CELL STRUCTURE AND CELL PHYSIOLOGY

OPT 213
Outline
Introduction (Organization of Life)
Cell Physiology
Transport across cell membranes
Origin of membrane potential
Cell signalling
INTRODUCTION
The human body is formed of many systems; nervous, muscular, skeletal, digestive,
respiratory, cardiovascular, urinary, reproductive, endocrine systems etc.

Each system is formed of many organs; e.g. the digestive system otherwise known as
the gastrointestinal system is composed of the mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine, in addition to the salivary glands, liver and pancreas.

Each organ is formed of many tissues; e.g. the stomach is formed of muscular,
nervous, epithelial and connective tissues.

Each tissue is formed of many cells, so the cell is the structural and functional unit of
body. The function of the cell differs according to its type and site.

The cell is bounded by a cell membrane which maintains the homeostasis of the cell
interior. It separates the intracellular environment from the extra-cellular. The cell
contains many organelles, each of them has specialized functions.
CELL PHYSIOLOGY
Cells are the microscopic fundamental units of all living things. An
adult human body is composed of about 100 trillion cells! Each
cell has basic requirements to sustain it, and the body's organ
systems are largely built around providing the many trillions of
cells with those basic needs (such as oxygen, food, and waste
removal).

There are many different types of cell (about 200), each with its
own characteristic size and shape. Some cells are very large
(skeletal muscle), others are very small e.g. red blood cells.
 Cell Physiology Cont’d
A typical mammalian cell is bounded by a cell membrane also called the
plasma membrane or plasmalemma. The cell membrane is a continuous sheet
which separates the watery phase inside the cell, the cytoplasm, from that
outside the cell, the extracellular fluid. The shape of an individual cell is
maintained by an array of protein filaments known as the cytoskeleton.

At some stage of their life cycle, all cells possess a prominent structure called
the nucleus, which contains the hereditary material DNA. Most cells have
just one nucleus but skeletal muscle cells have many nuclei, in contrast, the
red cells of the blood lose their nucleus as they mature.

Cells possess other structures which perform specific functions such as

energy production, protein synthesis, and the secretion of various materials.
The internal structures of a cell are collectively known as organelles and
include the nucleus, the mitochondria, the Golgi apparatus, the endoplasmic
reticulum, and various membrane-bound vesicles.
Figure 1: A typical mammalian cell showing major organelles
(Pocock and Richards, 2006)
Table 1: Summary of the various parts of a cell and their functions

Structure Characteristics Function

Microvilli Extensive folding of the Increase surface area for
cell membrane found in absorption.
certain cells with an
absorptive capacity
Cell Membrane Double layer of Acts as barrier to cell. Proteins
Phospholipid molecules serve many functions including
studded with Proteins transportation of ions and other
molecules.
Centrioles Bundles of microtubules Important in Cell Division
Lyosomes, Vesicles with Bilayer Lyosomes contain digestive
peroxyosomes, Phospholipid membrane enzymes; Peroxyiosomes contain
secretory vesicles enzymes essential for cell
function; Secretory vesicles store
enzymes etc. for secretion to
exterior of cell
 Structure Characteristics Function

Mitochondria Double walled organule with Produces most of the cells

a central matrix ATP
Ribosomes Specialized protein that Protein Synthesis
translates mRNA into
polypeptides
Rough and Smooth Bi-phospholipid membrane Rough ER modifies proteins;
Endoplastic Reticulum continuous with nuclear smooth ER synthesizes fatty
membrane, and studded with acids, steroids and lipids
ribosomes
Golgi Apparatus Modifies and packages
proteins, especially those for
excretion.
Microtubules and Protein fibers (actin) and Cell skeleton. Also important
Microfillaments protein tubules. in transport of substances
within cell
Nucleus and Nucleolus Two layer outer membrane Directs all functions of Cell.
with numerous pores, Nucleolus is a collection of
encloses cells DNA. proteins and RNA stored for
ribosome production.
 TRANSPORT ACROSS CELL
MEMBRANES
Cell Membranes
The boundary of the cell, sometimes called the plasma membrane,
separates internal metabolic events from the external environment and
controls the movement of materials into and out of the cell.

This membrane is very selective about what it allows to pass through;

this characteristic is referred to as "selective permeability." For
example, it allows oxygen and nutrients to enter the cell while
keeping toxins and waste products out.

The plasma membrane is a double phospholipid membrane, or a lipid

bilayer, with the nonpolar hydrophobic tails pointing toward the inside
of the membrane and the polar hydrophilic heads forming the inner
and outer surfaces of the membrane.
Cell Membranes Cont’d
Only small, uncharged polar molecules can pass freely across the
membrane. Some of these molecules are H2O and CO2,
hydrophobic (nonpolar) molecules like O2, and lipid soluble
molecules such as hydrocarbons.

