D

ENVIRONMENTAL HYDROLOGY –Course Short Note

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES, DIRE DAWA
UNIVERSITY

Course Code: GeES 2024; Cr Hr. 3

Compiled By

YONAS T.

Sept.2021

Chapter one
1. CONCEPT OF HYDROLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYDROLOGY
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1.1 Definition of Hydrology and Environmental Hydrology

What is Hydrology? The term hydrology is derived from Greek words – hydor, meaning
"water" and logos, meaning "study". Thus, broadly, hydrology is the study of water. However,
there are many definitions of hydrology; among which, the most important one, proposed by the
UNESCO (1979), is Hydrology is the physical science which treats the waters of the Earth,
their occurrence, circulation and distribution, their chemical and physical properties, and their
reaction with the environment, including their relation to living things.

Hydrology is one of the Earth Sciences, and is an interdisciplinary science, applying concepts
and tools of various sciences. It is a broad science, and is subdivided into several branches.
Environmental Hydrology is one of the several branches of hydrology.

Environmental Hydrology is concerned with the spatial and temporal distribution and movement
of water in all its forms and the interaction between water and the environment (living- and non-
living things) at the local, regional and global scale. Environmental Hydrology focuses on the
hydrosphere, particularly the relationship between hydrosphere and other environmental
spheres, (atmosphere, lithosphere and biosphere).

The hydrosphere is one of the four spheres/systems/ of the Earth ’s physical environment. The
other three environmental spheres are the atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. The
hydrosphere is often called the "water sphere"; it includes all the Earth's water. Water is found at,
beneath, and above the Earth’s surface in various storages/reservoirs/compartments, such as
oceans, streams, lakes, glaciers and ice sheets, in the soil, groundwater, and in the air and living
organisms.

The hydrosphere interacts with, affecting, and is affected by, all the other Earth spheres. The
water of the hydrosphere is distributed among several different stores found in the other spheres.
Water is held in oceans, lakes and streams at the surface of the Earth, in the soil and bedrocks, or
in the lithosphere. Water is found in vapor, liquid and solid states in the air or atmosphere. Water
is also found in all living organisms or in the biosphere. The waters exist in these various stores
and spheres vary in amount and physical and chemical properties. In addition, water continually
moves between these storages and spheres and change its physical state by the process called the
hydrologic cycle.

1.2 Branches of Hydrology

Hydrology is a broad science and is subdivided into various disciplines; one of which is
Environmental Hydrology:- the course we defined in the preceding section and we are going to
discuss in detail in the proceeding units and topics. Some other branches of hydrology are the
following:
 Chemical Hydrology:- is the study of the chemical characteristics of water.

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 Ecohydrology :-is the study of interactions between organisms and the hydrologic cycle.
 Hydrogeology:- is the study of the presence and movement of ground water.
 Hydro informatics:- is the adaptation of information technology to hydrology and water
resources applications.
 Hydrometeorology:- is the study of the transfer of water and energy between land and water
body surfaces and the lower atmosphere.
 Surface Hydrology:- is the study of hydrologic processes that operate at or near Earth's
surface

 Watershed Hydrology :-is the study of the hydrologic systems of watersheds/drainage basins

 Engineering Hydrology or Water Resource Engineering:- is concerned with the planning,

analysis, design, construction and operation of projects for the control, utilization, and
management of water resources.

1.3 The Importance of Hydrology and Environmental Hydrology

The science of Hydrology and Environmental Hydrology are important in various aspects. Some
importance of studying Hydrology and Environmental Hydrology are the following:

 To understand the complex water system of the Earth or the hydrologic cycle .
The hydrologic cycle (or water cycle) is a continuous, complex system that involve movement,
and change in the physical state, of water across the various storages (atmosphere, oceans, lakes
and ponds, rivers and streams, glaciers, snowfields, soil, groundwater, organisms, etc.) through
various processes (evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff,
etc.).

 To solve water-related problems to the society: Water is one of our most important
natural resources. Without water, there would be no life on earth. The supply of water
available for our use is limited by nature. Although there is plenty of water on earth, it is not
always in the right place, at the right time and of the right quality. Adding to the problem is the
increasing evidence that chemical wastes improperly discarded yesterday are showing up in our
water supplies today.

Hydrologists play a vital role in finding solutions to water problems. They apply scientific
knowledge and tools to solve water-related problems to society; i.e., problems of quantity,
quality, and hazards. They may be concerned with:
 Finding water supplies for several domestic, agriculture, and industrial purposes;
 Controlling river flooding and soil erosion;

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 Preventing and controlling water pollution – preventing and cleaning up pollutants,

localizing sites for safe disposal of hazardous wastes, designing sewers and drainage
systems;

 Finding solutions to the environmental challenges of today and the future;

 Assessing the impacts of natural (e.g., climate) and anthropogenic (e.g., land use and land
cover) changes on the hydrological cycle or water resources/reservoirs/ and coming up with
solutions against such detrimental impacts; e.g., finding appropriate water management and
conservation techniques. This is the major concern of environmental hydrology.

Generally, hydrology has evolved as a science in response to the need to understand the complex
water systems of the Earth and help solve water problems. Hydrology is important in the
assessment, utilization, and management of the water resources at all levels.

Global water resources

Introduction

Water resources are used in various ways including direct consumption, agricultural irrigation,
fisheries, hydropower, industrial production, recreation, navigation, environmental protection,
the disposal and treatment of sewage, and industrial effluents. Water has sources and supplies,
economic, social, and political characteristics which make it a unique and challenging natural
resource to manage.

Sources and Supplies

Water resources refer to the supply of ground water and surface water in a given area. Water
resources may also reference the current or potential value of the resource to the community
and the environment. The maximum rate that water is potentially available for human use and
management is often considered the best measure of the total water resources of a given
region. Approximately 30 percent of the world’s fresh water is in liquid form and therefore
potentially accessible for human use and management at any given time. The rest is either

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locked up in polar or glacial ice or water vapor. Of the 30 percent of fresh water in liquid form,
almost all is held in ground waters.

Historically, attempts to develop global assessments of available water resources have resulted
in limited applicability. The usefulness of resulting aggregated quantities, based upon stream
flow and population calculations, which lead to measurements in terms of relative abundance
and shortages of water regionally, have often been unreliable. The extreme difficulty in
preparing a global assessment stems from the general lack of sufficient and reliable information
on water availability, quality, and water use in many areas of the world. Efforts to balance
supply and demand, and plans for a sustainable future are severely hampered by this lack of
reliable information. Studies of water resources leading to meaningful assessments have been
found to be realistic only if conducted on a regional or local basis. Only then has proper
accounting of seasonal and inter-annual variability of stream flow as well as interactions
between ground water and surface water been appropriately accounted for. Likewise, only
then have the potentials for reusing the water as it proceeds downstream and the balance of
in-steam and withdrawal uses been appropriately managed. Reductions in scale also allow
assessments of water quality in determining suitability for use, and perhaps most importantly
the realistic evaluation of social, economic, and political factors that help determine per-capita
water use.

Global available Water Resources

The earth surfaces is 70% covered with water the total volume of water on earth is about
1,390,000,000 Km3. If this volume of water could be evenly distributed over the globe it would
cover its surface to depth of 2.7 kilometers (Oudshoorn, 1997).

