, to the structural member
because it will bear the whole design load. The following values of hardening level (β) are
recommended for striking off:
̇ 2,5 N/mm2 – for the lateral parts of the formwork;
̇ 70% of the concrete grade for the bottom formwork parts of slabs and beams, with
spans ≤ 6,0 m;
̇ 85% of the concrete class for the bottom formwork parts of slabs and beams, with a
span > 6,0 m.
The safety props will be removed when the following values of concrete strength
̇ 95 % for reinforced concrete members with spans ≤ 6,00 m;

percentage is achieved:
̇ 112 % for reinforced concrete members with spans between 6,0.... 12,0 m;
̇ 115 % for reinforced concrete members with spans > 12,0 m.
Table 4-4. Striking time for concrete formwork
Minimum duration before striking forms for
given surfaces according to temperature of
Type of concrete surfaces Cement type concrete
Temperature of concrete
10…+5oC +5…+15oC +15…+30oC
Vertical surfaces to columns, CEMIIA–S32,5 2 days 1 day 1 day
walls and beams CEMI 32,5 2 days 1 ½ days 1 day
Soffits to slabs and beams CEMIIA–S32,5 5 days 5 days 3 days
smaller than 6 m length CEMI 32,5 6 days 5 days 4 days
Soffits to slabs and beams CEMIIA–S32,5 6 days 5 days 4 days
grater than 6 m length CEMI 32,5 10 days 8 days 6 days
Props to beams and slabs CEMIIA–S32,5 10 days 8 days 5 days
smaller than 6 m length CEMI 32,5 18 days 14 days 9 days
between 6…12 m length CEMI32,5 21 days 18 days 12 days
grater than 12 m length CEMI 32,5 36 days 28 days 18 days
56
4.7. EXAMPLE
Assume a reinforced concrete slab, with the span of 6 m, concrete grade C 15/12
batched with the following: cement type CEM II A – S 32,5, water: cement ratio w/c=0,50.
Calculate: (a). after how many days the slab formwork can be removed, and (b) if the
concrete will freeze, in the second day after casting, in the possibility of a cold weather front
arriving.
The temperature variation of the concrete in this time interval is as follows:
Day Time of temperature reading [h] Temperature [OC]
7 12
1 12 19
18 20
21 18
8 12
2 15 21
20 18
7 11
3 14 18
18 17
8 12
4 15 20
21 17
Table 4-5. Control chart for calculating the concrete maturity index
Day Time of Concrete temperature kθi Time M θi xkθi [hroC]
o
Measured θi Mean θ’i

no. temperature ( C) interval
reading between Simple Cumulus
readings ti
[h]
1 7 o’clock 12 - - - - -
15.5 0.964 5 123 123
12 19
19.5 0.996 6 176 299
18 20
19 0.992 3 86 385
21 18
15 0.960 11 264 649
2 8 12
16.5 0.972 7 180 829
15 21
19.5 0.996 5 147 976
20 18
14.5 0.954 11 257 1233
3 7 11
14.5 0.954 7 164 1397
14 18
17.5 0.980 4 108 1505
18 17
14.5 0.954 14 327 1832
4 8 12
16.0 0.968 7 176 2008
15 20
18.5 0.988 6 169 2177
57
t k = ∑ t = 86 hours
21 17
n
i =1
a. The maturity index required for formwork removal will be attained at 2008 [hOC].
According to cement type (II A – S 32,5) and the desired hardening level β = 40 %, results the
maturity index of minimum Mβ = 1880 hoC.
The maturity index corresponding to the hardening degree level β = 40 %, will be achieved in
the 4 th day, and it will have the following value: Mef = 2008 [hoC] > Mβ = 1880 [hoC].
b. In the second day after casting, in the possibility of a cold weather front arriving, the
concrete will not be deteriorated do to freezing, because Mef = 1233 [hoC] > Mk = 1100
[hoC].
REFERENCES
4-1 Ilinoiu G., Testing hardened concrete using the maturity concept. Dimensi Teknik Sipil, Indonesia.
Research Center of Petra Christian University. Vol. 5, no. 1, March 2003.
4-2 Ilinoiu G., Noi concepte in studiul si cercetarea maturităţii betonului. Construcţii Civile şi Industriale.
Anul V, Nr. 49, Ianuarie - Februarie 2004, pag. 9-11.
4-3 Ilinoiu G., Budan Ctin, Potorac B., Concrete maturity index determination. SELC XV Piatra Neamt
October 2003, pp. 8-12.
4-5 Fiorato A. E., Burg R. G. and Gaynor R. D., Effects of Conditioning on Measured Compressive Strength
of Concrete Cores. Concrete Technology Today. No. 3, Vol. 21, 2000;
4-6 Meeks K.W., Carino N.J., Curing of High-Performance Concrete: Report of the State-of-the-Art. NISTIR
6295, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, March 1999.
4-7 Swenson E.G., Durability of concrete under winter conditions. CBD-116.
4-8 Teodorescu, M., Ilinoiu G., Concrete maturity. Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest,
1997.
4-9 Trelea A. Mathematics modeling of the concrete thermal regime, Proceedings International Symposium
15-16 Oct. Cluj-Napoca Romania. Vol. 1. 1993.
4-10 ENV 206, 1990., Concrete Performance, Production, Placing and Compliance Criteria. European
Committee for Standardization.
4-11 C 16-1984. Normativ pentru realizarea pe timp friguros a lucrărilor de construcţii şi a instalaţiilor aferente;
4-14 U 6-78. Normativ privind lucrul utilajelor de constructii pe timp friguros.
4-15 NE 012-1999. Practice code for the execution of concrete, reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete
works, Part 1 – Concrete and reinforced concrete.
58
CHAPTER 5. ESTIMATES
This chapter establishes uniform guidance in describing methods, procedures, and
formats for the preparation of construction cost estimates construction projects from planning
phases through modification estimates during concrete construction.
Estimating is a process that begins in the early stages of a project and ends when the
project is turned over to the owner.
Each estimate should be developed as accurately as possible, in as much detail as can
be assumed, and be based upon the best information available regarding actual costs of
construction. This objective is to be maintained so that, at all stages of the project design and
during construction, the cost estimate will in all aspects represent the "fair and reasonable"
cost to the owner guiding him in design decisions.
5.2. TYPES OF ESTIMATES
The main types of estimating concrete structures are: rough estimating and detailed
estimating divided into estimating during design stage and estimating during construction
stage.
5.2.1. ROUGH ESTIMATING
During the design stage, very little is known about the actual project, to estimate such
projects only on descriptions and conceptual sketches rough estimating is used. The variants
of this type of estimating are (LaLonde, Janes):
1. Square meter of floor-area estimates / Cubic meter of volume estimates.
2. Average-component estimates.
3. Use-unit estimates.
It should be mentioned that rough estimating is usually used in the conceptual stages
of a project, when very little is known about specifics. The advantage is that it can be
calculated very quickly, the disadvantage being its accuracy of plus or minus 15 to 20%.
1. Square meter of floor-area method / Cubic meter of volume method, calculates the
number of square meters (cubic meters) of floor area or building volumes after which and a
unit cost per square meter (cubic meters) is used as a multiplying factor. This unit cost may be
for the entire structure including the basement and roof or only for those floors that are
essentially similar, after which a separate unit price would be assigned to the nonconforming
areas. When deciding on what this unit price shall be, the estimator has several alternatives:
̇ Take into consideration the actual as-built cost figures for past projects. With a notation
that new factors should be anticipated such as: used of new technologies, marketplace
demand on material and labor, quantities of materials, bargaining agreements, level of
quality and even requirements for completion.
̇ Take into consideration cost data published or announced for other like structures. Some
publications such as the “Norme de Consum Orientative pe Articole de Deviz pentru
Lucrări de Construcţii” (Item tabulations of material consumption and labor costs for
construction works) publish cost indices and recent percentage figures on price trends.
But sometime they can be misleading, or incomplete and should be studied with
considerable care, do to the fact that costs can change rapidly during periods of inflation
and deflation.
2. Average-component method, calculates unit costs for sections of work, such as bays or
even spans, after which the calculated cost is applied to every other similar section. The
advantage of this method is the fact that it allows economies do to construction repetitious
59
and increased volume of works. This method is usually used for buildings, apartments, office
buildings, warehouses, and the flat-slab type of construction.
3. Use-unit method is applicable to stadiums, theatres, apartment houses, and office
buildings. This method considers that groups of seats, single rooms, or entire suites of rooms
are repetitive. Which means that when taking into consideration two identical structures as
function, but different as size, the cost per room/suite/seat/ bed for a hospital/ pupil for a
school etc., for the larger structure will be for example with 20 per cent or 25 per cent more.
Very often rough estimates are made before detailed plans or specifications have been
prepared. The greatest use of such rough estimates should be primarily as guide figures to be
given to an owner or to an architect to help them decide whether a job should be commenced.
These rough estimates will also indicate to them the necessity of trimming certain items to fit
the available money or show the possibility of including additional features which had
previously been ruled out as being beyond their financial limit. Furthermore, as a rough
estimate will also help pick up any gross errors in a detailed estimate.
5.2.2. DETAILED ESTIMATE
Once all design documents are completed, companies interested in performing the
work price the project. This estimate is the most detailed and the most important.
The main five major divisions are incorporated in a detailed estimate for a reinforced-
concrete structure, are: formwork, concrete, reinforcing steel, finishing and administration
(LaLonde, Janes).
Table 5-1. Estimate schedule
% of
Unit cost Total cost Sub-
Item no. Item Dimensions No. Quantity Unit
Total
Labor Material Labor Material
1.0. Foundations
2.0. Substructure
3.0. Superstructure
3.1 Columns m3
3.2 Bearing
walls
3.3 Slabs
3.4 Beams
4.0. Exterior closure
5.0. Roofing
6.0. Interior construction
7.0. Conveying
8.0. Mechanical
9.0. Electrical
10.0. Special construction
11.0. Site work
Sub-total
Contractor fees
The quantity take-off is made from the plans either by tallying dimensions (preferable)
or by direct scaling. The most common mistakes to be avoided are the repetition of
something previously included and the failure to multiply identical elements by the correct
total number of such elements.
60
When starting an estimate all plans and technical specifications must be carefully
studied so that the estimator is thoroughly familiar with the particular job. At all times, the
estimator must keep a mental image of the completed structure so that he may visualize
structural details, materials used or reused, for maximum economy.
The entries in tabulated of each item (Table 5-1) will be properly identified so that
changes of addition or deletion may be easily accomplished at a later date. Checking for
completeness will also be facilitated. All dimensions should be listed in a uniform sequence
such as length, width, and height in all entries so that no time is devoted to attempted
recognition of what certain figures mean.
BASICS FOR PREPARATION OF ESTIMATES
Estimate preparation will be made in a normal sequence of events as works
commence.
Construction cost estimates consist of:
1. Descriptions of work elements to be accomplished (tasks).
2. A quantity of work required for each task.
3. A cost for each task quantity (price sources).
A unit cost for each task is developed to increase the accuracy of the estimating
procedure and should provide a reference comparison to historic experience.
Degree of Detail. All cost estimates will be prepared on the basis of calculated
quantities and unit prices that are commensurate with the degree of detail of the design known
or assumed. This is accomplished by separating construction into its incremental parts. These
parts are commonly referred to as construction tasks and are the line-by-line listings of every
estimate. Each task is then defined and priced as accurately as possible. Tasks are seldom
spelled out in the contract documents, but are necessary for evaluating the requirements and
developing their cost.
At the most detailed level, each task is usually related to and performed by a crew.
The cost engineer develops the task description by defining the type of effort or item to be
constructed. Task descriptions should be as complete and accurate as possible to lend
credibility to the estimate and aid in later review and analysis.
Quantities. The quantity “take-off” is an important part of the cost estimate. It must
be as accurate as possible, and should be based on all available engineering and design data.
After the scope has been analyzed and broken down into the construction tasks, each
task must be quantified prior to pricing. Equal emphasis should be placed on both accurate
quantity calculation and accurate pricing. Quantities should be shown in standard units of
measure and should be consistent with design units (kg, m, m2, m3, t).
The detail to which the quantities are prepared for each task is dependent on the level
of design detail. Quantity calculations beyond design details are often necessary to determine
a reasonable price to complete the overall scope of work for the cost estimate.
Formwork is usually estimated by assigning a unit price per square meter of contact
area of forms against concrete. The unit price may be such that only the material is involved
and the erection is covered separately, or it may include the actual cost of purchasing the
material, fabrication of forms, cost of erection, bracing, staging, nails, bolts, ties, wires, oiling
for release and stripping.
In arriving at the final figure, it must be kept in mind that reuse of forms is feasible in
most cases. A good proportion of the lumber, plywood etc. may still be reused and will have a
marketable value.
Concrete. Dividing the work into items, such as: foundations, walls, columns and
beams will help you conveniently estimate the concrete. In addition, it is well to list the
different items in each division in the approximate order in which they will be constructed.
61
Each different mixture of concrete will have a different cost per cubic meter, making it
desirable to keep each strength under a separate heading. The cost per cubic meter may be
determined by requesting bids from the various supply sources.
The cubic meter method usually estimates concrete. Normally, no deductions are
made for holes or inserts unless the cross-sectional area of the material to be deducted is a
substantial figure.
Reinforcing Steel. If the structural design is complete and all details of bends,
dimensions, and hooks are shown, then estimates are made on that basis. Reinforcing steel is
priced per kilogram or ton of steel. The take off sheet must show the total number of linear
meters of each bar size and its type, description, and location the structure. It must clearly
distinguish among straight and bent bars and spirals.
The unit cost will include the freight costs of shipping, storage on the job, manner of
bundling, length, order of use (so as to keep storage coats down), cost of wire brushing, costs
of cutting, bending, and placing of rods and tying at every intersection, finally positioning,
and testing of selected samples to ensure correct supplying by the mill.
5.3. EXAMPLE OF PROJECT ESTIMATES
5.3.1. ESTIMATE QUANTITY OF MATERIALS, LABOR AND COST FOR
CONCRETE, REINFORCEMENT AND FORMWORK
B1 B2 30
B3 2,25
30
30 8,20
30
hslab
15 B4 a
5,25
B1 B2 30
25 3,80 25 4,05 25
8,60
INITIAL DATA: H level = 2.85 m

