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Lessons

CHAPTER 1
Meaning and Purpose of Research

Introduction:

Research is an essential and powerful tool in leading man towards progress.

Without systematic research there would have been very little progress. John W. Best

has rightly said, “The secret of our cultural development has been research, pushing back

the areas of ignorance by discovering new truths, which, in turn, lead to better ways of

doing things and better products.” Scientific research leads to progress in some field of

life. New products, new facts, new concepts and new ways of doing things are being

found due to ever-increasing significant research in the physical, the biological, the social

and the psychological fields. Research today is no longer confined to the science

laboratory.

Meaning of Research:

Word ‘Research’ is comprised of two words = Re + Search. It means to search again.

So, research means a systematic investigation or activity to gain new knowledge

of the already existing facts. Research is an intellectual activity. It is responsible for

bringing to light new knowledge. It is also responsible for correcting the present

mistakes, removing existing misconceptions and adding new learning to the existing fund
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of knowledge. Researches are considered as a combination of those activities which are

removed from day to day life 1 8 and are pursued by those persons who are gifted in

intellect and sincere in pursuit of knowledge. But it is not correct to say that the research

is restricted to such type of persons, however, it is correct to say that major contribution

of research comes from highly gifted and committed workers. Thus, the research is not

at all mysterious and is carried on by hundreds of thousands of average individuals.

Research is also considered as the application of scientific method in solving the

problems. It is a systematic, formal and intensive process of carrying on the scientific

method of analysis. There are many ways of obtaining knowledge. They are intuition,

revelation, and authority, logical manipulation of basic assumptions, informed guesses,

observation, and reasoning by analogy. One of the branches of research known as

empirical research is highly goal-oriented technique.

Definitions of Research:

The following are the important definitions of research:

“Research is an endeavor / attempt to discover, develop and verify knowledge. It is an

intellectual process that has developed over hundreds of years ever changing in purpose

and form and always researching to truth.”

J. Francis Rummel
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“Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their meanings or

implications with reference to a given problem. The product or findings of a given piece

of research should be an authentic, verifiable contribution to knowledge in the field

studied.”

P.M. Cook

“Research may be defined as a method of studying problems whose solutions are to be

derived partly or wholly from facts.”

W.S. Monroes

“Research is considered to be the more formal, systematic intensive process of carrying

on the scientific method of analysis. It involves a 9 more systematic structure of

investigation, usually resulting in some sort of formal record of procedures and a report

of results or conclusion.”

John W. Best

“Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or

suggested solutions, collecting, organizing and evaluating data, making deductions and

reaching conclusions and at last careful testing the conclusions to determine whether

they fit the formulated hypothesis.” Clifford Woody “Research is a systematic effort to

gain new knowledge.”

Redman & Mori

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“Social research may be defined as a scientific undertaking which by means of logical

and systematized techniques aims to discover new facts or verify and test old facts,

analyse their sequences, interrelationships and casual explanation which were derived

within an appropriate theoretical frame of reference, develop new scientific tools,

concepts and theories which would facilitate reliable and valid study of human

behavior.”

P.V. Younge

Purpose of Research:

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the

application of scientific procedure. The main aim of research is to find out the truth

which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study

has its own specific purpose, some general objectives of research below:

(i) To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.

(Studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formative

research studies).

(ii) To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation

or a group. (Studies with this object in view are known as descriptive

research studies).
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(iii) To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it

is associated with something else. (Studies with this object in view are

known as diagnostic research studies).

(iv) To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables. (Such

studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).

Characteristics of Research:

Following are the characteristics of research;

(i) Research is directed toward the solution of a problem.

(ii) Research requires expertise.

(iii) Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles, or

theories that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences.

(iv) Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidences.

(v) Research demands accurate observation and description.

(vi) Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources

or using existing data for a new purpose.

(vii) Research is characterized by carefully designed procedures that apply

rigorous analysis.

(viii) Research involves the quest for answers to un-solved problems.

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(ix) Research strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to

validate the procedures employed the data collected and the conclusions

reached.

(x) Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.

(xi) Research is carefully recorded and collected.

(xii) Research sometimes requires courage.

Types of Research:

There are varieties of ways through which we may classify it into different categories.

(A) On the basis of nature of information: On the basis of nature of information we can

classify the research into two types;

(i) Qualitative Research: When information is in the form of qualitative data.

(ii) Quantitative Research: When information is in the form of quantitative data.

(B) On the basis of utility of content or nature of subject matter of research: On the basis

of these criteria we can categorize the research into two categories.