The cell membranes are composed of lipids, proteins and

carbohydrate. Membrane lipids include phospholipids and
cholesterol, they form self-sealing bilayer. Carbohydrates consist
of glyco­lipids and glycoproteins and form a coat on the surface
of the plasma membrane.
Cell Membranes Cont’d
Membrane proteins penetrate the lipid bilayer and have the
following functions:

1- Carrier proteins help in facilitated diffusion processes.

(Channel proteins)
2- Ion channels.
3- Pumps involved in active transport. (Transport protein)
4- Receptors for hormones and neurotransmitters.
(Receptor protein)
5- Intercellular junction protein. (Recognition and adhension
protein)
Figure 2: Plasma Membrane (Barret et al., 2007)
Transport through cell membrane
The fluid inside the cells is called intra cellular fluid, whereas
the fluid present outside the cells is called extra cellular fluid.
The extra cellular fluid includes the interstitial fluid which
circulates in the spaces between the cells, and also blood
plasma and lymph.

Substances are transported through the cell membranes

which separate the intracellular fluid from the extra cellular
fluid by two major processes; passive diffusion and active
transport.
Passive Diffusion:
Molecules of a substance are continuously in motion. This
motion is least in the solids, maximum in the gases, and
intermediate in the liquids.

When two substances (e. g. a solid and a liquid, or two

miscible liquids, or a gas and a liquid or two gases) are kept
in contact, the molecules of the two substances will pass into
each other until a uniform admixture is obtained. This
spontaneous admixture of the molecules of the two
substances in contact is called diffusion.
The rate of diffusion of a substance from one area to another is
affected by:

Concentration difference: the greater the concentration difference, the

greater is the rate of diffusion.
Molecular weight: the less the molecular weight, the greater is the rate
of diffusion.
Temperature: the greater the temperature, the greater is the rate of
diffusion.
Cross section of the chamber: the greater the cross section of the
chamber in which diffusion is taking place, the greater is the rate of
diffusion.
Distance: the shorter the distance, the greater is the rate of diffusion.
Permeability of the membrane: the greater the permeability the
greater is the rate of diffusion.
 Physiological Importance of Diffusion
When two substances come in contact, directly or through a permeable membrane,
diffusion will take place when the concentration of a substance is higher in one part
than the other e.g.:

Admixture of foodstuffs with digestive juices.

Absorption from the intestine and in the renal tubules.
Exchange between plasma and red cells.
Exchange in the capillary bed; food stuffs and O2 pass out from the blood stream
(highest concentration) to the interstitial fluid (lower concentration) and then to the
tissue cells (lowest concentration) where they are used up. The metabolites
including CO2 on the other hand come out of the cells (highest concentration)
where they are produced, to the interstitial fluid (lower concentration) and then to
the blood stream (lowest concentration).
Exchange in the lung capillaries e.g. O2 from (higher concentration) enter the
venous blood (lower concentration) while CO2­ from venous blood (higher
concentration) diffuses out into the air (lower concentration).
Diffusion through the cell membrane
The cell membrane is formed of a sheet of lipid material
partially covered on each surface by a layer of protein. The
fluids on each side of the membrane can diffuse through the
protein layers easily but the lipid layer acts as a limiting
boundary between the extra cellular and intracellular fluids.

Diffusion of substances through the cell membrane occur by

two mechanisms:
By dissolving through the lipid layer:
By passing through the minute pores which are present in the
cell membrane:
Dissolving through the lipid layer
1-Simple diffusion:

Substances which are soluble in lipids can pass easily through the cell
membrane by dissolving through the lipid layer of the membrane e.g. O2, CO2,
alcohol and fatty acids.

2- Facilitated diffusion or carrier mediated:

Substances which are insoluble in lipids e.g. glucose, can still pass through the
lipid layer by a facilitated diffusion process. Glucose binds to a carrier substance
at one side of the membrane to form a complex which is soluble in lipids.

This complex diffuses to the other side of the membrane where glucose leaves
the carrier and passes into the cell, while the carrier moves back to outside to
carry more glucose and transport it to inside.
Distinguishing characteristics of
facilitated diffusion
Facilitated diffusion differs from simple diffusion: In simple
diffusion, the greater the concentration gradient the greater
is the rate of diffusion, but in facilitated diffusion when the
concentration becomes great, the carrier becomes saturated
and the diffusion becomes constant.

Facilitated diffusion differs from active transport: In active

transport substances can move through the membrane from a
low concentration to a high concentration and needs energy;
whereas in facilitated diffusion substances can move only
from a high concentration to a low concentration and does
not need energy.
Passing through the minute pores
The passage of substances through pores is affected by the following factors:

1- Permeability of the cell membrane:

Permeability means the ease of passage of substances through the pores of the membrane. It is
affected by diameter and charge of ions.