h slab = 12 cm
h beam = 30 cm
S built area = ∑ A level

BUILT AREA
built
S slab
builtarea = 3,8 x 2,25 + 4,05 x 2,25 + 3,8 x 5,25 + 4,05 x 5,25 =
= 8,55 + 9,11 + 19,95 + 21,26 = 58,87 m2
2
S slab
builtarea =58,87 m
62
wall
S builtarea = 2 x 8,20 x 0,25 + 4 x 0,15 x 0,20 + 8,10 x 0,30 + 0,30 x 0,25 =
= 4,1 + 0,12 + 2,43 + 0,075 = 6,725 m2. wall
S builtarea =6,725 m2
S column
builtarea = 2 x 0,40 x 0,20 = 0,16 m2
2
S column
builtarea = 0,16 m
S beam
builtarea = 2 x 3,8 x 0,3 + 2x 4,05 x 0,3 + 1,95 x 0,25 + 4,95 x 0,25 == 6,44 m2
∑A
2
S beam
builtarea = 6,44 m
S built area = nivel

constr . = S slab wall column beam
builtarea + S builtarea + S builtarea + S builtarea =
= 58,87 mp + 6,725 mp + 0,16 mp + 6,44 mp = 72,19 m2

S built area = 72,19 m2
CONCRETE VOLUME
V slab
concrete =S slab
builtarea x h pl = 58,87 x 0,12 = 7,06 m3 concrete slab
V concrete =7,06 m3 concrete
wall
V concrete wall
= S builtarea x H level = 6,73 x 2,85 = 19,18 m3 concrete
wall
V concrete = 19,18m3 concrete
beam 3 3
V concrete = S beam
builtarea x h beam = 6,44 x 0,30 = 1,93 m concrete V beam
concrete =1,93 m concrete
3 3
V column column
concrete = S builtarea x H level = 0,16 x 2,85 = 0.45 m concrete V column
concrete =0.45 m concrete
total
V concrete = 7,06 + 19,18 + 1,93 + 0,45 = 28,63 m3 concrete
total
V beton = 28,63 m3 concrete
Vconcrete
CONCRETE ESTIMATE: I concrete = (m3. concrete / m2 built area)
Sbuilt area
Vconcrete 28,63
I concrete = = = 0,396 (m3 concrete / m2 built area)
Abuiltarea. 72,19
I concrete = 0,396 (m3. concrete / m2 built area)
Wre inf orcement
REINFORCEMENT ESTIMATE: I reinforcement = (kg/m2 built area)
Sbuilt area
Wre inf orcement _ columns
Columns I reinforcement columns = [kg / m2 built area]
Sbuilt area
Wre inf orcement _ columns
I ‘reinforcement columns = [kg / m3. concrete]
Vconcrete _ columns
Wre inf orcement _ beams
Beams I reinforcement beams = [kg / m2 built area]
Sbuilt area
Wre inf orcement _ beams
I ‘reinforcement beams = [kg / m3. concrete]
Vconcrete _ beams
Wre inf orcement _ slabs
Slabs I reinforcement slabs = [kg / m2 built area]
Sbuilt area
Wre inf orcement _ slabs
I ‘reinforcement slabs = [kg / m3. concrete]
Vconcrete _ slabs
Wre inf orcement _ walls
Walls I reinforcement walls = [kg / m2 built area]
Sbuilt area
63
Wre inf orcement _ walls

I ‘reinforcement walls = [kg / m3. concrete]
Vconcrete _ walls
I total reinforcement = I reinforcement columns + I reinforcement beams + I
reinforcement slabs + I reinforcement walls
Sformwork
FORMWORK ESTIMATE: I formwork = (m2. formwork / m2 built area)
Sbuilt area.
Sformwork S columnt + S beam + S slab + S wall

I formwork = I column formwork + I beam formwork + I slab formwork + I wall formwork
I formwork = = (m3 concrete / m2 built area)
Sbuiltarea S builtarea
S columns = 4 x 0,40 x 2,85 + 4x 0,20 x 2,85 =
= 4,56 + 2,28 = 6,84 m2 S columns = 6,84 m2 column form
S beams 2 x G1 = 4 x 0,30 x 3,80 + 2 x 0,20 x 3,80 = 6,08
2 x G2 = 4 x 3,30 x 4,05 + 2 x 0,20 x 4,05 = 6,48
1 x G3 = 2 x 0,30 x 2,25 + 1 x 0,25 x 2,25 = 1,91
1 x G4 = 2 x 0,30 x 5,25 + 1 x 0,25 x 2,25 = 3,71
S beams = 6,08 + 6,48 + 1,91 + 3,71 = 18,18 m2 S beams = 18,18 m2 beam form
Slab 1 = 25 x 3,8 = 8,55
Slab 2 = 2,25 x 4,05 = 9,11
Slab 3 = 3,8 x 5,25 = 19,95
Slab 4 = 4,05 x 5,25 = 21,26
S slab = 8,55 + 9,11 + 19,95 + 21,26 = 58,87 m2 S slab = 58,87 m2 slab form
S wall = 4 x 7,80 x 2,85 + 4 x 0,25 x 2,85 + 8 x 0,15 x 2,85 + 4 x 0,20 x 2,85 +
+ 2 x 8,10 x 2,85 + 4 x 2,85 x 0,30 + 2 x 2,85 x 0,25 =
= 88,92 + 2,85 + 3,42 + 2,28 + 46,17 + 3,42 + 1,43 =
= 148,48 m2 wall form S wall = 148,48 m2 wall form
I formwork = I formwork columns + I formwork beams + I formwork slabs +
+ S beams + S slabs + S walls

+I formwork walls
Sformwork S
I formwork = = columns (m2. formwork/ m2. built area)
Sbuilt area. S built
area
Sformwork _ columns 6,84

I formwork columns = = = 0,095
Sbuilt area. 72,19
Sformwork _ beams 18,18
I formwork beams = = = 0,252
Sbuilt area. 72,19
Sformwork _ slabs 58,87
I formwork slabs = = = 0,815
Sbuilt area. 72,19
Sformwork _ walls 148,48
I formwork walls = = = 2,056
Sbuilt area. 72,19
I total formwork = 3,22 m2. formwork / m2 built area
5.3.2. ESTIMATE CALCULATION OF LABOR CONSUMPTION FOR CONCRETE,
REINFORCEMENT AND FORMWORK PLACEMENT
CONCRETE (class C 20/15 - Cod C)
Cod C – Total labor hours required for placing concrete in slabs, beams, columns for
constructions with heights of maximum 35 m - 7.8 hr / m3. concrete.
I concrete = 0,4356 (m3 concrete / m2 built area) x (7,8) h/ mc = 3.397 man h./m2 built area
I concrete = 3,4 man h/ sq. m built area
64
FORMWORK
Cod D - Total labor hours required for erection of reusable plywood panels with sheathing of
15 mm thickness for placing concrete in partition walls and bearing walls for constructions
up to 20 m height - 0,95 hr / m2. panel;
Cod E - Total labor hours required for erection of reusable plywood panels with sheathing of
15 mm thickness for placing concrete in slabs and beams for constructions up to 20 m height
- 1,1 hr / m2. panel;
Cod F - Total labor hours required for erection of reusable plywood panels with sheathing of
15 mm thickness for placing concrete in columns and frames for constructions up to 20 m -
1,25 ore / m2. panel;
I formwork = I formwork columns x 1,25 + I formwork beams x 1,1 + I formwork slabs x 1,1
+ I formwork walls x 0,95 = 0,095 x 1,25 + 0,252 x 1,1 + 0,815 x 1,1 +2,056 x 0,95 =
= 0,118 + 0,277 + 0,896 + 1,953 = = 3,244 h/ m2 built area
I formwork = 3,244 man hour/ m2 built area
If rate of progress is needed to be calculated, it will be computed according to crew size
(number workers) and time (man hours), using the following equation:
Rate..of .. progress =
x(m 2 )
y (manhr )
5.4. ITEM TABULATIONS OF MATERIAL CONSUMPTION AND LABOR
COSTS FOR CONSTRUCTION WORKS
Table 5-2. Concrete
Concrete placed in slabs, beams, columns for structures with heights up to 35 m.
A – mix and placement of concrete class C8/10;
B – ditto, class C 12/15;
C – ditto, class C 16/20;
D – ditto, class C 18/22,5;
E – ditto, class C 25/30;
F – placement of concrete class (1) in slabs, beams and columns.
Measured in cubic meter.
Item unit Quantity
A B C D E F
Materials
Concrete class 1) m3 1,03 1,03 1,03 1,03 1,03 1,03
Cement 2) kg 283 330 376 422 469 -
Graded sand unwashed m3 0,67 0,66 0,65 0,64 0,63 -
Coarse aggregate sieved, m3 0,62 0,61 0,6 0,59 0,58 -
washed and graded
Water m3 0,28 0,29 0,3 0,31 0,32 0,1
Small size materials % 5 5 5 5 5 5
(lumber planks, nails)
Labor
Skilled worker hr 5,07 5,07 5,07 5,07 5,07 3,72
Unskilled worker hr 2,73 2,73 2,73 2,73 2,73 2,73
Total hr 7,8 7,8 7,8 7,8 7,8 6,45
Equipment
Poker vibrator hr 0,7 0,7 0,7 0,7 0,7 0,7
Concrete mix truck 250l hr 0,325 0,325 0,325 0,325 0,325 -
Crane 3) hr 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,3
Corrections
01. heights greater than 35 m.
Increase:
65
Item unit Quantity

A B C D E F
Labor
Unskilled worker hr 0,4 0,4 0,4 0,4 0,4 0,4
Equipment
Crane 3) hr 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05
02. concrete without finishing
Increase:
Item unit Quantity
A B C D E F
Labor
Equipment
1) the concrete class will be specified;
2) the cement grade will be specified;
3) the type of crane will be specified.
Concrete placed in walls of any kind up to the height of 35 m
A – mix and placement of concrete class C8/10;
B – ditto, class C 12/15;
C – ditto, class C 16/20;
D – ditto, class C 18/22,5;
E – mix and placement of concrete class (1) in walls of any kind;
F – mix and placement in round walls, cylindrical reservoirs, cylindrical tanks, water towers, etc. C12/15;
G – ditto, class C 16/20;
H – ditto, class C 18/22,5;
I – ditto, class C 25/30;
J – placement concrete class 1) in circular walls, cylindrical reservoir walls, cylindrical tanks, water towers, etc.;
Measured in cubic meter.
Item unit Quantity
A B C D E F G H I J
Materials
Concrete class1) m3 1,03 1,03 1,03 1,03 1,03 1,03 1,03 1,03 1,03 1,03
Cement 2) kg 283 330 376 422 - 330 376 422 469 -