Although this water volume is essential for development of life on earth, it is not always suitable
or accessible for human consumption. More than 97.5% is sea water, more than 1.75% is locked
in ice caps and glaciers, and more than 98% of the remaining 0.75%(about 10,000,000km) is
ground water and too deep under the surface (>800m) to be exploited. With in reasonable access

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is, less than 4,500,000km of which about 4,000,000km is ground water and, 12,000km is in the
atmosphere. Only about 102,000km3 of water is in rivers, lakes and the sub-soil. This amount of
water humans have to share with all other life in the biosphere ( Ayibotele 1992 in Oudshoorn,
1997). Fortunately, this small fraction of the planets water is renewed and made fresh by nature`s
solar powder water cycle. Each year, 570,000km 3 of water is evaporated in the form of moisture
into the atmosphere; 89% from the oceans and 11% from the land. An equal amount of moisture
precipitates on earth as rain, sleet or snow. However, it is distributed in a different proportion.
Whereas the continents lose about 63,000km3 through evaporation, they gain 110,000km3
through precipitation (Postel 1992 in Oudshoorn, 1997). As a result, roughly 45,000km 3 of water
is transformed from the sea to the land to feed the river systems. These rivers flow, with potential
access to man, back to the sea.

The constitute the world`s renewable fresh water supply, a supply that can be relied upon year
after year. This resource is about 45% of the total amount of water in lakes, rivers and immediate
underground. However, this water flow is unevenly distributed. For instance, not all the river
water on its way to sea is suitable for human consumption. Two thirds becomes floods, leaving
about 15,000km as relatively stable source of supply. It means that, relying upon this resource, at
the present population size, there is an annual supply 2500m3 per person to the earth`s fresh
water system. At the beginning of this century it was still a comfortable 9000m 3 per person. The
2500m3 per capital per year of today is still more than what society needs to support a moderate
standard of living for its people. However, for protecting of ecosystems in wetlands, delta`s lakes
and rivers, as well as for safeguarding water quality, a substantial share of this stable flow will
have to be left undistributed to run its natural course in order to maintain its integrity
(Oudshoorn,1997).

Although there is worldwide sufficient water for everyone, its distribution in space and time is
quite variable. There are important variations in the net water endowment situation (precipitation
minus evaporation). In addition, there are differences in the inter-annual variability of rainfall.

Population densities and water availability often are not compatible. For example, people are
living in water deficient areas such as the southwestern areas of the United States or in the
central part of the Middle East. The reason is either the favorable climatic conditions or cultural
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and historical background. Often all possible water sources, even the not sustainable and not
rechargeable, are used and misused under the increasing population pressure, until the situation
has become untenable (Oudshoorn,1997).

Earth's water distribution

Where is Earth's water located and in what forms does it exist? You can see how water is
distributed by viewing these bar charts. The left-side bar shows where the water on Earth
exists; about 97 percent of all water is in the oceans. The middle bar shows the distribution of
that three percent of all Earth's water that is fresh water. The majority, about 69 percent, is
locked up in glaciers and icecaps, mainly in Greenland and Antarctica. You might be surprised
that of the remaining fresh water, almost all of it is below your feet, as ground water. No
matter where on Earth you are standing, chances are that, at some depth, the ground below you
is saturated with water. Of all the freshwater on Earth, only about 0.3 percent is contained in
rivers and lakes—yet rivers and lakes are not only the water we are most familiar with, it is
also where most of the water we use in our everyday lives exists.

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Chapter two

Water Balance Estimation

Water balance estimation is an important tool to assess the current status and trends in water
resource availability in an area over a specific period of time. Furthermore, water balance
estimates strengthen water management decision-making, by assessing and improving the
validity of visions, scenarios and strategies.

What Is Water Balance Estimation?

Water balance is the ratio between water inflow and outflow estimated for different space and
time scale, i.e for the Earth as a whole, for ocean, continents, countries, natural-economic
regions, and river basins, for long-term period or for particular years and seasons. Water balance

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is most important integral physiographic characteristic of any territory, determining its specific
climate features, typical landscapes, possible water management and land-use.

Analysis of water balance components for individual territories and time intervals is of great
importance for studies of hydrological cycle or water circulation in the atmosphere-hydrosphere-
lithosphere system, as well as the underlying processes influenced by natural factors and human
activities.

Precipitation, evaporation, river runoff and ground water outflow not drained by river systems
are basic components determining water balance.

In the natural environment, water is almost constantly in motion and is able to change state from
liquid to a solid or a vapor under appropriate conditions. Conservation of mass requires that,
within a specific area over a specific period of time, water inflows are equal to water outflows,
plus or minus any change of storage within the area of interest. Put more simply, the water
entering an area has to leave the area or be stored within the area. The simplest form of water
balance equation is as follows:

P = Q + E ± ∆S

Where, P is precipitation, Q is runoff, E is evaporation and ∆S is the storage in the soil, aquifers
or reservoirs.

 The ∆ symbol stands for change in, so ∆storage reads as Change in storage. Because we
calculate the annual budget to date when the soil moisture storage is assumed to be the same as
the soil moisture storage on that date a year ago, the change in storage is zero, and the ∆storage
value in our water budget equation is 0.

A Water Balance Analysis Can Be Used to:

 Assess the current status and trends in water resource availability in an area over a
specific period of time.

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 Strengthen water management decision-making, by assessing and improving the validity

of visions, scenarios and strategies. 

Water balance estimates are often presented as being precise. In fact, there is always uncertainly,
arising from inadequate data capture networks, measurement errors and the complex spatial and
temporal heterogeneity that characterizes hydrological processes. Consequently, uncertainty
analysis is an important part of water balance estimation as is quality control of information
before used.

When the data sources are imprecise, it is often possible to omit components that do not affect
changes. For example, it is possible to omit storage from an annual water balance if year-on-year
storage changes (such as reservoirs) are negligible.

Some common problems that occur when water balance estimations are made include: 

 Temporal and spatial boundaries are not defined.

 The quality of input data is poor.

 Double counting of water flows when water flows within an area added to water
flow exiting area.

 Inappropriate extrapolation of field level information to a larger scale. Many

hydrological relationships are scale dependent (e.g. runoff as a proportion of
rainfall is almost always higher at smaller spatial and temporal scales).

 Intuition (often based on popular myths) is used rather than good quality
information.

 The storage term(s) of the water balance is omitted.

 Political or other pressures result in unreliable estimates that have been

manipulated.

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Components of hydrological cycle

The scientific discipline in the field of physical geography that deals with the water cycle is
called hydrology. It is concerned with the origin, distribution, and properties of water on the
globe. Consequently, the water cycle is also called the hydrologic cycle in many scientific
textbooks and educational materials. Most people have heard of the science of meteorology and
many also know about the science of oceanography because of the exposure that each discipline
has had on television. People watch TV weather personalities nearly every day. Celebrities such
as Jacques Cousteau have helped to make oceanography a commonly recognized science. In a
broad context, the sciences of meteorology and oceanography describe parts of a series of global
physical processes involving water that are also major components of the science of hydrology.
Geologists describe another part of the physical processes by addressing groundwater movement
within the planet's subterranean features. Hydrologists are interested in obtaining measurable
information and knowledge about the water cycle. Also important is the measurement of the
amount of water involved in the transitional stages that occur as the water moves from one
process within the cycle to other processes. Hydrology, therefore, is a broad science that utilizes
information from a wide range of other sciences and integrates them to quantify the movement of
water. The fundamental tools of hydrology are based in supporting scientific techniques that
originated in mathematics, physics, engineering, chemistry, geology, and biology. Consequently,
hydrology uses developed concepts from the sciences of meteorology, climatology,
oceanography, geography, geology, glaciology, limnology (lakes), ecology, biology, agronomy,
forestry, and other sciences that specialize in other aspects of the physical, chemical or biological
environment. Hydrology, therefore, is one of the interdisciplinary sciences that is the basis for
water resources development and water resources management.

The global water cycle can be described with nine major physical processes which form a
continuum of water movement. Complex pathways include the passage of water from the
gaseous envelope around the planet called the atmosphere, through the bodies of water on the
surface of earth such as the oceans, glaciers and lakes, and at the same time (or more slowly)

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passing through the soil and rock layers underground. Later, the water is returned to the
atmosphere. A fundamental characteristic of the hydrologic cycle is that it has no beginning and
it has no end. It can be studied by starting at any of the following processes: evaporation,
condensation, precipitation, interception, infiltration, percolation, transpiration, runoff, and
storage.