2- Concentration difference:
The rate of diffusion is proportional to the concentration difference of substance inside and
outside the cell membrane.

3- Electric potential difference:

The presence of electric potential difference allows the passage of charged ions through the
membrane even in absence of concentration difference.

4- Pressure difference:
When the pressure is increased on side of the membrane than the other, the number of
molecules striking the pores on that side of the membrane is greater than that on the other
side. This leads to movement of the molecules from the high pressure side to the low pressure
side.
Figure 3: Transport Across Plasma Membrane
(Gad El - Mawla A. Gad. 2007)
 Osmosis
It means diffusion of water through a semi permeable membrane from a
diluted to a concentrated solution.

The amount of pressure required to stop osmosis completely is called the

osmotic pressure. Osmotic pressure does not depend upon the size of the
molecules but upon the total number of these molecules.

Solutions having the same osmotic pressure are called isotonic. One having
lesser osmotic pressure is called hypotonic, while that having higher osmotic
pressure is called hypertonic.

0.9% sodium chloride solution is isotonic with blood plasma, commonly

known as normal saline. 5% solution of glucose has also similar osmotic
pressure.
 Active transport
It means transport of substances across the cell membrane against a concentration (or
electric) gradient e.g. transport of ions, sugars, amino acids etc.

Mechanism of active transport:

It depends upon presence of a carrier and it needs energy. The carrier combines with
the substance to be transported at the outer surface of the membrane, then diffuses
through the membrane to the inner surface where the substance is released from the
carrier.

This process needs energy which is derived from ATP. The released substance diffuses
inside the cell while the carrier diffuses back to transport another molecule of the
substance.

The carrier may be protein or lipoprotein in nature, the protein part provides the
site for attachment of the substance to be transported, and the lipid part provides the
solubility in the lipid layer of the membrane.
Other forms of Active Transport
Transport of proteins and other large molecules through the cell membrane occur by
the following:

A. Endocytosis: In this process substances of large molecules are transported inside

the cell. It has two types:

1- Phagocytosis: (cell eating )

It is the process by which bacteria and dead tissues are engulfed by cells such as
neutrophil (microphage) and monocytes (macrophages). The material makes contact
with the cell membrane, then invaginated into it. The invaginated portion of the
membrane breaks away from the surface of the cell, forming phagocytic vesicle
which then penetrates deep into the cytoplasm away from the cell membrane. In the
cytoplasm lysozomes become attached to the vesicle and empty their enzymes into it
to digest the engulfed material.

2- Pinocytosis: (cell drinking)

In this process the substance ingested is present in solution e.g. proteins. The process
is almost identical with that of phagocytosis.
Figure 4: Phagocytosis and Pinocytosis
(Gad El - Mawla A. Gad. 2007)
B) Exocytosis: (cell vomiting)
It is the process by which proteins and peptides are secreted from the
cells e.g. secretion of hormones protein in nature from endocrine
cells. In this process the membrane around the secretion granules fuses
with the cell membrane and the region of fusion breaks down, leaving
the contents of the secretion granule outside.

Figure 5: Exoocytosis (Gad El - Mawla A. Gad. 2007)

ORIGIN OF MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
The relatively high permeability of natural membranes to ions and
polar molecules can be ascribed to the presence of two classes of
integral membrane proteins: the channel proteins and the carrier
proteins.

For uncharged molecules such as carbon dioxide, oxygen, and

urea, the direction of movement across the plasma membrane is
simply determined by the prevailing concentration gradient.

However, the situation is more complicated for charged molecules

and ions. Measurements have shown that mammalian cells have an
electrical potential across their plasma membrane called the
membrane potential.
Membrane Potential Cont’d
The potential difference across the membrane of a resting cell i.e.
a cell not under any form of stimulation or excitation is called the
Resting Membrane Potential.

Although the magnitude of the membrane potential varies from

one type of cell to another (from about -35 to -90 mV), the inside
of a cell is always negative with respect to the outside.

The existence of the membrane potential influences the diffusion

of charged molecules and ions. Positively charged chemical species
will tend to be attracted into the cell while negatively charged
species will tend to be repelled.
 Membrane Potential Cont’d
Overall, the direction in which ions and charged molecules move
across the cell membrane is determined by three factors:

the concentration gradient;

the charge of the molecule or ion;
the membrane potential.

These factors combine to give rise to the electrochemical gradient,

which can be calculated from the difference between the equilibrium
potential for the ion in question and the membrane potential. If the
intracellular and extracellular concentrations for a particular ion are
known, the equilibrium potential can be calculated using the Nernst
equation.
Membrane Potential Cont’d
In summary; the origin of membrane potential is due to the separation
of charges in the intracellular and extracellular fluid.