Graded sand m3 0,67 0,66 0,65 0,64 - 0,66 0,65 0,64 0,63 -
unwashed
Coarse m3 0,62 0,61 0,6 0,59 - 0,61 0,6 0,59 0,58 -
aggregate
sieved, washed
and graded
Water m3 0,28 0,29 0,3 0,31 0,1 0,29 0,3 0,31 0,3 0,1
Small size % 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
materials
(lumber planks,
nails)
Labor
Skilled worker hr 4,55 4,55 4,55 4,55 3,2 5,2 5,2 5,2 5,2 3,85
Unskilled hr 2,45 2,45 2,45 2,45 2,45 2,8 2,8 2,8 2,8 2,8
worker
Total hr 7 7 7 7 5,56 8 8 8 8 6,65
Equipment
Poker vibrator hr 0,6 0,6 0,6 0,6 0,6 0,6 0,6 0,6 0,6 0,6
Concrete mix hr 0,325 0,325 0,325 0,325 - 0,325 0,325 0,325 0,325 -
truck 250l
Crane 3) hr 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,3
66
Corrections
01. heights greater than 35 m.
Increase:
Item unit Quantity
A B C D E F G H I J
Labor
Unskilled worker hr 0,4 0,4 0,4 0,4 0,4 0,4 0,4 0,4 0,4 0,4
Equipment
Crane 3) hr 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05
02. for concrete without finishing.
Increase:
Item unit Quantity
A B C D E F G H I J
Labor
Equipment
1) the concrete class will be specified;
2) the cement grade will be specified;
3) the type of crane will be specified.
Table 5-3. Formwork
Reusable 15 mm thickness plywood forms for placing concrete in:
A – pedestals, cup-shaped and machinery footings, and bracings;
B – straight wall elevations up to 6 m height;
C - curb wall elevations up to 6 m height;
D – partition walls and bearing walls up to 20 m height ;
E – slabs and beams for constructions up to 20 m height;
F – columns and frames for constructions up to 20 m height;
G – aqueducts, channels and annexes;
H – joints between wall panels;
I – the extremities of members that are supported by columns, beams, arches, trusses etc., and for the concreting
of the extremities of prefabricated beams;
J – exterior tie beams.
Measured in cubic meters.
Item uni Quantity
t A B C D E F G H I J
Materials
Plywood panel with m2 0,09 0,11 0,11 0,11 0,13 0,15 0,09 - - 0,18
sheathing of 15 mm
thickness
Lumber planks m3 0,00035 0,001 0,001 0,001 0,001 0,0015 0,0005 0,002 0,004 0,001
Round wood m3 0,0005 0,0015 0,0017 0,0015 - - 0,007 - - -
sections
Base plate m3 - 0,001 0,002 0,001 0,001 0,001 0,002 0,002 0,002 0,001
Release agents kg 0,12 0,12 0,12 0,12 0,12 0,12 0,12 0,12 0,12 0,12
Column formwork kg - - - - - 0,08 - - - -
steel yokes
Plywood veneer type m3 - - - - - - - 0,0025 0,004 0,0005
P 15 mm thickness
Accessories % 8 8 9 8 3 13 8 9 15 6
Labor
Carpenter hr 1 0,8 1,52 0,77 0,94 1 1,32 1,5 1,88 1,28
TOTAL hr 1,1 0,95 1,7 0,95 1,1 1,25 1,5 1,6 2 1,45
Equipment
Crane 1) hr - - - 0,02 0,02 0,02 - 0,002 0,002 0,02
67
Corrections
01. structures with heights of H = 20-35 m.
Increase:
Item unit Quantity
A B C D E F G H I J
Labor
Carpenter hr - - - 0,03 0,04 0,05 - - - 0,05
Equipment
Crane 1) hr - - 0,02 0,002 0,002 0,002 - - - 0,002
02. for constructions with heights of H = 35 – 60 m.
Increase:
Item unit Quantity
A B C D E F G H I J
Labor
Carpenter hr - - - 0,05 0,06 0,06 - - - 0,06
Equipment
Crane 1) hr - - 0,0025 0,0025 0,0025 0,0025 - - - 0,0025
03. for constructions with heights of H = 60…80 m.
Increase:
Item unit Quantity
A B C D E F G H I J
Labor
Carpenter hr - - - 0,07 0,08 0,08 - - - 0,08
Equipment
Crane 1) hr - - 0,003 0,003 0,003 0,003 - - - 0,003
1) the characteristics of machinery will be specified.
Shores (props) for telescopic steel joists used for casting isolated beams, for slabs with monolithic beams and for
normal slabs with total loads on formwork of maximum 5000 daN /mp (500 kgf/mp), shores for structures with
heights up to 20 m including beams supported on steel props positioned at 1,0 m.
A – telescopic joists GE 1 (3-5 m);
B - telescopic joists GE 2 (4-6 m);
C - telescopic joists GE 3 (6-9 m).
Other types of props are included separately.
Measured on m2 of slab.
Item unit Quantity
A B C
Materials
Wooden battens m3 0,0001 0,0001 0,0001
Telescopic steel joist GE 1 (3-5 m) kg 0,07 - -
Telescopic steel joist GE 1 (4-6 m) kg - 0,09 -
Telescopic steel joist GE 1 (6-9 m) kg - - 0,1
Labor
Carpenter hr 0,52 0,42 0,3
Unskilled worker hr 0,10 0,13 0,1
Total hr 0,7 0,55 0,4
Equipment
carne 1) ore 0,01 0,008 0,005
01. When telescopic steel beams are supported directly on walls or form panels for walls.
Decrees:
Item unit Quantity
A B C
Labor
02. Structures with heights of 20-35 m.
Increase:
Item unit Quantity
A B C
Labor
68

Equipment
Crane 1) hr 0,005 0,004 0,003
03. Structures with heights of 35 - 60 m.
Increase:
Item unit Quantity
A B C
Labor
Equipment
Crane 1) hr 0,008 0,006 0,004
04. Structures with heights of 60 –80 m.
Increase:
Item unit Quantity
A B C
Labor
Equipment
Crane 1) hr 0,01 0,008 0,006
Shores with telescopic props, used for erection of prefabricated slabs with and without loops, for precast cast in
place slabs, for casting monolitical slabs with precast slabs A – type PE 3100R; B – type PE 5100 R.
Measured in units.
Item unit Quantity
A B
Materials
Steel prop PE 3100 R hr 0,25 -
Steel prop PE 5100 R hr - 0,41
Wooden battens m3 0,0005 0,0005
Labor
Carpenter hr 0,3 0,38
Unskilled worker hr 0,15 0,2
Total hr 0,45 0,58
Table 5-4. Reinforcement
Fabrication and erection of steel reinforcement in structural members:
A – walls, bent bars with diameters up to 8 mm inclusive;
B – ditto, with diameters over 8 mm;
C – beams and columns, bend bars with diameters up to 8 mm inclusive;
D – ditto, with diameters over 8 mm;
E – slabs, bent bars with diameters up to 8 mm inclusive;
F - ditto, with diameters over 8 mm;
G – special constructions (reservoirs, water towers, bins, barrel vault structures, trusses, thin plated roofs, etc.)
bent bars with diameters up to 8 mm inclusive;
H – ditto, with diameters over 8 mm;
I – creating monolitical continuance for linear members (beams, columns, frames, etc.);
J – aqueducts, channels and annexes.
Measured in kilograms.
Item unit Quantity
A B C D E F G H I J
Materials
Steel type 1) kg 1,03 1,03 1,03 1,03 1,03 1,03 1,03 1,03 1,03 1,03
Normal wire D=1,25mm kg 0,1 0,1 0,1 0,1 0,1 0,1 0,1 0,1 0,1 0,1
Spacers 2) no. 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,25 0,25 0,25 0,25
Labor
Ironworker hr 0,085 0,07 0,09 0,065 0,075 0,06 0,11 0,09 0,215 0,075
Total hr 0,095 0,08 0,1 0,075 0,085 0,07 0,12 0,1 0,23 0,085
Equipment
Crane 3) hr 0,001 0,001 0,001 0,001 0,001 0,001 0,001 0,001 0,001 -
69
type of steel, type of spacer (plastic or mortar) and crane characteristics will be specified.
Welded mesh reinforcement for constructions up to 35 m, placed in: A – partition walls and bearing walls; B –
slabs; C – special constructions.
Measured in kilograms
Item unit Quantity
A B C
Materials
Wire meshes for reinforcing concrete 3) kg 1 1 1
Wire D=1,25 mm kg 0,01 0,01 0,01
Spacers 2) no. 0,3 0,3 0,3
Steel type 1) kg 0,01 0,01 0,01
Labor
Iron worker hr 0,035 0,03 0,045
Unskilled worker hr 0,005 0,005 0,005
Total 0,04 0,035 0,05
Equipment
Crane 4) hr 0,001 0,001 0,001
type of steel (> 8 mm), type of spacer (plastic or mortar), type of steel and diameter of main mesh bars and crane
characteristics will be specified.
REFERENCES
5-1 Gould F., Joyce N. Construction Project Management. Second Edition. Prentice Hall, 2003.
5-2 La Londe W., Janes M., Concrete Engineering handbook. McGraw-Hill Company Inc., 1961.
5-3 Nunnally S.W. Construction Methods and Management. Sixth Edition. Prentice Hall, 2003.
5-4 Mueller fr., Integrated cost and schedule control for construction projects. Van Nostrand Reinhold
Company, 1986.
5-5 Ridloff R., A practical guide to construction lending. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1986.
5-6 US Army Corps of Engineers. Directorate of Military Programs Engineering Division. Architectural and
engineering instructions for cost control during design (Design-to-Cost), 1996.
5-7 US Army Corps of Engineers. Directorate of Military Programs Engineering Division. Engineering
Instructions. Construction Cost Estimates. EI 01D010, 1997.
70
CHAPTER 6. CONCRETE WAREHOUSE STRUCTURAL FRAME

ERECTION
Precast-concrete construction is based upon good practical planning along with mass-
production methods. A successful design is one that uses a minimum number of assembly
elements, having least erection weight and the greatest strength per unit weight of framing. It
requires a complete design of connection details and an investigation of stresses involved in
the sequence of erection, which will influence the framing and design of the elements.
Generally, it is essential that the number of various shapes and sizes of the precast
elements be kept to a minimum. This allows maximum reuse of the moulds and reduces
forming, casting, and handling costs.
The layout of the frames and enclosures is controlled by the available handling and
erection equipment. While lifting capacity is always a factor, the maneuverability of the
equipment within the building area may be facilitated by changes in column spacing, direction
of main framing, or erection sequences.
Advantages of precast-concrete construction: speed of construction, optimum use of
materials, controlled production conditions, and economy do to the fact that the materials can
be better utilized and wastage can be kept to a minimum.
Limitations of precast-concrete construction: lack of flexibility and if precast units are
small in quantity, the construction cost will be high, while storage and transportation of
precast units can also be a problem for construction sites located in congested urban areas.
Figure 6-1. Transverse girder beam warehouse

Caption: 1. Cup foundation, 2. Edge column with corbel to support bridge beam, 3. Central column
with or without corbel, 4. Edge column without corbel, 5. Foundation beam, 6. Bridge beam, 7.
Transverse girder beam L= 12, 15, 18, 21 and 24 m span, 8. Roof slabs (1,5x6 m), 9. External cladding
ACC or sandwich prefabricated panel (polystyrene and ACC), 10. ACC blocks, 11. Mineral wool
plates/ ACC plates, 12. Mineral wool plates, 13. Heavy traffic concrete plates, 14. Pedestrian concrete
plates. Source: MACON S.A.
71
Figure 6-2. Longitudinal girder beam warehouse.