The information presented below is a greatly simplified description of the major contributing
physical processes. They include:

PRECIPITATION

Precipitation is the process that occurs when any and all forms of water particles fall from the
atmosphere and reach the ground. There are two sub-processes that cause clouds to release
precipitation, the coalescence process and the ice-crystal process. As water drops reach a critical
size, the drop is exposed to gravity and frictional drag. Falling drop leaves a turbulent wake
behind which allows smaller drops to fall faster and to be overtaken to join and combine with the
lead drop. The other sub-process that can occur is the ice-crystal formation process. It occurs
when ice develops in cold clouds or in cloud formations high in the atmosphere where freezing
temperatures occur. When nearby water droplets approach the crystals some droplets evaporate
and condense on the crystals. The crystals grow to a critical size and drop as snow or ice pellets.
Sometimes, as the pellets fall through lower elevation air, they melt and change into raindrops.

Precipitated water may fall into a water body or it may fall onto land. It is then dispersed several
ways. The water can adhere to objects on or near the planet surface or it can be carried over and
through the land into stream channels, or it may penetrate into the soil, or it may be intercepted
by plants.

When rainfall is small and infrequent, a high percentage of precipitation is returned to the
atmosphere by evaporation.

RUNOFF

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The portion of precipitation that appears in surface streams is called runoff. Runoff may consist
of component contributions from such sources as surface runoff, subsurface runoff, or ground
water runoff.

Runoff is flow from a drainage basin or watershed that appears in surface streams. It generally
consists of the flow that is unaffected by artificial diversions, storages or other works that society
might have on or in a stream channel. The flow is made up partly of precipitation that falls
directly on the stream, surface runoff that flows over the land surface and through channels,
subsurface runoff that infiltrates the surface soils and moves laterally towards the stream, and
groundwater runoff from deep percolation through the soil horizons. Part of the subsurface flow
enters the stream quickly, while the remaining portion may take a longer period before joining
the water in the stream. When each of the component flows enter the stream, they form the total
runoff. The total runoff in the stream channels is called stream flow and it is generally regarded
as direct runoff or base flow.

Surface Runoff

Surface runoff travels over the ground surface and through surface channels to leave a catchment
area called a drainage basin or watershed. The portion of the surface runoff that flows over the
land surface towards the stream channels is called overland flow. The total runoff confined in the
stream channels is called the stream flow.

When the ground becomes saturated (either from rainfall or snowmelt), some of the water runs
off the surface as saturated overland flow. This usually occurs as a result of rainstorms or high
spring snowmelt when the available water exceeds the soil's infiltration rate. Surface runoff also
can occur when precipitation encounters relatively impermeable surfaces, such as hardened soils,
surficial bedrock, or human-made structures such as pavement or buildings. Surface runoff enters
a stream more rapidly than does groundwater, and produces a more noticeable response in stream
flow. Mountainous areas have an additional component to stream flow: namely, the melt water
from snow and ice.

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A typical stream hydrograph illustrates the response of the stream to rainfall events: stream
discharge peaks following heavy rainfall, and then subsides quickly during dry weather. In
contrast, baseflow (the amount of streamflow provided by groundwater) responds more
gradually. In this example, groundwater accounts for more than half of the stream's annual flow.
Peaks in the spring or early summer, and causes streamflows to increase and decrease gradually,
over days or weeks. Flow response from a rainfall event is faster, and can even be observed
within hours (or less) in small basins and in basins with a low degree of permeability.

INTERCEPTION
Interception is the process of interrupting the movement of water in the chain of transportation
events leading to streams. The interception can take place by vegetal cover or depression storage
in puddles and in land formations such as rills and furrows.

When rain first begins, the water striking leaves and other organic materials spreads over the
surfaces in a thin layer or it collects at points or edges. When the maximum surface storage
capability on the surface of the material is exceeded, the material stores additional water in
growing drops along its edges. Eventually the weight of the drops exceed the surface tension and
water falls to the ground. Wind and the impact of rain drops can also release the water from the
organic material. The water layer on organic surfaces and the drops of water along the edges are
also freely exposed to evaporation.

Additionally, interception of water on the ground surface during freezing and sub-freezing
conditions can be substantial. The interception of falling snow and ice on vegetation also occurs.
The highest level of interception occurs when it snows on conifer forests and hardwood forests
that have not yet lost their leaves.

INFILTRATION
Infiltration is the physical process involving movement of water through the boundary area
where the atmosphere interfaces with the soil. The surface phenomenon is governed by soil
surface conditions. Water transfer is related to the porosity of the soil and the permeability of the
soil profile. Typically, the infiltration rate depends on the puddling of the water at the soil
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surface by the impact of raindrops, the texture and structure of the soil, the initial soil moisture
content, the decreasing water concentration as the water moves deeper into the soil filling of the
pores in the soil matrices, changes in the soil composition, and to the swelling of the wetted soils
that in turn close cracks in the soil.

Water that is infiltrated and stored in the soil can also become the water that later is evapo-
transpired or becomes subsurface runoff.

EVAPORATION
Evaporation occurs when the physical state of water is changed from a liquid state to a gaseous
state. A considerable amount of heat, about 600 calories of energy for each gram of water, is
exchanged during the change of state. Typically, solar radiation and other factors such as air
temperature, vapor pressure, wind, and atmospheric pressure affect the amount of natural
evaporation that takes place in any geographic area. Evaporation can occur on raindrops, and on
free water surfaces such as seas and lakes. It can even occur from water settled on vegetation,
soil, rocks and snow. There is also evaporation caused by human activities. Heated buildings
experience evaporation of water settled on its surfaces. Evaporated moisture is lifted into the
atmosphere from the ocean, land surfaces, and water bodies as water vapor. Some vapor always
exists in the atmosphere.

TRANSPIRATION
Transpiration is the biological process that occurs mostly in the day. Water inside of plants is
transferred from the plant to the atmosphere as water vapor through numerous individual leave
openings. Plants transpire to move nutrients to the upper portion of the plants and to cool the
leaves exposed to the sun. Leaves undergoing rapid transpiration can be significantly cooler than
the surrounding air. Transpiration is greatly affected by the species of plants that are in the soil
and it is strongly affected by the amount of light to which the plants are exposed. Water can be
transpired freely by plants until a water deficit develops in the plant and it water-releasing cells
(stomata) begin to close. Transpiration then continues at a must slower rate. Only a small portion
of the water that plants absorb are retained in the plants.

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Vegetation generally retards evaporation from the soil. Vegetation that is shading the soil,
reduces the wind velocity. Also, releasing water vapor to the atmosphere reduces the amount of
direct evaporation from the soil or from snow or ice cover. The absorption of water into plant
roots, along with interception that occurs on plant surfaces offsets the general effects that
vegetation has in retarding evaporation from the soil. The forest vegetation tends to have more
moisture than the soil beneath the trees.

Water Surplus and Deficit

The information collated by organisations such as the United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) and the projections of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) forecast grave situations for future water supply. By 2050, it is predicted that 15 per cent
of the world’s countries will be experiencing water deficiency, most of which are in the Middle
East and North Africa region. There are, however, still many countries with an abundance of
water. Water redistribution can occur in various ways, including water shipping, water
management and virtual water trade. Water availability for the future rests upon good
management of the water we have now.

A good starting point is to determine what constitutes a water surplus country. When water
availability in a country exceeds the water requirements for food production and domestic use,
the country can be viewed as being in water surplus. A water surplus country is one which has
more than 1,300 cubic metres of water available for food production and domestic use (total
available renewable water resources) per capita per year.

Total available renewable water resources (TARWR) are an index used to portray the water
resources that are available for development from all sources in a particular country. This
includes surface water runoff, groundwater recharge from precipitation and external flow. It
also takes into account the portion of water allotted to a country from water resources shared
internationally. The volume is expressed in cubic kilometres per year unless it is divided by the
nation’s population, in which case it is expressed in cubic metres per capita per year.