This distribution of ions across the cell membrane and the nature of this
membrane provide the explanation for the membrane potential.

The concentration gradient for K+ facilitates its movement out of the

cell via K+ channels, but its electrical gradient is in the opposite
(inward) direction.
Consequently, an equilibrium is reached in which the tendency of K+ to
move out of the cell is balanced by its tendency to move into the cell,
and at that equilibrium there is a slight excess of cations on the outside
and anions on the inside.
Membrane Potential Cont’d
This condition is maintained by Na, K ATPase, which uses the
energy of ATP to pump K+ back into the cell and keeps the
intracellular concentration of Na+ low.

Because the Na, K ATPase moves three Na+ out of the cell for
every two K+ moved in, it also contributes to the membrane
potential, and thus is termed an electrogenic pump.

It should be emphasized that the number of ions responsible for

the membrane potential is a minute fraction of the total number
present and that the total concentrations of positive and negative
ions are equal everywhere except along the membrane.
 CELL SIGNALLING
Principles of cell signaling

Individual cells are specialized to carry out a specific physiological role such
as secretion or contraction. In order to coordinate their activities they need
to receive and transmit signals of various kinds.

Diffusible chemical signals allow cells to communicate at a distance, while

direct contact between cells is particularly important in cell-cell recognition
during development and during the passage of lymphocytes through the
tissues where they scan cells for the presence of foreign antigens.

Direct cytoplasmic contact between neighboring cells via gap junctions

permits the electrical coupling of cells and plays an important role in the
spread of excitation between adjacent cardiac muscle cells. It also allows the
direct exchange of chemical signals between adjacent cells.
Cell Junctions
The plasma membranes of adjacent cells are usually separated by extracellular fluids that
allow transport of nutrients and wastes to and from the bloodstream. In certain tissues,
however, the membranes of adjacent cells may join and form a junction. Three kinds of
cell junctions are recognized:

Desmosomes are protein attachments between adjacent cells. Inside the plasma
membrane, a desmosome bears a disk shaped structure from which protein fibers extend
into the cytoplasm. Desmosomes act like spot welds to hold together tissues that
undergo considerable stress, such as skin or heart muscle.

Tight junctions are tightly stitched seams between cells. The junction completely
encircles each cell, preventing the movement of material between the cell. Tight
junctions are characteristic of cells lining the digestive tract, where materials are
required to pass through cells,rather than intercellular spaces, to penetrate the
bloodstream.

Gap junctions are narrow tunnels between cells that consist of proteins called
connexons. The proteins allow only the passage of ions and small molecules. In this
manner, gap junctions allow communication between cells through the exchange of
materials or the transmission of electrical impulses.
Intercellular Communication
Cells communicate with one another via chemical messengers.
Within a given tissue, some messengers move from cell to cell via
gap junctions without entering the ECF.

In addition, cells are affected by chemical messengers secreted

into the ECF, or by direct cell–cell contacts.

Chemical messengers typically bind to protein receptors on the

surface of the cell or, in some instances, in the cytoplasm or the
nucleus, triggering sequences of intracellular changes that produce
their physiologic effects.
 Intercellular Communication Cont’d
Three general types of intercellular communication are mediated by
messengers in the ECF:

(1) neural communication, in which neurotransmitters are released at synaptic

junctions from nerve cells and act across a narrow synaptic cleft on a
postsynaptic cell;

(2) endocrine communication, in which hormones and growth factors reach

cells via the circulating blood or the lymph; and

(3) paracrine communication, in which the products of cells diffuse in the ECF
to affect neighboring cells that may be some distance away.

In addition, cells secrete chemical messengers that in some situations bind to

receptors on the same cell, that is, the cell that secreted the messenger
(autocrine communication).
Intercellular Communication Cont’d
The chemical messengers include amines, amino acids, steroids,
polypeptides, and in some instances, lipids, purine nucleotides, and
pyrimidine nucleotides.

It is worth noting that in various parts of the body, the same chemical
messenger can function as a neurotransmitter, a paracrine mediator, a
hormone secreted by neurons into the blood (neural hormone), and a
hormone secreted by gland cells into the blood.

An additional form of intercellular communication is called juxtacrine

communication. Some cells express multiple repeats of growth factors
such as transforming growth factor alpha (TGFα) extracellularly on
transmembrane proteins that provide an anchor to the cell. Other cells
have TGFα receptors. Consequently, TGFα anchored to a cell can bind
to a TGFα receptor on another cell, linking the two. This could be
important in producing local foci of growth in tissues.
Reads
Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology by Barret et al. (2010)
Human Physiology:The Basis of Medicine, by Pocock and
Richards, (2006)
Human Physiology by Wikibook Contributors 2007
Medical Physiology: Introduction and Cell Function by Gad El -
Mawla A. Gad. King Saud University