Caption: 1. Cup foundation, 2. Edge column with corbel to support bridge beam, 3. Central column
with or without corbel, 4. Edge column without corbel, 5. Foundation beam, 6. Bridge beam, 7. Eave
beam, 8. Longitudinal girder beam G6T (central or edge), 9. Central longitudinal girder beam GΨ6-
15, 10. Central longitudinal girder beam GΨ6-118, 11. Longitudinal girder beam G12, 12. Roof slab
ECP 1,5x9, 13. Roof slab 1,5x12, 14. Roof slab 1,5x15, 15. Roof slab 1,5x18, 16. ACC blocks, 17.
External cladding ACC or sandwich prefabricated panel (polystyrene and ACC), 18. Mineral wool
plates, 19. Polystyrene plates, 20. Pedestrian concrete plates, 21. Heavy traffic concrete plates
Source: MACON S.A.
6.2. JOB PLANNING
The construction of a precast-concrete structure requires considerable planning and
development of details. All planning, from working drawings to the completed structure, must
be completed in the early stages.
The erection planning of structure will consist of methods and details regarding:
1. Preliminary execution of works that will consist of the following steps:
- Transport, yard casting and storage of precast units.
- Inspection of units after transport and storage.
- Unit preparation before erection.
- Selection of lifting devices and equipment.
- Materials and labor scheduling.
- Necessary requirements for health, safety and fire assurance.
2. Erection of precast elements, will consist of the following steps:
- Erection method.
- Sequence, schemes and procedures for unit erection.
- Sequence of member erection.
- Ground location and position layout of precast units before erection.
- Routs and work stations for cranes.
- Routs and stops for trailers.
72
Unit installation detailing sequences.

-
-
Preliminary positioning of units.
-
Inspection of erection execution in provisory position and correction of dimensional
tolerances.
3. Final connections between elements.
Table 6-1. Erection characteristics table
Prefab characteristics Characteristics Erection Crane characteristics
Prefab member
lifting device characteristics

Prefab. type
Type lifting
Type crane
Load (tone
inserts (m)
Qtf (tones)
Qp (tones)
Qt (tones)
Qd (tone)
Distance
Rap (m)
between
Hp (m)
Hd (m)
Ht (m)
device
lifting
H (m)
R (m)
F (m)
max)
EC
(SM)
CC
(SC)
GB
(GP)
BB
(GR)
RS
(EA)
6.3. PRELIMINARY EXECUTION WORKS
The details and planning of erection will materially affect the earlier phases of casting,
storage, and handling.
6.3.1. STANDARDIZED PREFABRICATED REINFORCED AND PRESTRESSED
CONCRETE MEMBERS
The selection of standardized prefabricated reinforced and prestressed concrete
members shall be base on: geometrical and surface characteristics, type of structure designed,
load bearing capacity, execution and environment conditions.
Table 6-2. Typical prefabricated ground floor warehouse concrete members
Item L l Height W V Concrete Distance Bay
Leng Widt (cm) Weight Volume Class between (m)
3 2
th h H h (kg) (m ) (N/mm ) inserts
(cm) (cm) max min (cm)
Longitudinal Girder Beam (Source: IPCT, 1988)
6x18
G6T 595 45 55 45 2250 0,900 C 40/32 545 6x15
6x12
6x18
G 6 T pp1 595 45 55 45 2250 0,900 C 30/25 545 6x15
6x12
G ψ 6-15
G 6 – 6 - pp 595 35 50 40 1414 1,566 C 30/25 545 6x6
G ψ 6-15 pp
595 70 65 55 3420 1,368 C 40/32 555 6x15
G ψ 6-18
595 70 65 55 3420 1,368 C 40/32 555 6x15
595 70 70 60 3620 1,448 C 40/32 555 6x18
1
abv. pp - partially prestressed
73
G ψ 6-18 pp 595 70 70 60 3620 1,448 C 40/32 555 6x18

12x18
60 7000 2,800 C 40/32
G12-12-1 /pp 1195 80 75 1135 12x15
(70) (7400) (2,960) C 50/40
12x12
60 7000 2,800 C 40/32
G12-12-2 /pp 1195 80 75 1135 12x12
G ψ 12-15/pp
(70) (7400) (2,960) C 50/40
G ψ 12-18/pp
1195 70 99 85 8640 3,456 C 40/32 1135 12x15
1195 70 104 70 9060 1100 12x18
60 7000 2,80 C 40/32
G 12 – 24 -1/2 1195 80 75 1135 12x24
(70) (7400) (2,90) C 50/40
G 9-2 870 70 103 90 6160 2,463 C 50/40 810 9x12
9x15
Gm-9 870 50 80 67 3860 1,544 C50/40 810
9x18
G ψ A6-18
Longitudinal Girder Beam used in the Food Industry (Source: IPCT, 1988)
575 70 70 70 3858 1,543 C 40/32 535 18x6
G cA - 6 595 2963 1,185 555
45 55 55 C 40/32 12x6
575 (2863) (1,145) (525)
G mA-6 595 2454 0,982 555 12x6
45 55 55 C 40/32
575 2372 0,949 (525) 18x6
G A 12-12 1195 70 110 110 9079 3,632 C 40/32 1135 12x12
G mA -12-12 1175 70 110 110 8972 3,589 C 40/32 1125 12x12
GR 12-T 1192 60 123 125 9854 3,942 C 40/32 1132 12x12
Transverse Girder Beam (Source: IPCT, 1988)
G 12-6 /T 1195 35 80 40 3235 1,294
C 40/32 1145 12x6
1180 32 95 45 3325 1,330
G 15-6 /T 1495 95 50 5270 2,108
40 C 40/32 1445 15x6
1480 113 60 5690 2,276
G 18-6 /T 1795 43 110 55 7120 2,848
C 40/32 1455 18x6
1780 40 125 66 7290 2,915
G 12-4 12x12
1180 40 105 55 4560 1,824 C 40/32 1095
12x9
G 15-4 15x12
1480 50 138 86 8200 3,280 C 40/32 1300
15x9
G 18-4 18x12
1780 50 145 86 10360 4,143 C 40/32 1600
18x9
G 21-1 21x6
C 50/40
2080 60 147 90 15200 6,08 1770 21x9
C 40/32
21x12
G 24-1 /pp C 50/40 24x6
2380 60 150 90 17700 7,08 2200
C 40/32 24x9
G 24 -12- 2 2370 70 175 105 26700 10,667 C 40/32 2200 24x12
Bridge Beams (Source: IPCT, 1988)
GR 6-100 592 100 5040 2,013
GR 6-80 592 55 80 3670 1,468 C 22,5/18 390
Span
GR 6-60 592 60 2960 1,185
12…
GRP 9-100 892 55 100 6000 2,30 C 40/32 792
30 m
GRP 12-85 1195 60 85 7,35 2,94 C 40/32 1055
GRP 12 -125 1192 60 125 10,30 3,95 C 40/32 1055
Roof Slabs (Source: IPCT, 1988)
ECP (G) 9x1,5 2743 1,097
890 149 40 20 2778 1,111 C 40/32 850
2813 1,125
ECP12x1,5 /pp 1190 149 50 23 3930 1,57 C 40/32 1105
74
ECP 15x1,5 /pp C 40/32

1465 149 65 25 5930 2,372 1380
C 30/25
ECP 18x1,5 1765 149 75 30 6830 2,789 C 40/32 1665
ECPG 12x1,5 1190 149 50 23 4075 1,63 C 40/32 1105
ECPG 15x1,5 C 40/32
1465 149 65 25 5930 2,372 1380
C 30/25
ECPG 18x1,5 1765 149 75 30 6970 2,789 C 40/32 1665
ECP 9x1,5 890 40 20 2743 1,097 C 50/40 850
ECP 12x1,5 /pp 1190 50 23 3930 1,570 C 50/40 1105
149
ECP 15x1,5 1465 65 25 5510 2,204 C 50/40 1380
ECP 18x1,5 1765 75 30 5830 2,731 C 50/40 1665
EP 6x1,5 593 149 24 1500 0,600 C 30/25 513
C 12x1,5 2,916 C 40/32
1190 149 50 24 4180 1105
π 12x3,0
1,672 C 30/25
1190 299 7290 2,916 C 30/25 1105
ACC Plates (Source: IPCT, 1988)
TB 0,6x3,0 12,5 153 0,212
293 59,7 15
GB 35
185 1,258
TB 0,6x0,6 590 620 0,86
59,7 25 GB 35
598 630 0,875
Cup shaped foundations for warehouses without bridge cranes (Source: IPCT, 1988)
Lp H Weight Class Vol-
bp Bp lg1 lp1 Lp1 lg2 lp2
2 (kg) ume
PF1 20 28 51 91 98 51 91 98 70 1200 0,48
PF2 25 33,5 61 111 119 61 111 119 80 2000 0,80
PF3 30 39 76 136 145 76 136 145 90 3300 1,32
PG1R 30 39 76 136 145 66 126 135 90 3150 C 1,26
PG2R 35 44 86 156 165 66 136 145 95 4175 15/10 1,67
PG3R 35 44 86 156 165 76 146 155 95 4375 1,75
PG2 30 38,5 66 126 134 66 126 134 80 2625 1,05
PG3 35 44 76 146 155 76 146 155 90 3946 1,58
PG4 45 54,5 86 176 185 86 176 186 100 6530 2,61
Figure 6-3. Standardized catalog prefabricated reinforced and prestressed concrete members
Cup shaped foundations (Source: IPCT, 1988)
75
Longitudinal Girder Beam (Source: IPCT, 1988)
76
77
78
79
80
81
Transverse Girder Beam (Source: IPCT, 1988)
82
83
84
Bridge Beams (Source: IPCT, 1988)
85
Roof Slabs (Source: IPCT, 1988)
86
87
88
89
6.3.2. MANUFACTURING, TRANSPORT AND STORAGE OF PRECAST UNITS

Precast-concrete elements are cast or manufactured in: permanent factories, temporary
factories, off-site casting yards, or supplied from a combination of these facilities.
Transport of units is normally provided from these facilities to the site by trucks, only
after a very careful examination of the following: shape, dimensions, and weights of
prefabricated units, financial comparison of estimated site-produced castings and factory-
produced and delivered castings, type and capacity of transport means, space available on the
job site and correct position for transport of member, availability, and quality of roads etc.
Trucks can be classified in:
- Straight or articulated trailers (a straight truck is one in which all axles are attached to a
single frame while an articulated truck is one that consists of two or more separate frames
connected by suitable couplings).
- Truck tractor that are designed primarily for pulling and carrying part of the weight and
load of a semi trailer.
Other types include: full trailer, deck trailer, flat bed trailer, lorry trailer, single axle
trailer, heavy duty trailer, low-bed trailer etc. of 8-20 tones.
Figure 6-4
Typical
trailers
Source: Suman
R., 1989.
90
Storage and transportation of precast units can be a problem for construction sites
located in congested urban areas.
Storage represents an intermediate faze between the prefabricated production and there
transport to the site for assembly. The storage yard can be located in the prefabricated
manufacturing shop or on the job-site. If it is located on the job-site, it will be as close as
possible located near the crane but protected against other construction activities and erection
of castings without interference with the erected framework or with the erection equipment.
Precast units will be stored, raised off the ground, in such a manner as to avoid contact
with dirt, oil, and grease, to reduce any kind of degradation, and to identify each type of unit
as easy as possible.
Source: SC SOMACO SA, 2003
Figure 6-5. Typical storage of reinforced and Source: Prefabricate Vest

prestressed concrete members
Figure 6-6. Typical

prefabricated
cup shaped
foundations
Source: Preconstructa
AEBTE,2003
91
6.3.3. INSPECTION OF UNITS AFTER TRANSPORT AND STORAGE

The precast elements shall be visually checked for defects (cracks, voids etc.) when
the forms are removed off the trailer, when the strands are cut, or when they are placed in
temporary or permanent storage. Any significant defect should be reported immediately with
the description of its size, type, and location. The Engineer will decide if the defect needs
further inspection, what type of repair, or if it is needed
6.3.4. UNIT PREPARATION
Unit Preparation Before Erection - during lifting, storage and transport of precast units
it is possible that the elements will be exposed to dirt, mud, oil, and grease. They will be
cleaned through washing them with water, and by wirer brushing.
6.3.5. LIFTING DEVICES
The planning of erection (lifting) devices and details for their attachment to the
elements must be completed. It is obvious that changes in methods or details of any phase of
the construction may be difficult after actual commencement of that part of the work.
A lifting device consists of two main parts: the anchorage element embedded in the
precast unit and the attachment element, which is attached to the anchorage to fasten the
lifting line to the component.
To provide adequate strength, the anchorage should bear against the reinforcement. A
simple and common device is to embed several steel loops in the concrete, leaving the loop
exposed for attachment of the crane hook.
Selection of proper anchors for lifting precast concrete products requires
consideration of a number of factors including the type of load, type of lift, concrete shape
and weight, configuration, thickness, and strength of the precast component, concrete
compressive strength at time of initial lift, number of lifting points and type of rigging to be
used, direction of pull (cable or sling angle), reinforcement, ease of attachment to product,
compliance with safety requirements and ease of use during final installation and cost.
The location of lifting devices in the components should be carefully considered,
taking full account of the special loading that will be imposed on the concrete as a result of
tilting, lifting, or moving the component, including an allowance for impact. For example,
raising a horizontally cast precast panel to a vertical position (e.g. columns cast on site) may
induce stresses in the concrete that exceed any loading that may be imposed on the panel after
it has been installed in a structure.
Spreader beam for lifting precast Spreader beam for lifting Spreader beam for lifting
beams in two points of pickup precast roof slabs with four precast beams with two wire
wire cables in four points of cables in two points of
pickup pickup
Figure 6-7. Typical lifting devices for precast concrete members
Source: Ilinoiu G., 2003; Suman R., 1989, Trelea A., 1997.
Selection of the lifting device and its location should be based on the manufacturer’s
recommendation and an engineering analysis of the proposed installation. The locations and
details of lifting and handling devices should be shown on the shop drawings.
92
A spreader beam is used in transmitting vertical loads from the two surface inserts to a
single point at the lifting hook. Large or heavy panels are often lifted with a four-point pickup
with sheaves on the spreader for load equalization.
6.3.4.1. TYPICAL LIFTING DEVICES
These shall include: type, height, bearing capacity, length between lifting cables.
Table 6-3. Lifting devices for columns Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1992.
Item U 119 Item U 186