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Although this requirement is helpful in understanding water volumes available to each country,
it does not take into account water quality or water accessibility. Further, it does not take into
account the fact that some countries, although technically enjoying water surplus, may be
undergoing water stress due to high water usage rates. The definition also does not take into
account that there could be significant differences within the one country, where some areas
enjoy water surpluses while other regions experience deficits. Recognising these limitations, the
definition nonetheless provides a good benchmark in determining water surplus or deficit
countries.

Water surplus countries have certain geographical, management and water usage
characteristics that provide useful parameters in determining how countries can remain, or
become, water surplus countries.

Water surplus regions have geographical characteristics such as good rainfall resulting in good
run off, aquifers, large bodies of freshwater sources (lakes, rivers etc), and low evaporation
rates (due to humidity or low flow rate of fresh air, cold water evaporates slower).

Water surplus regions also have management characteristics such as effective water
management ensuring against water pollution, premium water quality and fair treaties and
agreements for shared water resources.

In addition, these water surplus regions have water usage characteristics such as low
population and effective usage of available water supplies. These geographical, management
and usage characteristics are shared by most, but not all, regions of water surplus.

Countries with water surpluses are generally located in South America, North America,
Northern Europe (including Russia), South East Asia, Australasia and some African Countries in
the Congo Basin.

Most countries with water deficits are located in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA)
region and Central Asia.
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Currently, 166 countries enjoy a water surplus. Of these, 62 countries could be viewed as
having an abundance of water with 10,000 cubic metres per capita per year – more than seven
times the per capita basic requirements. Seven countries have in excess of 100,000 cubic
metres per capita per year: Republic of the Congo, French Guiana, Greenland, Guyana, Iceland,
Papua New Guinea and Suriname.

Chapter three

Water residences and processes

Soil water

Soils can process and contain considerable amounts of water. They can take in water, and will
keep doing so until they are full, or the rate at which they can transmit water into, and through,
the pores is exceeded. Some of this water will steadily drain through the soil (via gravity) and
end up in the waterways and streams. But much of it will be retained, away from the influence of
gravity, for use of plants and other organisms to contribute to land productivity and soil health.

Soil water retentionThe spaces that exist between soil particles, called pores, provide for the
passage and/or retention of gasses and moisture within the soil profile. The soil’s ability to retain
water is strongly related to particle size; water molecules hold more tightly to the fine particles of
a clay soil than to coarser particles of a sandy soil, so clays generally retain more water.
Conversely, sands provide easier passage or transmission of water through the profile. Clay type,
organic content and soil structure also influence soil water retention.

The maximum amount of water that a given soil can retain is called field capacity, whereas a soil
so dry that plants cannot liberate the remaining moisture from the soil particles is said to be at
wilting point. Available water is that which the plants can utilize from the soil within the range
of field capacity and wilting point.

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Soil water retention and organisms

Soil water retention is essential to life. It provides an ongoing supply of water to plants between
periods of replenishment (infiltration) so as to allow their continued growth and survival. Over
much of temperate Victoria, Australia, for example, this effect is seasonal and even inter-annual;
the retained soil water that has accumulated in preceding wet winters permits survival of most
perennial plants over typically dry summers when monthly evaporation exceeds rainfall.

Soil water retention and climate

Soil moisture has an effect on the thermal properties of a soil profile, including conductance and
heat capacity, the association of soil moisture and soil thermal properties has a significant effect
on temperature-related biological triggers, including seed germination, flowering and faunal
activity.

Recent climate modeling suggests a strong linkage between soil moisture and the persistence and
variability of surface temperature and precipitation; further, that soil moisture is a significant
consideration for the accuracy of “inter-annular” predications regarding the Australian climate.

Soil water retention, water balance and other influences

The role of soil in retaining water is significant in terms of the hydrological cycle; including the
relative ability of soil to hold moisture and changes in soil moisture over time:

 Soil water that is not retained or used by plants may continue downward through the
profile and contribute to the water table, the permanently saturated zone at the base of the
profile – this is termed recharge. Soil that is at field capacity (among other reasons) may
preclude infiltration so to increase overland flow. Both effects are associated with ground
and surface water supplies, erosion and salinity.
 Soil water can affect the structural integrity or coherence of a soil – saturated soils can
become unstable and result in structural failure and mass movement. Soil water, its

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changes over time and management are of interest to geo-technicians and soil
conservationists with an interest in maintaining soil stability.

Stream Hydrology

Streams are created when excess water from rain, snowmelt, or near-surface groundwater
accumulates on the ground surface and begins to run downhill. This excess water from rain or
snowmelt generally occurs when the water accumulates at a faster rate than the soil and organic
matter (e.g., dead and decaying vegetation) can absorb the water, plants can use it, or the water
can be evaporated into the air.

Groundwater also may create a stream, or may add to its flow. For example, water may emerge
from the ground as a spring, forming the headwaters of a stream. Farther down slope, shallow
groundwater adjacent to a stream (e.g., in adjoining stream banks) or beneath the streambed also
may contribute water to the stream.

Regardless of its water source, a stream follows the lowest places in the landscape, joining other
rivulets from other low spots on the landscape. These small first-order and second-order streams
may in turn join larger third-order streams, and so on, creating a dendritic drainage network
within the watershed.

As the smaller streams join one another, the accumulated water's quantity and velocity increase,
and the water begins to cut into Earth's surface, creating its own pathway. With time and
differing flows, the stream modifies its pathway. This may cause problems for people who have
assumed that the stream will keep to its original path. But the stream plays a balancing act among
the volume of water it carries, the amount of sediment available, and the ground it must traverse.

Stream flow (Discharge)

The volume of water in a stream moving down slope at a given time, known as stream flow or
stream discharge, is a combination of surface-water runoff and base flow. Stream flow varies as
these component amounts vary.

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Flow within the River

As water flows over a surface, the surface creates some resistance, and water closest to the
ground is slowed. As the depth of the water deepens, this slowing near the ground and increasing
away from the streambed becomes more noticeable. Measurements made in a variety of streams
shows that velocity increases as the logarithm of the distance from the bottom of the stream
channel. Where the soil has enough cohesiveness (either innately or because of root systems) to
create walls along the stream's bank, these walls also create some resistance, so the velocity is
slowed near the sides of the channel. The overall effect of this slowing at the edges is that the
water in the center moves the fastest.

Stream Form

The interaction between water and Earth's surface results in some fairly commonly observed
stream shapes. In the mountains, when the water is shallow and the rocks large, the water moves
around and over the obstacles. This is termed a cascade. Further down slope, where sediment is
available and water has enough energy to move the sediment through the river system, meanders
(curves) may form. This is probably the shape most commonly associated with rivers. Many
studies have taken place and many theories developed to try to explain the cause and
characteristics of the meander, using mathematics, physics, and theories of conservation of
energy. At the end of the system, where drainage is more developed, where sediment supply is
high, and/or where the stream has less energy (perhaps as a result of a lower gradient), the river
may become braided (intertwined).

Groundwater and Base flow

Ground water is the part of precipitation that enters the ground and percolates downward through
unconsolidated materials and openings in bedrock until it reaches the water table.

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Rainfall and snowmelt soak into the ground, where part of the water is then held by the soil. But
beyond a certain point, known as saturation, the soil begins transmitting the water it receives
through the soil and rock below. When these deeper geologic materials are saturated, the water
carried in these deeper geologic materials is called groundwater.

Groundwater can move through geologic materials in response to gravity or other external
forces. Ground water movement in gravels and sands is relatively rapid. Whereas it is
exceedingly slow in clay or in tiny rock fractures. The ability of geologic material to move
ground water is called hydraulic conductivity. Where this underground water naturally intersects
the land surface, it can directly or indirectly add water to an existing stream or lake. Where it
contributes water to a river or stream, it is called base flow. This water movement, sometimes
over a long distance as groundwater, is generally a slow process, but can provide a steady supply
of water to a stream. On average, groundwater supplies 30 to 40 percent of the water that flows
in streams; but of course this amount will vary widely from stream to stream and across different
geographic regions.

Ice and Snow Hydrology

Snow hydrology is the study of snow contributions to the hydrologic cycle, particularly
snowmelt, melt water movement within the snowpack, and melt water contributions to
surface runoff.

Snowfall, accumulation and melt are important hydrological processes in watersheds at high
altitudes or latitudes. In many western states in USA, snow melt accounts for a large percentage
of the spring runoff that serves as water supply to reservoirs, urban populations and
agricultural activities.

A large portion of snow hydrology groups are pursuing new methods for incorporating snow
hydrology into distributed models over complex terrain through theoretical developments,
model development and testing with field and remote sensing data sets. Snow hydrology is
quite complex and involves both mass and energy balance calculations over a time-varying

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snow pack which is influenced by spatial location in the watershed, interaction with vegetation
and redistribution by winds. Some researchers seek to accurately capture snow dynamics at a
point and over a domain as the spatial pattern of snow cover area is readily observable from
remote sensing.

Overview of Snow

Snow and ice accounts for around 68% of the earth ’s entire freshwater volume but lacks the
capability of reliable applications. In comparison, the water supplied from rivers and freshwater
lakes carries a consistent annual source of water. These natural bodies of water are formed
through springs, rainfall and mountainous snow runoff. According to estimates, snow
represents about 5% of the precipitation that reaches the Earth ’s surface. Due to the large
amount of water held within these sources, snow hydrology has been a growing study in the
field of river tides and seasonal flow rates.

Despite common belief, snow fall is not the main cause for the destruction of organic matter in
cold climates. The most damaging aspect is cold temperature winds that exist above the snow
pack surface. Studies have shown the insulating properties of snow defend the plants and small
animals in the environment from these frigid winds. “The snow itself is the habitat for various
micro-organisms like snow worms and algae.” Without consistent annual snowfall, many plants
would be destroyed due to frost damage. Both Ice worms (Mesenchytraeus Solifugus) and
green algae are unique organisms that can live in glacial and snowy habitats.

In most northern regions, melting of the seasonal snow cover is one of the most important events
of the water year. Snowmelt water recharges soil moisture and groundwater storage, and supplies
reservoirs, lakes, and rivers. For various countries of the world, stream flow generated from the
melting of seasonal snow cover is an important source of water for irrigation, hydropower, water
supply, and various other applications. Accurate information on both timing of seasonal rise in
snowmelt runoff and volume of snowmelt runoff is important for the management of water
resources. There are several factors affecting the initial time of runoff generated as a result of

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melting of snowpack. The timing of initial rise in stream flow depends on a variety of processes
that control the release of melt water to streams. Energy balance on snow surface, snow depth,
cold content of snowpack and underlying soil surface, internal accumulation of melt water,
topography of underlying surface, and clogging of channels are the important factors influencing
the release of melt water from snowpack.
This combination of processes can prevent the small quantities of initial snowmelt runoff from
flowing downstream, thereby adding a delay to the lags caused by the snowpack.
Watershed Hydrology

The term watershed describes an area of land that drains down slope to the lowest point. Water
moves through a network of drainage pathways, both underground and on the surface. These
pathways converge into streams and rivers, which become progressively larger as the water
moves on downstream, eventually reaching the ocean. Other terms used interchangeably with
watershed include drainage basin or catchment basin.

Watersheds can be large or small. Every stream, tributary, or river has an associated watershed,
and small watersheds join to become larger watersheds.

Flooding: Causes and Effects

Floods occur when a stream flows over its banks. Studies have identified the relationship
between flood frequency and volume within a stream channel. Estimates are that a river reaches
this "bank full discharge" once every 1 to 2 years, on average.

Flood events, particularly flash floods, often occur as a consequence of a storm with heavy or
sustained rainfall. Statistical and mathematical methods have been developed to estimate
volume, lag time, and duration of a flood based on the size (magnitude) of a rainfall event. These
estimates depend on the characteristics of an individual basin.

The volume of a given event can be estimated as the amount of rainfall minus the amount of
water lost in saturating the soil, minus the amount lost through a combination of evaporation to
the atmosphere and transpiration, evapo-transpiration.
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The lag time between the peak of a storm event and the flood peak is based on drainage basin
characteristics such as size, shape, gradient, presence of wetlands or lakes, and amount of
impermeable surface (such as concrete and asphalt). The lag time is shorter in smaller, steeper
drainages with impermeable surface, and longer in larger basins with forests, wetlands, and
lakes. Also, duration of the flood is longer than the storm itself because it takes time for water
falling in the basin to flow overland to reach streams and rivers. It also takes time for water in the
channel itself to carry this water to the basin's outflow point, such as a confluence with a larger
river.

When streams are at flood stage, some water moves from the stream into the stream bank. Some
of this water occurs as bank storage that flows directly back into the stream as its water level
drops. If the stream is hydraulically connected to an aquifer, however, a significant amount of the
water moves into the aquifer.

There are a few types of flood. A flood that rises and falls rapidly with little or no advance
warning is called a flash flood. They are usually the result from intense rainfall over a relatively
small area. Streams and rivers periodically flood and the adjacent dry lands that are covered are
called flood plains. The main causes of floods are heavy rains and fast-melting snow masses.
Coastal areas are occasionally flooded by unusually high tides caused by severe winds over the
ocean surfaces, or by tsunamis resulting from undersea earthquakes. Coastal flooding can also be
caused by intense rain squalls that accompany a hurricane.

The main cause of flooding is when a lot of rain falls in a few days. The ground becomes so wet
that no more rain can trickle through the earth. This rain runs into the rivers and the water level
quickly becomes much higher. The river cannot cope with this extra water and the water breaks
over the river banks. Countries like Bangladesh, where land is flat with high mountains, are often
flooded in the spring. Hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons can cause floods. These are very
strong winds which form over the seas and blow towards coastlines. The winds make the waves
in the sea much higher. The waves then crash onto the beach and flood the flat land by the coast.
Earthquakes also make possible flooding by shaking the earth causing tsunamis. The tsunamis
are big waves that travel towards the shore and flood the flat coastal land. Unusually high tides in

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spring can influence floods by an estuary. High waves, caused by the high tide, rush up the river
estuary. There is too much water in the river so the surrounding land is flooded when the river
banks burst. Finally dam failure can be the producer of a flood. If engineers do not open enough
of the dam holes in times of heavy rainfall, the water can then spill over the top of the dam. The
outcome of a flood can be catastrophic. Many things can happen as a result from a flood. Effects
of a flood can be seen everywhere afterwards. There can be broken roads and railway lines,
wrecked houses, electricity and gas supplies can be cut off, trees fall over, and bridges can even
collapse. There are also a few other effects from floods; diseases, people and animals killed,
crushed crops, smashed cars, etc.

Chapter Four

Uses of water

 Agricultural Use

The use of water for agriculture has changed the production of crops dramatically in the 20th
century. Agricultural use of water accounts for nearly 70% of the water used throughout the
world, and the majority of this water is used for irrigation. During the 1970s, the construction of
irrigation systems dramatically increased. Its rate of growth began to decrease in both developed
and developing countries in the 1980s. An increase in irrigation development guarantees an
increase in crop production in many countries. Irrigation allows the land that does not receive
enough precipitation annually to become land that can be used for productive agriculture.

On the negative side, irrigation of land causes salinization of the land that is being irrigated,
mostly in arid and semi-arid regions. Irrigation of cropland can increase the possibility fertilizers
and pesticides will infiltrate into the groundwater or runoff into nearby streams. Along with the
irrigation of crops, the farmers that have livestock must provide clean water for the livestock to
drink. With a growing world population, expected to increase by 2 billion people by the year
2030, agriculture needs to find a way to use less water or to use the water more efficiently.  