Qd (kgf) Hd (mm) Qmaxpref Qd (kgf) Hd (mm) Qmaxpref
150 3290 7,0 tf 50 1960 4,0 tf
Item U 312 Item U 313

Qd (kgf) Hd (mm) Qmaxpref Qd (kgf) Hd (mm) Qmaxpref
460 5630 10,0 tf 993 4300 10,0…17,00 tf
93
Item U 314
Qd (kgf) Hd (mm) Qmaxpref
1300 3500 17,0…25,00tf
Table 6-4. Lifting devices for beams Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M.,
1992.
Item U 272
Qd Hd Qmaxpref
(kgf) (mm)
763 3120 6,0tf
Item U 273
Qd Hd Qmaxpref
(kgf) (mm)
2030 3190 16tf
94
Item U 300
Qd Hd Qmaxpref
(kgf) (mm)
1980 2890 10,0tf
Table 6-5. Lifting devices for beams and roof slabs Source: Popa R., Teodorescu
M., 1992.
Item U 316
Qd Hd Qmaxpref
(kgf) (mm)
510 4130 3,0tf
Item U 317
Qd Hd Qmaxpref
(kgf) (mm)
1736 3427 8,0tf
95
Item U 318
Qd Hd Qmaxpref
(kgf) (mm)
2763 4587 14,0tf
Item U 319
Qd Hd Qmaxpref
(kgf) (mm)
2000 5200 19,0tf
Item U 329
Qd Hd Qmaxpref
(kgf) (mm)
2887 4700 19,0tf
96
Item U 330
Qd Hd Qmaxpref
(kgf) (mm)
4458 4870 18,0tf
Item U 203A
Qd Hd Qmaxpref
(kgf) (mm)
493 2246 4,5tf
97
Item U 203B
Qd Hd Qmaxpref
(kgf) (mm)
630 3115 4,5tf
Table 6-6. Universal lifting devices Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1992.
Item U 196 Item GRU

Qd (kgf) Hd (mm) Qmaxpref (tf) Qd (kgf) Hd (mm) Qmaxpref (tf)
22 1300 1,0 143 4500 6,4tf
28 1600 3,2
45 1800 6,4
98
6.3.6. SELECTION OF LIFTING EQUIPMENT

A crane may be defined as a machine for lifting loads by means of a cable. The use of
cranes has greatly increased in the construction industry due mainly to the need to raise the
large and heavy prefabricated components.
A crane consists primarily of a power unit mounted on a carrier with a hoist, a boom,
and control cables for raising and lowering the load and boom.
The boom can be a welded steel lattice or a hydraulic boom made of 1 articulated base
element and several telescopic sections, that are extended and retracted hydraulically (from 5
to 30 m) allowing the crane to be completely self-contained.
A jib, an extension to the end of the boom, is used for extending the height to which
loads can be lifted; it can be added to a lattice boom or a hydraulic boom. A jib decreases the
lifting capacity of the crane and should be used with caution. Two basic jib formats for this
type of crane are available, namely the folding lattice jib and the telescopic jib.
Outriggers are hydraulic telescoping supports (4-6 suspension cylinders, individually
controlled in both – horizontal and vertical – directions from the frame).
Three basic types of cranes are commonly used in warehouse erection, they are: track-
mounted cranes, lorry-mounted cranes and self-propelled cranes. There are several
variations of each type, and each is available in a wide range of lifting capacities and boom
lengths, thus providing the contractor with a generous selection of options.
The track-mounted cranes (crawler crane) come
in a wide variety of designs and capacities,
generally with a 360° rotation or slewing circle, a
low pivot, and jib.
Advantages:
- Mobility on the job site with load on hook.
- It can lift relatively heavy loads (10…900
kN) without the use of outriggers.
- Capacities ranges similar to the lorry
mounted cranes, height capacities 60 m;
Limitations: slow speeds and large bulk, the
crane cannot move from one site to another
without some disassembly and the use of 10 tone
trailers to transport it between sites.
Characteristics: The jib is of lattice construction
with additional sections and fly; jibs to obtain the
various lengths and capacities required.
Figure 6-8. Track-mounted crane

Caption: 1. Hook; 2. Jib; 3. Cab; 4. Boom suspension
rope; 5. Hoist rope; 6. Pendant rope.
Source: Chudley R., 1999.
99
Lorry-mounted cranes come in a wide variety

of designs and capacities, generally with a 360°
rotation or slewing circle, a low pivot, and jib.
To improve the mobility of the crane from one
site to another lorry-mounted cranes have rubber
tires and an additional cab were a driver drives
the crane from site to site on public roads.
Characteristics: The crane is operated by a
separate crane engine and controls. The capacity
of lorry-mounted cranes ranges up to 2000 kN in
the freestanding position but this can be
increased by using the jack outriggers. Their
height capacity range to 100 m.
Mobile lorry cranes can travel between sites at
speeds of up to 48 km/h, which makes them very
mobile, but to be fully efficient they need a firm
and level surface from which to operate.
Figure 6-9. Lorry mounted crane

Caption: 1. Hook; 2. Pendant ropes; 3. Hoist ropes;
4. Engine; 5. Jib. Source: Chudley R., 1999.
Self Propelled Cranes (also referred to

as a crane truck) is a portable boom crane
mounted on an industrial truck. They can be
distinguished from other mobile cranes by the
fact that the driver has only one cab position for
both driving and operating the crane.
Characteristics: They are small capacity
machines having a fixed boom or jib length, with
small radii and low lifting capacities 10 t.
They are extremely mobile but to be efficient
they usually require a hard level surface from
which to work. Road speeds obtained are in the
region of 30 km/h.
Figure 6-10. Self propelled crane

Caption: 1. Hook; 2. Boom; 3. Cabin; 4. Chassis; 5.
Outriggers; 6. Boom suspension ropes; 7. Hoist
ropes; 8. Pendant ropes.
Source: Chudley R., 1999.
Crane selection criteria shall include: capacities cranes, reaches of cranes and
clearness required for movement of the equipment and prefabricates without interference with
previously erected framing members.
100
The range of cranes available is very wide and therefore actual choice must be made
on a basis of sound reasoning, overall economics and technical capabilities: of cranes under
consideration, prevailing site conditions and the anticipated utilization of other erection
equipment.
Figure 6-11. Crane clearances

Caption: a. boom angle; b. maximum clearance height of cabin; c. maximum radius of tail swing; d.
center of rotation to boom foot pin; e. height from ground to boom foot pin; f. distance from centre of
boom point sheave to bottom of hook; g. clearance radius of boom; h. length of boom.
Source: Andres C., 1998.
The criteria by which to chose cranes is based on the following considerations:
(1) Maximum hook height (H).
(2) Extended / retracted boom length (f). The shallower the boom's angle, the less load
it can lift. The longer the boom, the less load it can lift.
(3) Clear radius of boom (R). Should the load be lifted at a grater radius, the angle of the
boom be decreased, the load capacity of the crane is greatly decreased.
following restriction: 0,75 lifting capacity of crane ≤ tipping load of crane

(4) Lifting capacity (Q). To assure the cranes stability, it is necessary to respect the
If not possible then the stability of the footing must be increased by leveling and
completely supporting them by their outriggers, which must be fully extended and positioned
firmly on stable ground.
Depending on the circumstances under which a load is lifted, either of these can
govern the safe lifting load of the crane. Loading charts are provided with each crane and
must be adhered to religiously. Load charts should never be exceeded.
(5) Traveling clearance for crane (S = min. 500 mm) given by maximum radius of tail
swing, width of chassis or length of outriggers.
101
6.3.5.1. TYPICAL TYPES OF CRANES

Figure 6-12. AMT 950. Source: ECCON
Table 6-7. Lifting Capacities for Telescopic Boom AMT 950

Radius Boom Length (m)
(m) 5,,6 9,2 12,6 16,1 19,6 23,1 26,6 30,0
2,5 18,7 40,0 25,0 23,0 19,0 15,7
3,0 14,5 32,0 25,0 21,5 18,2 15,2 12,1 9,5
4,0 27,0 22,0 18,5 16,2 13,8 12,1 9,5
S,0 21,0 19,3 16,0 14,1 12,3 10.8 8,9
6,0 17,0 16,6 14,0 12,4 10,9 9,8 8.1
7,0 133 12,4 11,0 9,9 8,9 7,5
8.0 10,1 10,4 9,9 8,9 8.0 6,9
9,0 8,1 8,2 8,6 8,0 7.4 6,5
10.0 6,7 7,0 73 6,8 6,0
12,0 5,3 5,1 5.2 5,5 5,1
14,0 4,1 4,4 4.1 4,4
16.0 3,2 3,5 3,6 3,4
18,0 2,7 3.0 2,6
20,0 2,1 2,4 2,1
22.0 2,0 1,6
24.0 1,0 1,3
26,0 1.0
102
Figure 6-13. DST-0285. Source: BUMAR – LABEDY S.A.
Table 6-8. Lifting Capacities for Telescopic Boom DST-0285

Boom Length (m)
R (m)
10 15 20 24 R (m) 10 15 20 24
3.2 28 10 5,4 5,3 5,0
3.5 26,5 18,0 11 4,4 4,4 4,2
4.0 24,0 16,9 12 3,6 3,6 3,5
4.5 21,5 15,9 13 3,0 3,0 3,0
5.0 19,1 14,9 11,0 14 2,5 2,5
6.0 14,6 12,8 9,9 15 2,1 2,1
6.5 12,7 11,6 9,3 7,5 16 1,7 1,7
7.0 10,9 10,6 8,7 7,2 17 1,4 1,4
8.0 8,2 8,4 7,6 6,5 18 1,2 1,1
8,5 7,0 7,4 7,0 6,2 19 0,9
9,0 6,6 6,4 5,8 20 0,7
103
Figure 6-14. DST-0505. Source: BUMAR – LABEDY S.A.
Table 6-9. Lifting Capacities for Telescopic Boom DST-0505

Boom Length (m)
Radius (m)
11,1 15,1 19,1 23,1 27,1 31,1 35,1 11,1
3.0 50.0 28.0
25.5 21.0
4,0 38.0 28.0
5.0 30.4 24.7 22.7 19.1 15.0 4.0
12.0
6.0 23.7 21.4 20.0 17.1 15.0 3.0
7.0 19.2 18.0 17.2 15.2 13.5 11.0 9.0
2.0
8.0 14.7 14.7 14.5 13.3 1.9 9.9 8.3
9.0 11.4 11.7 11,3 10.4 8.9 7.7
11.6
10.0 9.0 9.5 9.4 8.8 7.8 7.0
11.0 7.6 7.7 7.5 7.3 6.8 6.3
12.0 6.2 5.9 6.0 5.8 5.8 5.6
13.0 4.9 5.1 4.7 5.0 5.0
4.8
14.0 4.2 4.2 4,2 4.3 4.3
15.0 3.5 3.7 3.7 3.6 3.7
16.0 2.8 3.2 3.2 2.9 32
17.0 2.7 2,7 2.5 2.7
2,1
18.0 23 2.2 2.2 2.2
19.0 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.9
20.0 1,3 1.6 1.6 1,6
21.0 1.3 1.3 1.3
0.8
22.0 1.0 1,0 1.0
23.0 0.7 0.9
0.7
24.0 0.4 0.7
104
Figure 6-15. DUT-0502. Source: BUMAR – LABEDY S.A.
Table 6-10. Lifting Capacities for Telescopic Boom DUT-0502