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There are several different systems that are used for irrigation purposes, including ditch
irrigation, terracing, overhead irrigation, center pivot irrigation, lateral move irrigation, and drip
or trickle irrigation. Irrigation of cropland has greatly increased production of food, but has also
had some drawbacks due to the amount of water that is being drawn from aquifers. Some of the
problems with irrigation are competition for surface water rights, depletion of underground
aquifers, ground subsidence, and buildup of toxic salts on soil surfaces in regions of high
evaporation rates, called salinization. These problems can be increased or be more detrimental
during periods of drought.

 Industrial use

Industries that produce metals, wood, paper, chemicals, gasoline, oils, and most other products
all use water in some part of their production process. Industry depends on water, much like
agriculture and domestic households depend on water. Industrial reliance on water makes it
essential to preserve water in every aspect possible and make sure water pollution is kept at
minimal levels.

Total industrial water use in the world is about 19%, with high-income countries using 59%, and
low-income countries using a minuscule 8%.

According to Water Science for Schools, annual water volume use by industry is increasing at an
enormous rate. Annual water volume use will most likely increase from 752 km3/year in 1995 to
1,170 km3/year by the year 2025.

Industry is reliant on water for all levels of production. It can be used as a raw material, solvent,
coolant, transport agent, and energy source. According to Environment Canada's website, many
liters of water are used to produce glass, plastic, along with some fabric components.

According to the UN World Water Development Report, some 300-500 million tons of heavy
metals, solvents, toxic sludge, and other wastes accumulate each year from industry, most of
which gets into the freshwater supply. In some developing countries, 70% of industrial wastes
are dumped into untreated waters where they pollute the drinking water.

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Car washes are a great example of an industry that uses gallons and gallons of water every day.
People in developed countries use them frequently without really thinking about all of the water
being used. It is the Core countries that use the majority of freshwater in industry, and the United
States leads the way. It is astounding if one thinks how much water is consumed by industry in
the future. It is predicted to represent 24% of the total freshwater withdrawal worldwide by 2025.

 Domestic use

Where there is water, there is life. Life exists around numerous uses of water which makes it
important for survival and luxury. It is a part of our biosphere that should not be overused,
ignored, or taken for granted. Because of this, water should be conserved to sustain our domestic
needs for the future.

As world population is constantly growing, the demand of water increases each and every day.
The luxuries of domestic uses of water have become a necessity to people in their homes and
backyards. Domestic water is normally characterized by its use inside and outside the home:
washing the dishes, cooking a meal, laundry, bathing, watering the lawn or garden, and other
household activities. Total domestic water use in the world is about 11%.

For example, in a typical home in the United States, approximately 50% of water is used in the
bathroom. The toilet makes up 26%, while the shower and sink use 23%. Outside of the house,
35% of water use is for lawn or garden care
Chapter Five

Water Pollution

Water pollution occurs when a body of water is adversely affected due to the addition of large
amounts of materials to the water. In addition thermal Pollution could also occur when the hot
water released by power plants or industrial processes increases, sometimes, the temperature
of rivers and reservoirs which reduces its ability to contain oxygen and affects the lives of
organisms.

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The sources of water pollution are categorized as being a point source or a non-source point of
pollution. Point sources of pollution occur when the polluting substance is emitted directly into
the waterway. A pipe spewing toxic chemicals directly into a river is an example. A non-point
source occurs when there is runoff of pollutants into a waterway, for instance when fertilizer
from a field is carried into a stream by surface runoff. Water pollution causes humans to suffer
with water born diseases.

Disease causing agents

Disease causing agents include viruses and bacteria, protozoa, worms that either enters from
domestic sewage and animal wastes or thrive in conditions which give them a competitive edge.

The extent of the problem:

More than one billion people worldwide drink unsafe water, A total of 3.4 million people,
mostly children, die every year from water-related diseases from drinking, swimming in or
washing clothes in polluted water. Diseases include malaria, diarrhea and guinea worm.

Bacteria:

Typhoid Fever: Diarrhea severe vomiting enlarged spleen, inflamed; often fatal if untreated
 Cholera: Diarrhea, severe vomiting dehydration often fatal if untreated
 Bacterial dysentery: Diarrhea; rarely fatal except in infants without proper treatment

 Enteritis: Severe stomach pain, vomiting; rarely fatal

Bacterial Diseases

Other major bacterial diseases frequently linked to consumption of drinking water are
caused by Shigella, Cholera, and Bacterial dysentery. All have multiple routes of
infection and may be transmitted through water, food, soil, or person-to-person contact.

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However, in each case, major outbreaks of these diseases have been linked to
consumption of contaminated water.

Viruses:

 Infectious Hepatitis: Fever, severe headache loss of appetite abdominal pain, jaundice
enlarged liver rarely fatal but may cause permanent liver damage
 Polio: High fever severe headache sore throat, stiff neck, deep muscle pain, severe
weakness, tremors, paralysis in legs, arms, and body; can be fatal

In many ways, viruses are the most poorly understood area of research on waterborne
disease. A number of authors have suggested that Norwalk virus and Norwalk-like
viruses are the major causes of both food- and waterborne illnesses worldwide.

Parasitic protozoa:

 Amoebic dysentery: Severe diarrhea, headache, abdominal pain, chills fever; if not
treated can cause liver abscess, bowel perforation and death
 Giardia: Diarrhea, abdominal cramps, flatulence belching, fatigue. Increasing number of
pets is picking up this parasite as well as humans.

Parasitic worms:

 Schistosomiasis: Abdominal pain, skin rash, anemia, chronic fatigue, and chronic
general ill health.

Solutions

In LDC countries, simple techniques such as drinking water which has been stored in plastic
bottles, whose bottoms were painted black, and exposed to intense sunlight for at least five
minutes is enough to kill most of the parasites in the water.

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Cultural practices, which encourage people to share their water supplies with domestic animals
or to use the same water supplies for drinking and waste increases diseases transmission. Here
better education can have a major impact.

Funding or help for towns to build wells for drinking water may be more important than
expensive water treatment plants. An estimated cost of $500-1000 per village well is enough to
significantly reduce infant/child mortality.

In MDC ( more developed countries) upgrading their old, antique water purifications centers,
better training of personnel in this centers, and decreasing nutrients which come from
fertilization of fields, domestic animal production centers would all help reduce disease
transmission.

Organic Substance

Organic pollution occurs when an excess of organic matter, such as manure or sewage, enters
the water. When organic matter increases in a pond, the number of decomposers will increase.
These decomposers grow rapidly and use a great deal of oxygen during their growth. This leads
to a depletion of oxygen as the decomposition process occurs. A lack of oxygen can kill aquatic
organisms. As the aquatic organisms die, they are broken down by decomposers which lead to
further depletion of the oxygen levels.

A type of organic pollution can occur when inorganic pollutants such as nitrogen and
phosphates accumulate in aquatic ecosystems. High levels of these nutrients cause an
overgrowth of plants and algae. As the plants and algae die, they become organic material in
the water. The enormous decay of this plant matter, in turn, lowers the oxygen level. The
process of rapid plant growth followed by increased activity by decomposers and a depletion of
the oxygen level is called eutrophication.

In simplest terms, eutrophication is a high concentration of nutrients in a body of water. These

nutrients -- usually nitrogen and phosphorous -- are food for aquatic organisms like algae,

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plankton or other microorganisms. Eutrophication can also occur outside of water; for example,
soils can be eutrophic when they have high levels of nitrogen, phosphorous or other nutrients.

Inorganic Chemicals

This group included acids, salts and toxic metals such as mercury and lead. If you are in high
amounts can cause severe damage to living things, reduce agricultural yields and oxidize the
equipment used to work with water.

Inorganic Plant Nutrients

Nitrates and phosphates are water soluble substances that plants need for their development,
but if found in excessive amount inducing excessive growth of algae and other organisms
causing eutrophication. When these algae and other plants die, being decomposed by
microorganisms, oxygen is depleted and it is impossible the lives of other living beings. The
result is a smelly water and unusable.

Sediments and suspended matter

Many particles torn from the ground and dragged into the water, along with other materials
that are suspended in water, are, in terms of total mass, the largest source of water pollution.
This causes turbidity in the water & makes life difficult for some organisms, and sediments that
accumulate feeding sites or destroy fish spawning.

Radioactive Substances

Radioactive substances from nuclear power plants and industrial, medical and scientific use are
also considered as contributors to the pollution of water. the world is becoming more and more
dependent on radioactive and nuclear energy. Reports state that there has been a tremendous
amount of radioactive and nuclear wastes being dumped into the water regions. Uranium and
thorium mining and refining are some of the examples. These wastes have a lot of side-effects

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on humans as well as aquatic life, and it is advisable to refrain from consuming water which has
traces of radioactive substances. It has been proved that water with radioactive substances
cause’s genetic disorders.

Ground Water and its pollution

Groundwater is rain water or water from surface water bodies, like lakes or streams that soaks
into the soil and bedrock and is stored underground in the tiny spaces between rocks and
particles of soil. Groundwater pollution occurs when hazardous substances come into contact
and dissolve in the water that has soaked into the soil.

Groundwater can become contaminated in many ways. If rain water or surface water comes
into contact with contaminated soil while seeping into the ground, it can become polluted and
can carry the pollution from the soil to the groundwater. Groundwater can also become
contaminated when liquid hazardous substances themselves soak down through the soil or rock
into the groundwater.

Groundwater contamination occurs when the pesticides, livestock waste and fertilizers infiltrate
through the soil and eventually reach the groundwater, which is called leaching. The problem
with fertilizers is that they contain nitrates, which are very soluble in water and are very hard to
remove, or cannot be removed from the water once they are in it. Leaching is more of a problem
in regions that contain sandy soils. The sandy soils are very permeable, allowing the water and
the nitrates, which are dissolved within the water to pass through the soil relatively fast before
being absorbed by the plants. Infiltration can be a large problem for contaminating groundwater
especially in regions with sandy soils.

Fertilizers and pesticides applied to crops eventually may reach underlying aquifers, particularly
if the aquifer is shallow and not "protected" by an overlying layer of low permeability material,
such as clay. Drinking-water wells located close to cropland sometimes are contaminated by
these agricultural chemicals.

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Point-source pollution refers to contamination originating from a single tank, disposal site, or
facility. Industrial waste disposal sites, accidental spills, leaking gasoline storage tanks, and
dumps or landfills are examples of point sources. Chemicals used in agriculture, such as
fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides are examples of nonpoint-source pollution because they are
spread out across wide areas. Similarly, runoff from urban areas is a nonpoint source of
pollution.

Because nonpoint-source substances are used over large areas, they collectively can have a larger
impact on the general quality of water in an aquifer than do point sources, particularly when
these chemicals are used in areas that overlie aquifers that are vulnerable to pollution. If impacts
from individual pollution sources such as septic system drain fields occur over large enough
areas, they are often collectively treated as a nonpoint source of pollution.

CHAPTER SIX

WATER CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT

Water shortage and pollution, the major problems of our world can only be corrected by
management and conservation of the available water supplies/reservoirs in an integrative and
sustainable manner. Governments in many countries have now established water resource
management programs that aim to provide a sustainable supply of high quality water in an
efficient and environmentally sound manner. A number of water management and conservation
techniques can be used to reduce water shortage and pollution. Some of them are the following:

A. Reducing Agricultural waste: As stated above, agriculture, particularly irrigation

consumes very large amount of water. Most irrigation systems deliver water to crops by flooding
the land surface, diverting water to fields via open channels, or by sprinkler systems. In general,
these methods are very inefficient as only 50% of the water applied is absorbed by the plants.
The rest is lost to the atmosphere by evaporation. Improved irrigation methods and other
strategies are beginning to reduce some consumptive losses and the overall agricultural water
use. These include:

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 Drip irrigation: This technique can reduce irrigation water use. Drip irrigation systems
release carefully regulated amounts of water just above plant roots, so that nearly all water is
used by plants.
 The cultivation of food crops that require less water for growth.
 The use of lined or covered irrigation canals to reduce infiltration and evaporation losses
 Irrigating crops at night or early morning when evaporation potentials are low.
 Reduce water subsidies and encourage the proper pricing of water for this purpose.

B. Reducing Industrial Waste: Industry is the second largest user of water supplies.
Reducing the amount of water used in industry not only makes more water available for other
purposes but it can also reduce the volume of pollution. Industrial waste reductions can be
achieved by:
 Designing industrial processes to recycle water. For example, water used for industrial
cooling purposes can be cooled down in a cooling tower and then reused.
 Increasing the cost of water to industries to encourage water recycling.
 Recycling materials themselves can also greatly reduce water demand. For example,
manufacturing a ton of aluminum from scrap rather than from virgin ore can reduce the
volume of water used by 97%.

C. Reduce Domestic Waste/consumption: Some of the measures for reducing domestic

consumption include:
 Education can encourage people to reduce the amount of personal consumption
 Encourage the use of efficient irrigation systems for home garden and lawn use.
 Manufacture and legislate the use of more efficient dishwashers, washing machines, and
bathroom showers and toilets.
 Encourage leak detection and repair for distribution systems. Distribution systems in many
of the world’s urban areas are losing between 25 and 50% of their water supplies due to
leaks in pipes.

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 Properly price water for domestic use. This price must reflect the environmental cost of
overconsumption and resource degradation.

D. Encourage water harvesting: water harvesting is collecting and utilizing water from
surfaces on which rain falls and from surfaces on which runoff/stream moves.

i. Rainwater harvesting: collecting rainwater is one of the easiest and most effective ways to
have a safe supply of water. Rainwater can be collected and stored from rooftops, land surfaces
or rock catchments using simple techniques such as jars and pots as well as engineered
techniques, and the process is called rainwater harvesting. Rainwater harvesting has been
practiced for more than 4,000 years, owing to the temporal and spatial variability of rainfall. It is
an important water source in many areas with significant rainfall but lacking any kind of
conventional, centralized supply system. It is also a good option in areas where good quality
fresh surface water or groundwater is lacking. The application of appropriate rainwater
harvesting technology is important for the utilization of rainwater as a water resource.

Advantages of Rainwater Harvesting: Rainwater harvesting systems can provide water at or

near the point where water is needed or used. The systems can be both owner and utility operated
and managed. Rainwater collected using existing structures (i.e., rooftops, parking lots,
playgrounds, parks, ponds, flood plains, etc.) has few negative environmental impacts compared
to other technologies for water resources development. Rainwater is relatively clean and the
quality is usually acceptable for many purposes with little or even no treatment. The physical and
chemical properties of rainwater are usually superior to sources of groundwater that may have
been subjected to contamination.

Some Other Advantages of Rainwater Harvesting Include:

 Rainwater harvesting can co-exist with and provide a good supplement to other water sources
and utility systems, thus relieving pressure on other water sources.
 Rainwater harvesting provides a water supply buffer for use in times of emergency or
breakdown of the public water supply systems, particularly during natural disasters.
 Rainwater harvesting can reduce storm drainage load and flooding in city streets.

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 Users of rainwater are usually the owners who operate and manage the catchment system,
hence, they are more likely to exercise water conservation because they know how much
water is in storage and they will try to prevent the storage tank from drying up.
 Rainwater harvesting technologies are flexible and can be built to meet almost any
requirements. Construction, operation, and maintenance are not labor intensive.

ii. Surface runoff harvesting: surface runoff (streams) can also be diverted and collected by
constructing dams and reservoirs, and the water can be used for domestic water supply,
irrigation, hydropower, fishing, etc. Dams can also control downstream flooding and siltation.