Boom Length (m)
Radius (m)
10.64 14.35 18.10 10.64 14.35 18.10 1 0.64 14.35 18.10
3.0 6.7 6.8 6.8 11.0 11.9 11.9 21.1 20.6 19.0
3.5 5.5 5.6 5.6 10.8 10.5 10.9 16.0 15.4 14.9
4.0 4.6 4,7 4.7 9.9 10.0 9.9 12.5 12.3 11.9
4.5 3.8 3.9 3.5 9.1 9.2 9.1 10.0 10.0 9.8
5.0 3.2 3.3 3.3 4.0 3.0 8.4 8.1 8.3 8.1
6.0 2.2 2.3 2.3 3.0 2.3 7.2 5.5 5.9 5.8
7.0 1.4 1.5 1.5 2.0 1.7 6.0 3.9 4.1 4.2
8.0 0.9 1.0 1.0 4.7 4.8 4.9 2.7 2,9 3.0
9.0 3.7 3.8 2.0 2.1
0.5 0.5
10.0 2.9 2.9 1.3 1.4
11.0 2.2 2.3
0.9
12.0 1.7 1.7
13.0 1,3
14.0 0,5
105
Figure 6-16. TELEMAC HT – 15. Source: UBEMAR
Table 6-11. Lifting Capacities for Telescopic Boom TELEMAC HT

RATED LIFTING CAPACITIES
CRANE ON OUTRIGGERS
FRONT
Retracted ½ Extended Telescoped
Angle [°] R [m] Q [t] Angle [°] R [m] Q [t] Angle [°] R [m] Q [t]
60 2,20 12,500
50 3.05 12.500
40 3,90 12,500 60 3,60 8,200
30 4,55 11,060 50 4,98 8,200 60 5,10 5,800
20 5,05 7,725 40 6,18 5,550 50 6,91 5,325
10 5,35 6,000 30 7,15 4,550 40 8,48 3,675
0 5,45 5,400 20 7,86 4,050 30 9,75 2,925
10 8,30 3,825 20 10,68 2,512
0 8,45 3,750 10 11,25 2,250
0 11,45 2,175
CRANE ON TYRES
FRONT
Retracted 1/2 Extended
Angle [°] R [m] Q [t] Angle [°] R [m] Q [t]
60 2,20 7,000
50 3,05 7,000
40 3,90 5,625 60 3,60 4,250
30 4,55 4,385 50 4,98 4250
20 5,05 3,675 40 6,18 2,850
10 5,35 3,450 30 ,715 2,194
0 5,45 3,150 20 7,86 1,818
10 8,30 1,687
0 8,45 1,575
106
Figure 6-17. TELEMAC HTA -7. Source: UBEMAR S.A.
Table 6-12. Lifting Capacities for Telescopic Boom TELEMAC HTA -7

Boom Length (m)
Radius (m) 5,87 5,87-7.5 7,5-9.2 9.2-10,8 10.8-12.7
Angle [°] Q [t] Angle [°] Q [t] Angle [°] Q [t] Angle [°] Q [t] Angle [°] Q [t]
1.2
2 62 7,0 68 6.5
2.5 56 7,0 64 6,5 69 4.5
3 49 7.0 60 6,0 66 4,5
3.5 43 6,5 55 5.6 62 4,0 67 4,0
4 35 5.5 50 5,2 58 4.0 64 3,8 65 3.8
4,5 25 4,5 45 4.8 55 3,6 61 3.5 63 3.4
5 8 4.0 40 4.0 51 3,6 58 3,5 60 3.0
5.5 33 3,2 47 3.2 55 3,2 57 2.6
6 25 2.8 42 2,9 51 3.0 55 2.3
6,5 8 2.5 37 2,5 48 2.5 52 2.0
7 32 2.2 44 2,0 49 1,7
7.5 25 2,0 40 1.7 46 1.5
B 8 1,8 36 1.6 43 1.4
8.5 31 1,5 40 1.1
9 26 1.2 36 1.0
9.5 19 1,1 32 1,0
10 8 1.0 27 0.9
10,5 22 0,8
11 8 0.8
107
Figure 6-18. LIEBHERR LHM 100. Source: LIEBHERR-Werk Nenzing Gmbh
108
109
Figure 6-20. LIEBHERR LHM 1060/2. Source: LIEBHERR-Werk Nenzing Gmbh
Table 6-13. Lifting Capacities for Telescopic Boom LIEBHERR LHM 1060/2
R Boom (m)
(m) 10.9 14.5 18 21,6 25,2 28,8 32.4 35,9 39,5 42 R 10.9 14.5 18 21,6 25,2 28,8 32.4 35,9 39,5 42
2,5 60 14 8.8 9.4 9.3 8.6 8.9 8.8 6.5
9.8
3 50 16 7.7 7.5 7.6 7.4 7.6 7,1 5,9
3,5 47 46,5 18 6.1 7.4 6,4 6,3 5,3 5,4
31 6.6
4 43 42,5 20 5,2 6,6 5.4 5.2 4,9 4,9
4,5 39 38.5 29.1 25.8 24.4 20 5,6 4,6 4.3 3,8 3.8
19.3 4,6
5 35,5 35 27,4 24.8 23.1 24 4,8 3,7 3.5 3,2 3.3
6 30,5 29.9 24.3 22.7 20,8 17,8 19.2 26 3.9 3.2 3.1 2,8 2.7
15,1 12.7
7 25,7 25.2 21,8 20,4 18,7 16,8 17,7 28 3.5 2.8 2.7 2,4 2.3
8 21.1 19,8 18.5 17,2 15.9 16.3 14.2 12.1 8,6 30 2,3 2 2
21,7
9 18.7 17 16,8 15.7 14.6 15 13.2 11.5 8.2 32 2 1.7 1,6
10 16 11.4 14.5 14,4 13.5 13.8 12.4 10.9 7.8 34 1.4 1.4
12 12,2 11.3 10.7 12 10.8 10.8 10,7 9.8 7.2 36 1.1 1.1
110
Figure 6-21. LIEBHERR LHM 1040/4. Source: LIEBHERR-Werk Nenzing Gmbh
Table 6-14. Lifting Capacities for Telescopic Boom LIEBHERR LHM 1040/4
(m) 9.4 14,5 10,7 24,8 28,4 30 R (m) 9.4 14,5 10,7 24,8 28,4 30
2.5 30 12 7.4 7,4 7 5,2
7,5
3 28,5 14 6,1 6 5,9 4,4
3,5 25,9 16 4,7 4,6 3.8
16.6 14,6 11.1 4,8
4 23.7 18 3.9 3,9 3.3
5 20.1 16,2 13,1 10.8 8.5 20 3.3 3,3 2.9
7,5
6 17,1 15,7 12.2 10,5 8.4 22 2.8 2,8 2,6
7 14,3 11,6 9.8 8,2 7.4 24 2,3 2.3
14,5
8 12.3 11,3 9,3 8,1 7.2 26 2 2
9 10.8 10.7 8,9 7,9 6,9
28 1.7
10 9,4 9.4 8,6 7.5 6,2
111
Table 6-15. Lifting Capacities for Telescopic Boom LIEBHERR LHM 1030
(m) 14.3 m
8,4 14,3 20.1 24.2 26 R (m) 8,4 14,3 20.1 24.2 26
2.5 33 27,5 8 10,7 9,9 9,4 9.2
3 30 27.5 9 9.1 8,4 8,1 7.9
3,5 27.5 15,8 10 7.7 7,3 7 6.9
13,2
4 24,2 15,7 12 5.7 5,5 5,5 5.4
4.5 22 15.5 13 14 4,3 4,3 4.3
18,5 11.3
5 20,1 14,8 12.8 16 3.5 3,5 3.4
6 16 13,7 12,2 11.1 18 2.7 2.7
17.4 2,8
7 12,9 11,8 11,2 10,5 20 2.2 2.2
22 1.9
1.9
24 1.6
112
Table 6-16. Lifting Capacities for Telescopic Boom LIEBHERR LHM 1160
R Boom Length (m)
(m) 13.2 17.5 21,8 26,1 30,4 34,7 39 43,3 47,6 52 56,3 60
160
3,5 118
127
4 115 106 99 86
70
4,5 106 97 91 81
5 101 92 86 77 67 55
46
6 93 84 78 68 62 53
7 83 77 71 62 56 49,5 43,5 37
30
8 74 71 64 57 51 46 41 35,5
9 64 66 59 54 46 42,5 38,5 33,5 28,8 24,4
19,5 15
10 53 60 54 50 42 39 35,5 31.5 27,4 23,4
12 49,5 46,5 44,5 35,5 33 31 27,7 24,6 21,3 18,5 14,3
14 37 40,5 40 31 28,4 26,9 24,4 22,2 19,4 17 13,3
16 33,5 27 25 23,6 21,6 20 17,6 15,6 12,3
34 26,7
18 28,2 24 22,2 20,9 19,3 18,2 16 14,4 11,4
20 24 21,4 20 18,8 17.4 16,6 14,7 13,2 10,5
22 20,2 19,2 18,1 16,9 15,8 15 13.5 12,2 9,8
113
24 17,1 16,5 15,4 14,4 13,7 12,4 11,3 9,1

26 15,3 14,9 14,1 13,2 12,6 11,5 10,5 8,5
28 13,5 12,8 12,1 11,6 10,7 9,7 7,8
30 12,1 11.7 11.1 10.7 10 9,1 7.3
32 10,7 10,1 9,9 9,2 8,5 6,8
7.8
34 9,7 9,3 9,1 8,5 8 6,3
36 8,4 7.9 7,5 5,9
7,4 8,5 7,7
38 7,7 7,4 7,1 5,5
40 7.1 6.8 6,6 5
6,2
42 6,5 6,3 6,2 4,6
44 5,8 5.7 4,3
4,7
46 5,3 5,3 3,9
48 4.9 3,6
4,8
50 4,6 3.4
52 3,1
54 2.9
6.4. ERECTION OF PRECAST UNITS

Selection of erection method precast units is an important design decision. Each
erection method has its special implications to project cost, construction schedules, traffic,
towing system, positioning accuracy, and level of risks during construction.
In many ways, the erection method will determine the:
- size and configuration of the precast units;
- construction procedure adopted, construction sequence, and schedule;
- volume of works, plant and equipment etc.
In general, a thorough evaluation should be made in the early stage of design to
determine the effects of the erection methods, because the erection method and equipment to
install precast units will affect the structural concept and layout, fabrication of precast
components, and construction logistics.
The method of erection will take into account the following:
- Assurance of member stability in the structure, during the hole duration of erection
execution.
- Process flow and work procedures must create a working front, as fast as possible, for
other processes that will commence afterwards (e.g. electrical installations etc.).
- Assurance of complete use of erection equipment time.
Methods of erection for prefabricated concrete elements can be planned after two
models:
- Sequence method - consisting of erecting all the members of the same size and type in
the structure or in one construction faze, the crane having its own route for every member
(columns, beams, roof slabs etc.). After the joints for a group of members of the same
type are completed (after the grout concrete has reached the necessary strength) another
group, which will be supported by the first, will be erected;
- Complex method - consisting of erection organization, in normal sequence of erection
(of all members) on a small area of the warehouse, most likely a bay (span-bay), the next
phase being the erection of the next bay.
6.4.1. SEQUENCE, SCHEMES AND PROCEDURES FOR UNIT ERECTION
The efficiency obtained throughout all sequences of the construction will be
determined by the degree of organization, planning, scheduling, and development of details
completed before commencement of work at the site.
Maximum efficiency in erection is obtained by placing the elements in their final
position direct from transporting equipment or building storage in one operation. Erection
114
procedures are planned to approach this objective. All other precasting operations are based
upon the estimated erection schedule, and any delays in this schedule increase the storage area
and dunnage required. Delays in completing connections of erected elements either interrupt
the erection or increase the quantity of erection devices. Using additional erection devices to
shorten the schedule is justified only when sufficient cured castings are available to ensure a
continual operation.
Planning includes a study of casting weights and sizes, capacities and reaches of lifting
equipment, and clearances required for movement of the equipment and castings without
interference with previously erected framing members. A plan detailing the erection
procedure for all elements is drawn and checked to ensure conformance with the above
limitations and is then rigidly followed.
When choosing the erection scheme, we must take into consideration the following:
- Size of bay and span of warehouse.
- Height of erection.
- Cranes characteristics (regarding the clearance characteristics: height, radius of tall swing,
rotation of boom pin, height to boom pin, clearance radius of boom, length of boom).
- Assurance of safety (guard) lanes.
- Scheme adopted for precast units.
Along side these we must respect the following conditions:
- Assurance of member stability during erection.
- Process flow and erection operations must create, in a short period, job fronts for jobs that
will proceed.
- Assurance of complete use of equipment job time.
Schemes of precast unit erection must include the following:
- Ground positioning of precast units before erection.
- Order of precast unit erection in accordance with their types and sizes.
- Routs and stops for cranes for every type and sizes of precast units.
- Indication of members that will be mounted on every crane stop.
- Sequences and stops for lorries if the mounting takes places from the lorries.
6.4.2. UNIT ERECTION DETAILING SEQUENCES
A grate deal of detailing work is necessary before a member can be erected. Each
member is given an erection mark that it carries through the fabrication stage and
subsequently is used on the job to identify the member and its position in the frame. The
erection mark is usually placed on the left end of horizontal members to eliminate the
possibility of trying to place the member end for end or upside down.
When delivered to the site, the precast unit will be lifted by crane to the designed
position, secured with temporary bracing, welded, and finally fixed into position by grout.
The general procedure for installation is as follows:
- Set precast concrete units, straight, level and square (P42-1971 - Norm for execution of
constructions made of precast panels) to avoid non-cumulative erection tolerances.
- Fasten units in place by welding or overlapping.
- Provide temporary erection anchorage for welded anchorage system.
- Clean field welds with wire brush.
- Provide and install sufficient temporary bracing to brace precast units adequately, at all
stages of construction, so that units will safely withstand loads to which they may be
subjected. This temporary bracing shall remain in position until all connections have been
completed.
- Apply sealant and joint backing to exterior and interior joints to provide a complete
weather tight installation.
115
- Clean exposed face work by washing and brushing only, as precast is erected, if required.
6.5. ERECTION CHARACTERISTICS CALCULATION
These shall include: total weight to be lifted, total height to be lifted.
Figure 6-24. Erection characteristics of columns
Q total column = Qp column + Q d column