E. Watershed Management and conservation: these are often more economical and
environmentally sound ways to prevent flood damage and store water for the future use than
building dams and reservoirs. A watershed, or catchment, is all the land drained by a river and
its tributaries. Watershed Management involves retaining vegetation and ground cover in a
watershed, practicing of forest and soil conservation techniques such as planting of trees and
protecting them, terracing and applying appropriate agricultural systems. This helps hold back
rainwater, by increasing infiltration, increase the quality and quantity of water sources (both
surface and subsurface waters) and reduce downstream floods.

F. Reduce Water Pollution: appropriate land-use practices and careful disposal of industrial,
domestic, and agricultural wastes are essential for control of water pollution. The
cheapest and most effective way to reduce water pollution is source reduction – avoid
producing it or releasing it to the environment. Often, industrial wastes can be recycled or
reclaimed rather than released. Agricultural practices can reduce field runoff, and
sediment barriers at construction sites can reduce sediment releases. Land-use planning
can greatly reduce pollution. The polluted water can be treated through chemicals and
other purification techniques.

CHAPTER -Seven

RIVER BASINS OF ETHIOPIA

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The overall land mass of the country is hydrologically divided into 12 Basins. eight of these are
River Basins, one Lake Basin and three Dry Basins . Four of the River Basins, Abbay, Baro-
Akobo, Mereb and Tekeze are part of Nile River System, flowing generally in the Western
direction toward Sudan eventually terminating in the Mediterranean Sea. Five Basins namely, the
Omo-Ghibe, Awash, Rift-valley Lakes , Denakil and Aysha can be categorized as the Rift-valley
system as all of them drain their water in the Great East African Rift-valley. The remaining three,
Genale-Dawa, Wabishebelle and Ogaden are part of the Eastern Ethiopian Basin that generally
flows in the South-easterly direction toward the Somali - Republic and then to the Indian Ocean.

MAJOR PHYSICAL FEATURES

Location and Size

Almost all of the basins radiate from the central ridges that separate the Rift Valley from the
highlands of Ethiopia to all directions out of the country. Basins drained by rivers originating
from the mountains west of the Rift Valley flow West into the Sudan, and those originating from
the Eastern highland flow East into the Republic of Somalia. Rivers draining the Rift Valley
Basins System originates from the adjoining highlands and flow North and South of the uplift in
the Center of the Ethiopian Rift Valley North of Lake Ziway.

There is very big variation in the size of the Basins. The size of a basin is mainly the function of
the geological formation. The Wabishebelle Basin is the largest basin in Ethiopian with an area
of 202, 220 km2 followed by the Abbay Basin covering an area of 199812km 2. The smallest
basin is the Aysha Basin with an area of 2223 km 2 followed by the Mereb that has an area with
in Ethiopia of 5900km2.

Major Drainage Systems:

The Nile basin (including Abbay or Blue Nile, Baro-Akobo, Setit-Tekeze/Atbara and Mereb)
covers 33 percent of the country and drains the northern and central parts westwards;
The Rift Valley (including Awash, Denakil, Omo-Gibe and Central Lakes) covers 28 percent
of the country;

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The Shebelli-Juba basin (including Wabi-Shebelle and Genale-Dawa) covers 33 percent of the
country and drains the southeastern mountains towards Somalia and the Indian Ocean;
The North-East Coast (including the Ogaden and Gulf of Aden basins) covers 6 percent of the
country.

Potentials of Ethiopian Rivers

Currently, the MoWR (Ministry of Water Resources) has identified 560 irrigation potential sites
on the major river basins. The total potential irrigable land in Ethiopia is estimated to be around
3.7 million hectares.

Figure 1. Irrigation potential of the river basins in Ethiopia

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Surface Water Resources: River Basins

The country has 12 river basins. The total mean annual flow from all the 12 river basins is
estimated to be 122 BMC (MoWR 1999); although Table 1 shows slightly higher values. This
could be further refined when data on recent master plan studies becomes available.

The idea of a river basin, despite its physical or natural attributes, is more than an engineering
concept and encompasses the magnitude and dynamics of a resource that must be harnessed for
the common good. It has often been advocated that the most logical unit for water
resources planning and optimum utilization of available water resources is the river
basin. Accordingly, it is desirable that all major river basins in Ethiopia have an integrated
development master plan study, and their potential in terms of economic development be
known. The salient features of the water resources development potential of all the river
basins is shown in table 1

Table 1. Irrigation and hydropower potential of river basins

River Basin Area Runoff Potenti Gross Estimated
(Km2) (Bm3) al Hydro- ground water
Irrigable
(h electric
Gwh/year potential
(Bm3)
a)
Tekeze 82,350 *** 8 83,368 5,980 0.20
Abbay 199,812 .
54.8 815,581 78,820 1.80
Baro-Akobo 75,912 23.6 1,019,523 13,765 0.28
0.13Recharge/year
Omo-Ghibe 79,000 16.6 67,928 36,560 0.42
(.10)Rech
Rift Valley 52,739 5.6 139,300 * 800 0.10
Mereb 5,900 *** 0.65 67,560 - 0.05
Afar /Denakil 74,002 **** 0.86 158,776 - -
Awash 112,696 4 134,121 4,470 0.14
.-
Aysha 2,223 **** - -
Ogaden 77,121 **** - - -
Wabi-Shebelle* 202,697 ** 3.16 237,905 5,440 0.07
Genale-Dawa 171,042 ** 5.88 1,074,720 9,270 0.14

Total 1,135,494 124.25 3,798,782 155,102 2.86

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Source: Integrated River Basin Master Plan Studies, carrried out during 1997-2007 (MoWR 1996, 1997, 1998a, 1998b) Irrigable land from
the IWMI irrigation database (based on – MoWR data).
* Figures need to be updated from recent studies.
** Small-scale is not included in the database, medium and large-scale is 49,700 ha.
*** Indicates the Ethiopian part of the basin area. The total basin area is 23, 932 ha.
**** Reconnaissance study

Surface Water Resources: Lakes and Reservoirs

Ethiopia has 11 fresh and 9 saline lakes, 4 crater lakes and over 12 major swamps or
wetlands. Majority of the lakes are found in the Rift Valley Basin. Table 3 provides
information for 19 main natural lakes and reservoirs (MCE 2001);. The total surface area of

these natural and artificial lakes in Ethiopia is about 7,500 km2. The majority of Ethiopian lakes
are rich in fish. Most of the lakes except Ziway, Tana, Langano, Abbaya and Chamo have no
surface water outlets, i.e., they are endhoric. Lakes Shala and Abiyata have high concentrations
of chemicals and Abiyata is currently exploited for production of soda ash.

Groundwater Resources System

As compared to surface water resources, Ethiopia has lower ground water potential. However,
by many countries’ standard the total exploitable groundwater potential is high. Based on the
scanty knowledge available on groundwater resources, the potential is estimated to be about
2.6 BMC (Billion Metric Cube) annually rechargeable resources.

Challenges of Ethiopian Water Resources

The Water & Sanitation Crisis

In rural Ethiopia, women and children walk up to six hours to collect water. Most people collect
water from shallow, unprotected ponds which they share with animals. Other people collect
water from shallow wells. Both of these sources are subject to contamination as rain water
washes waste from surrounding areas into the source.

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Planning and development problem: The sector still has important problems, including for
example low rates of irrigation efficiency and high losses in water supply systems. Project
planning is hampered by the lack of guidelines to define the process in a systematic manner.
Other important issues relevant to water resources development include lack of skilled
manpower and implementation capacity, poor management of water resources schemes,
(especially small-scale schemes), traditional irrigation, inadequate legislation to govern conflicts
between different sectors and users of the common resource, and lack of effective monitoring
and evaluation of projects and programs.

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