H total column = H d lifting device column + H ’ p column + H safety height
Figure 6-25. General view typical assembly procedure of columns

Figure 6-26. Erection characteristics of bridge beams
Q total bridge beam = Qp bridge beam + Q d bridge beam

H total bridge beam=Hd lifting device bridge beam+Hp bridge beam+Hsafety height+H1
116
Figure 6-27. Erection characteristics of girder beams
Q total girder beam = Qp girder beam + Q d girder beam

Htotal girder beam=H d lifting device girder beam+H p girder beam+Hsafety height+H2
Figure 6-28. Erection characteristics of roof slabs
Q total roof slab = Qp roof slab + Q d roof slab

H total roof slab = H d lifting device roof slab + H p roof slab + H safety height+HGB+H2
117
Figure 6-29. General view typical

assembly procedure of roof slabs
Source: Preconstructa AEBTE, 2003.
6.6. CONNECTIONS
Connections may be either: (a)
temporary (also referred to as dry
connections) are made by weld, shear
anchors, inserts, additional reinforcing
bars, posttensioning, or some
combination of these can be used to
provide this continuity. The temporary
connection is usually provided until the
permanent ones have been completed.
or (b) permanent (also referred to as wet connections) by

concreting grout keys. When precast units are placed
adjacent to each other, load transfer between adjacent
members is often achieved through a grouted keyway. The
keyway may or may not extend for the full depth of the
member. The keyway is grouted with one of several
different grouting materials (concrete, epoxy resins etc).
Connections to tie precast units together, and to
join precast segments into a monolith, are of paramount
importance. Both temporary and permanent connections
must be designed with careful attention to details and
construction procedure to ensure the critical load paths and
durability performance.
Connections usually consist of dowels, plates/pads
or angles embedded in the units ends that bear on similar
plates embedded in the supporting section, the connections
Figure 6-30. Typical warehouse
are usually made by welding them together or by
connections
Source:Preconstructa AEBTE,2003 overlapping them, until the final concrete casting has been
completed.
118
6.7. INSPECTION OF ERECTION AND CORRECTION OF DIMENSIONAL

TOLERANCES
Many factors enter into the quality control of precast/prestressed concrete
products. Some of the most important are:
- Management commitment to a quality control program.
- Qualified personnel for all stages of design and construction.
- Testing and inspection of the various materials selected for use.
- Clear and complete shop drawings (good production drawings translate documents into
usable information for manufacture, handling, and erection of precast/prestressed units.).
- Accurate stressing procedures.
- Control of dimensions and tolerances.
- Correct positioning of all embedded items.
- Proportioning and adequate mixing of concrete.
- Handling, placing, and consolidation of concrete.
- Adequate curing.
- Handling, storing, transporting, and erection of members.
- Thorough documentation.
Scope of inspection - in general, precast/prestressed concrete plant inspections should
include the following:
- Identification, examination, testing, and acceptance of materials.
- Inspection and recording of tensioning.
- Inspection of beds and forms before concreting.
- Checking the dimensions of members, number, size and positions of tendons, reinforcing
steel, other incorporated materials, openings, blockouts, etc.
- Regular inspection of batching, mixing, conveying, placing, compacting, finishing, and
curing of concrete.
- Observation of test performances for slump, air content, and the preparation of concrete
specimens for strength testing.
- Inspection of operations of detensioning, product removal from beds, handling and
storing.
- Final inspection of finished product before shipment (i.e. monitoring dimensions, camber,
blockouts, and adequate concrete cover and finishes).
- General observation of plant equipment, working conditions, weather, and other items that
may potentially affect the products.
Deviations and dimensional tolerances (STAS 6657/3-89; C 156-89)
Tolerance – can be defined as the allowable range of deviation from design specifications
expressed as a percentage of the nominal value (the allowable variations in the dimensions of
members).
Deviation - can be defined as the difference between the measured value and the expected
value of a controlled variable.
There will be inevitably differences between the specified dimensions and the actual
dimensions of the components and final building. These deviations must be recognized and
allowed for. Cast in place and precast concrete is generally manufactured with relatively small
deviations but designers should take a realistic view of dimensional variability (inaccuracies).
Particularly in large areas of small elements, minor variations are accumulative, and to
neglect an allowance for tolerances will lead to difficulties during erection. Once permissible
tolerances are established, they should be stipulated on the detail drawings. Frequent checks
of the over-all dimensions of the completed castings and checks during erection will reveal
variations, and corrective steps for adjustment should follow immediately.
119
Tolerances must be evaluated on each structure and on the various elements in the
structure. This reduction, of course, is not required or desired where the elements are
separated by grout, calking, or expansion material.
The plans and drawings for structures frequently specify the permissible variations for
lines, grades, and dimensions that the contractor is expected to observe. The tolerances should
be realistic, considering the nature of the structure. Tolerances that are more than rigid than
justified will increase the cost of a structure unnecessarily.
6.8. CONSTRUCTION PROJECT PLANNING AND SCHEDULING
Materials and Labor Scheduling - the job planning required, however, is a sound
investment. The basic nature of precast-concrete construction provides the contractor with
close control over all labor and materials, with little effort.
The continuous repetitious operations provide ideal opportunities for perfection of
labor and equipment allocation and efficiency. The daily repetitive use of identical quantities
of materials reduces waste. Close control and detailed and accurate records can be obtained
on materials, labor, costs, and progress on all phases of the work.
The application of basic precasting principles creates a neat and clean working area,
both at the casting yard and throughout the construction area. This cleanliness, rarely
obtainable in other methods of construction, eliminates waste, promotes efficiency, and
discourages accidents.
Proper scheduling will permit the installation of foundations and related work during
the period that the casting yard is being constructed and put into operation. The elapsed time
between storage and erection of the elements, at any specific portion of the building area, will
be short. Each area becomes available to the mechanical and other trades immediately upon
completion of the precast erection in that area. Therefore, exceptional continuity in the work
of those trades can be maintained.
120
6.8.1. EXAMPLE BAR CHART SCHEDULE – GANTT CHART AND LABOR SCHEDULE
23 Nov '03 30 Nov '03 07 Dec '03 14 Dec '03 21 Dec '03 28 Dec '03 04 Jan '04 11 Jan '04 18 J
ID Task Name Duration S T T S M W F S T T S M W F S T T S M W F S T T S M W F S
1 Task 1. Excavation soil 1 day Labor 10 w orkers
2 Task 2. Manual diging-Team 1 2 days Labor 10 w orkers
3 Task 2. Manual diging-Team 2 2 days Labor 10 w orkers
4 Task 3. Concrete casting leveling layer-Team 1 3 days Labor 5 w orkers
5 Task3. Concrete casting levelling layer-Team 2 2 days Labor 5 w orkers
6 Task 4. Concrete casting foundations-Team 1 3 days Labor 5 w orkers
7 Task 4. Concrete casting foundations-Team 2 2 days Labor 5 w orkers
8 Task 5. Spreading and compaction- Team 1 4 days Labor 10 w orkers
9 Task 5. Spreading and compaction- Team 2 3 days Labor 10 w orkers
10 Task 6. Delivery prefabricated members 20 days Labor 6 w orkers
11 Task 7. Column erection 5 days Labor 5 w orkers
12 Task 8. Beam erection 10 days Labor 10 w orkers
13 Task 8. Roof slab and roof lights erection 10 days Labor 10 w orkers
14 Task 10. Cladding- Team 1 10 days Labor 10 w orkers
15 Task 10. Cladding -Team 2 10 days Labor 10 w orkers
16 Task 11. Flooring - Team 1 6 days Labor 10 w orkers
17 Task 11. Flooring- Team 2 5 days Labor 10 w orkers
18 Task 12. Roof covering - Team 1 5 days Labor 10 w orkers
19 Task 12. Roof covering - Team 2 5 days Labor 10 w orkers
20 Task 13. Partition - Team 1 6 days Labor 10 w orkers
21 Task 13. Partition - Team 2 4 days Labor 10 w orkers
22 Task 14. Finishings - Team 1 12 days Labor 7 w orkers
23 Task 14. Finishings - Team 2 10 days Lab
24 Task 15. Comissioning 2 days
121
6.8.2. EXAMPLE NETWORK SCHEDULES

CPM – The Critical Path Method
AM 10 A 20
16
50 58 66 67
5
2 5
ST 0 C 25 F 15 0 25 Sv 1 SM 2 BE 2 BF 2 Ic 3
25 15 25 66 66 1 3 1
0 0 0 0 25 0 40 40 65 65 69 68 70 71 71 72
2 2 2 3
SM 0 BE 2 BF 2 MS 6 Ic 3 MG 10
1 3 2 1 1
68 68 69 69 72 72 74 74 75 75 76 76
5 Caption: S – start, C – contracting

ME 10
works, F – financing, A – delivery
81 81 materials, O – site woks, SV – clear
and grub, SM – manual digging, BE –
5
leveling concrete, BF – concrete
T 10 SI 10 foundation, IC – spreading and
0
1
96 96 86 86 compaction, A – delivery
0 5 prefabricates, MS – column erection,
MG – beam erection, ME – roof slab
SI 10 T 5 erection, SI – cladding, P – flooring, T
5
96 96 91 91 – roof insulation, PE – partition walls,
`
1
0 2
F – finishing, R – commissioning.
P 5 PE 4
1
1
106 106 93 95
3 1
PE 4 P 5
4
1
105 109 94 95
2 2
S 0 R 2 F 10 F 10
2
0
1
3
1
123 123 121 121 111 111 96 98
122
6.9. HEALTH, SAFETY AND WELFARE REGULATIONS

These regulations detail the minimum requirements for lifting devices and equipment. In
summary the main points include:
- Examination of all forms of lifting devices to ensure sound construction, materials
appropriate for the conditions of use, adequate strength for the intended task, retention in
good order and inspection regularly at intervals depending on use and exposure as
determined by a competent person.
- Adequate support, strength, stability, anchoring, fixing and erection of lifting appliances
to include an appropriate factor of safety against failure.
- Traveling and slewing cranes require a 500 mm wide minimum clearance provided
wherever practicable between the equipment and fixtures such as a building or access
scaffold. If such a clearance cannot be provided, movement between the appliance and
fixture should be prevented.
- A cabin is required for the crane operator that must provide an unrestricted view for safe
use of the equipment. The cabin must have adequate protection from the weather and
harmful substances with a facility for ventilation and heating.
- Equipment which can be adapted for various operating radii and other configurations
must be clearly marked with corresponding safe working loads for these variables.
- Brakes, controls, and safety devices must be clearly marked to prevent accidental
operation or miss-use.
- Safe means of access is to be provided for examination, repair, and servicing particularly
where a person can fall more than 2,0 m.
- Stability of lifting devices on soft ground, uneven surfaces and slopes must be considered.
Cranes must be either anchored to the ground or to a foundation, or suitably
counterweighted or stabilized to prevent overturning.
- Rail mounted cranes to have a track laid and secured on a firm foundation to prevent risk
of derailment. There must be provision for buffers, effective braking systems, and
adequate maintenance of both track and equipment.
- Measures must be taken to prevent a freely suspended load moving uncontrollably.
Devices that could be fitted include multiple ropes.
- Cranes must be erected under planned conditions and the supervision of a competent
person.
- If the operator cannot see the whole passage of a lift, an efficient signaling system must
be used. A signaler must be capable of giving clear and distinct communications by hand.
mechanical or electrical means.
- Testing examination and inspections are required for all equipment. Chains, slings, ropes,
hooks, shackles, eyebolts, and other small components are no less important than grabs
and winches. All must be tested and thoroughly examined before being put into operation.
- All cranes are clearly marked with their safe maximum working loads relevant lifting
radius and maximum operating radius particularly when fitted with a derricking jib.
Lifting equipment not designed for personnel must be clearly marked as such.
- Jib cranes to be fitted with an automatic safe load indicator such as a warning; light for
the operator and a warning bell for persons nearby.
- Except for testing purposes, the safe working load must not be exceeded.
- When loads are approaching the safe maximum load, the initial lift should be short. A
check should then be made to establish safety and stability before proceeding to complete
the lift.
123
6.10. EXAMPLE WORKING DRAWINGS

Plan Axes Sc. 1:200
1 2 3 4 5 6
124
Cross Section Warehouse Plan Sc. 1:100

GPT 12-4
0,44
EA 1.5x12 +12.85
+12.4
11.35
1,05
0,55
+10.7
1,9
1.25
+9.45
0,3
GRP 9-125
0,6
0,4
11,65 SC
SM 55*60
40*55
0,1
-0.20 0.00
0,40,5
1,15
0,6
0,1
0,1
2
0,4
0,1
12
C B
125
Detail Plan Erection Procedure for Columns Sc.: 1:200

S1 S3 S5
M1 M2 M3
S2 S4 S6
S10 S9 S8 S7
M7 M6 M5 M4
1 2 3 4 5 6
126
Bay Detail Column Erection Sc.: 1:50
S1
M1
12
S2
12
127
Cross Section Erection Fazes Columns Sc. 1:100

12
7,5
6
12
3,13
4,3
19,23
2
11.35
+9.45
II
16,1
12,8
11,65
III
4,3
-0.20
1
0,40,5
1,15
0,6
2
0,4
128
Detail Plan Erection Procedure for Transverse Girder Beams Sc.: 1:200
GPT
C
4,5
6
G11
G1
G3
G6
G8
G9
12
7,5
6
6
M1 T1 M2 T2 M3 T3
B
24
Crane route
6
6
7,5
Trailer route
G10
G12
G2
G4
G5
G7
12
6
6
4,5
12 12 12 12 12
56
1 2 3 4 5 6
129
Bay Detail Transverse Girder Beams Erection Sc.: 1:50
Route trailer
prefabricat G3
11,95 T1
M1
G1 G2
12 12
24
130
Cross Section Erection Transverse Girder Beams Sc. 1:100
III
II
0.5
10.95
2.89
16.19
12 12
131
Detail Plan Erection Procedure for Roof Slab Sc.: 1:200
M12 M24
M11 M23
T22 T33
C EA1GR
M10 T21 M22 T32
EA2
T1 T20 T13 T31 T34
EA3
M9 T19 M21 T19
EA4
T2 T14 T35
12
EA5
T18 T30
EA6 T3 T15 T36
M8 T17 M20 T29
M1 T4 M13 T16 M25 T37
B T16 T28
24
T5 M7 T17 M19 T38
11,02
11,02
11,02
T15 T27
M2 T6 M14 T18 M26 T39
T14 T26
T7 T19 T40
traseu macara
12 T13 T25
T8 T20 T41
M3 T12 M15 T24 M27
T9 T21 T42
A M4 T10 M16 T22 M28 T43
T11 T23 T44
M5 M17 M29
M6 M18 M30
12 12 12 12 12
56
1 2 3 4 5 6
132
Bay Detail Roof Slab Erection Sc.: 1:50
EA1GR
Route trailer
1,5
EA2
1
.18
T1
1 =10
EA3
.02 R1
EA4 T2
0
=1
R2
12
EA5 2
=8.5
R3 T3
EA6
3,56
.5 23
=9 1.0
T4
23
M1
R5 4=1
23
R
8.0
1,23
R 6=
traseu macara
T5
5,24
.5 23
=9 1.0
T6
23
R8 7=1
M2 23
R
8.0
R9=
5
7.8
0=
R1
M3
133
Cross Section Erection Fazes Roof Slabs Sc. 1:100
III
II
0.5
10.95
2.89
16.19
12 12
C B A
134
REFERENCES
6-1 Andres C., Smith R., Principles and Practices of Heavy Construction. Prentice Hall, USA, 1998.
6-2 Commonwealth of Kentucky Transportation Cabinet, Department of Highways. Division of Materials
Frankfort Kentucky. Precast/Prestressed Concrete Manual, USA, 2002.
6-3 Domşa J., Vescan V., Moga A., Tehnologia lucrărilor de construcţii. Editura Institutului Politehnic Cluj-
Napoca, 1988.
6-4 Forster G.: Building organization and procedures. Longman Scientific and Technical, England, 1988.
6-5 Fulletron R.L.: Construction Technology . Level 1. Oxford University Press, 1980.
6-6 Ghibu M., Gheorghiu N., Otel A., Suman R., Tehnologii moderne. Editura Tehnică, 1989.
6-7 Gould F., Joyce N. Construction Project Management. Second Edition. Prentice Hall, 2003.
6-9 IPCT, Nomenclator de elemente prefabricate din beton armat si beton precomprimat, vol. 1, 1988.
6-10 Murphy R. W., Site engineering. Construction Press. Astros Printing Limited, 1983.
6-11 Popa R., Teodorescu M., Montarea elementelor prefabricate de beton armat, beton precomprimat si
metalice. ICB, 1992.
6-12 Popa R., Teodorescu M., Tehnologia lucrarilor de constructii. Ed. ICB, Bucuresti, 1984.
6-13 Suman R., Ghibu M., Gheorghiu N., Oara C., Otel A., Tehnologii moderne în construcţii. Editura Tehnică,
Bucureşti, 1988.
6-14 Suman R., Pop S., Execuţia lucrărilor de construcţii. Editura Tehnică Bucureşti, 1989.
6-15 Trelea A., Popa R., ş.a., Tehnologia construcţiilor.Vol.1. Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1997.
6-16 STAS 6657/3-89. Concrete, reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete elements – procedures,
instrumentation and devices for characteristic geometry checks.
6-17 C 156-89. Handbook for the application of STAS 6657/3-89 prescriptions - Concrete, reinforced concrete
and prestressed concrete elements – procedures, instrumentation and devices for characteristic geometry
checks.
6-18 P 119-83. Instructiuni tehnice pentru proiectarea, executarea si exploatarea cailor de rulare pe grinzi de
beton armat.
6-19 Technical Specifications ECCON.
6-20 Technical Specifications BUMAR – LABEDY S.A.
6-21 Technical Specifications LIEBHERR-Werk Nenzing Gmbh.
6-22 Technical Specifications TELEMAC HTA.
ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS CONVERSION TABLE

1 in = 25,4 mm (exact value)
mm millimeter 0,1 daN/cm2 = 1 MPa = 1 N/mm2
1 kgf = 9,80665 N (exact value)
m meter
2
1 kgf m = 9,80665 N m = 9,80665 J
mm square millimeter 1 kgf s/m2 = 9,80665 Pa s
m2 square meter 1 kgfm / s = 9,80665 W
m 3
cubic meter 1 kgf / cm2 = 0,980665 bar (exact value)
1 kgf / cm2 = 1 at = 0,980665 x 10 5 bar
kg kilogram 1 kgf / m2 = 1 mm H2O = 0,0980665 mbar
t tone (1000 kg) = 9,80665 Pa
no. number 1 Torr = 1,333224 mbar
1 bar = 9,8 N/cm2 = 0,098 N/mm2 = 9,8 x
hr hour 102 daN
km kilometer 1 mm Hg = 1 Torr = 1,333224 mbar =
l liter 133,3224 Pa
1oC = (1oF-32)x5/9
% per cent 1 CP = 0,735499 kW
m/d man day Newton (N) = kg m/s2 = kilograms x
9.80665
Pascal (Pa) = N/m2
135

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Department of Civil, Urban and Construction Engineering

2.1. General Considerations .............................. 25 CHAPTER 6. CONCRETE WAREHOUSE

CHAPTER 1. CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

- Exposure conditions (constructions protected against rain and humidity, frost-thaw

1.3. DETERMINATION OF JOB PARAMETERS

Environment conditions (table 1-2) ⇒ class of exposure

Requirements of grade and durability (table 1-3 and 1-4).

Table 1-3 ⇒ suggested w/c ratio.

Table 1-4 ⇒ suggested minimum cement content C (kg/m3).

Table 1-1 ⇒ suggested slump T (mm).

Table 1-5 ⇒ suggested minimum cement content c (kg/m3).

Dmax ≤ minimum dimension of bearing member/4;

Dmax ≤ thickness of slab/3;

Table 1-10, 1-11, 1-12 ⇒ Recommended cement type and grade.

Table 1-5 ⇒ recommended water-cement maximum ratio.

Table 1-13 ⇒ w (kg/m3)

Correction of water quantity according to maximum nominal size aggregate ⇒

Table 1-16 ⇒ suggested w/c ratio.

Ag = ρag x (1000 – C/ρc - A'/ρa - p) [kg/m3]

Where:ρag = relative density of aggregates (2,7 kg/dm3);

Table 1-7 ⇒ percentage limits of aggregate passing.

Adjusted amount of water: A* = A' - ∆A (kg/m3)

Where:Agi - amount of aggregate form sieve "i' (kg);

9. Total mass of concrete produced:

1.4. EXAMPLE OF CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

B. Durability conditioning of concrete:

C. Preliminary procedures for determining the quality mix proportions of concrete

100 ±20 mm).

2. Minimum cement content:

b) Nominal maximum size of aggregates:

Dmax ≤ minimum dimension of bearing member/4;

Dmax ≤ thickness of slab/3;

D max ≤ 1/3 x c = 1/3 x 25 = 32,5 mm ;

D max ≤ 1/4 x b = 1/4 x 200 = 50 mm ;

to be simultaneously respected, results Dmax ≤ 31 mm. We chose Dmax = 31 mm.

c) Gradation of aggregate particles:

From table 1-13, w = 200 l/m3

Aag = ρag x (1000 – C/ρc - A'/ρa - p) [kg/m3]

x(217,75 + 380,5 + 181,53 + 363,06) = 22,85 kg/m

x(363,06 + 254,08) = 6,17 kg/m

ΔA = ΔAn + ΔA p = 22,85 + 6,17 = 29,02 kg/m3

Adjusted amount of water: A* = A' - ∆A = 200 – 29,02 = 170,97 kg/m3

Where:Aagi - amount of aggregate form sieve "i' (kg);

Aag * = Σ A*agi = 1789,0 kg/m3

9. Total mass of concrete produced:

b). Moderate chemical aggressive environment

b). C 18/22,5 P8 - 0,50

Table 1-7. Upper and lower limits of gradation

Sulfate resistant cements

C 12/15 Reinforced CEM IIA - 32,5 N CEMIIB- 32,5(1)N;

2 Massive members or < C 12/15 Plain H III/A - 32,5 N H II/B-S;

Table 1-13. Estimated mixing water requirement for various slumps

CHAPTER 2. RATE OF CONCRETE PLACEMENT ROUGH

CHAPTER 3. CONCRETE FORMWORK DESIGN

Figure 3-2 (a). Plywood panel formwork

Figure 3-2 (b). a,b,c and

Caption: a. PVC pipe spacer; b. Plastic cone; c. Latch; d. Clamp