(i) Basic/ Fundamental /pure or Theoretical Research: Its utility is universal.

(ii) Experimental or Applied Research: Its utility is limited.

(C) On the basis of approach of research: We may classify research into two different

categories.

(i) Longitudinal Research: Examples of this category are historical, Case study and

Genetic research.
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(ii) Cross-Sectional Research: Examples of this category are Experimental and

Survey Research.

(D) On the basis of method of research: On the basis of research method we may classify

a research into five different categories.

(i) Philosophical Research: It is purely qualitative in nature and we are focusing on

the vision of others on the content of research.

(ii) Historical Research: It is both qualitative as well as quantitative in nature and

deals with past events.

(iii) Survey Research: It deals with present events and is quantitative in nature. It

may further be sub-divided into; discretional, correlational and exploratory type

of research.

(iv) Experimental Research: This is purely quantitative in nature and deals with

future events.

(v) Case-Study Research: It deals with unusual events. It may be qualitative as well

as quantitative in nature depending upon the content.

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Activity 1:

Look for research studies which represent the different types of research discussed on

this chapter. Summarize the study following the guidelines below then explain the

specific type it represents. Submit in Word Document, double spaced, Times New

Roman.
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CHAPTER 2

The Research Process

Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively

carry out research. These actions or steps are;

(i) Formulating the Research Problem

(ii) Extensive Literature Survey

(iii) Developing the Research Hypothesis

(iv) Preparing the Research Design

(v) Determining the Research Design

(vi) Collecting the Research Data

(vii) Execution of the Project

(viii) Analysis of Data

(ix) Hypothesis Testing

(x) Generalization and Interpretation

(xi) Preparing of the Report or Presentation of the Result

(i) Formulation of Research Problem: At the very outset, the researcher must

decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject matter that he would

like to inquire into and then research problem should be formulated.

(ii) Extensive Literature Survey: Once the problem is formulated the researcher

should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For
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this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or

unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to academic journals,

conference proceedings, government reports, books etc. must be tapped

depending on the nature of the problem.

(iii) Development of Working Hypothesis: After extensive literature survey,

researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses.

Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and

test its logical or empirical consequences. It’s very important or it provides the

focal point for research.

(iv) Preparing the Research Design: After framing hypothesis we have to prepare

a research design i.e. we have to state the conceptual structure within which

research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates

research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other

words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of

relevant evidence with optimum effort, time and expenditure. But how all

these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose.

(v) Determining Sample Design: A sample design is a definite plan determined

before any data is actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given

population.in census inquiry we involve a great deal of time, money and

energy so it it not possible in practice under many circumstances. Sample

designs can be either probability or non-probability. With probability samples

each element has a known probability of being included in the sample but the
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non-probability samples do not allow the researchers to determine this

probability.

(vi) Collecting the Data: There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data

which differ considerably in context of cost, time and other resources at the

disposal of the researcher. Primary data can be collected either through

experiment or through survey. In case of survey, data can be collected by any

one or more of the following ways; By observation,

 Through personal interview,

 Through telephonic interviews,

 By mailing of questionnaires or

 Through schedules.

(vii) Execution of the Project: Execution of project is a very important step in the

research process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the

data to be collected would be adequate and dependable. A careful watch

should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the survey realistic

as much as possible.

(viii) Analysis of Data: The analysis of data requires a number of closely related

operations such as establishment of categories, the application of these

categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical

inference. Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the

computation of various percentages; coefficients etc., by applying various

well-defined statistical formulae. In the process of analysis, relationships of

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differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypothesis should be

subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be

said to indicate any conclusions.

(ix) Hypothesis Testing: After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a position to

test the hypothesis, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the

hypothesis or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which is

to be answered by applying various tests like ‘t’ test, ’F’ test etc. F test have

been developed by statisticians for the purpose. Hypothesis testing will result

in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no

hypothesis to start with, generalizations established on the basis of data may

be stated.

(x) Generalizations and Interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several

times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization i.e. to

build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability

to arrive at certain generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start

with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is

known as interpretation.

(xi) Preparation of the Report or the Thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare

the report of what has been done by him. The layout of the report should be

as follows; the preliminary pages, the main text and end matter. The

preliminary pages carry title, acknowledgements and forward and then index.

The main text of the report should have introduction, review of literature and
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methodology. Criteria of Good Research: One expects scientific research to

satisfy the following criteria:

(a) The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common

concepts be used.

(b) The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to

permit another researcher to repeat the researcher for further

advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained.

(c) The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield

results that are as objective as possible.

(d) The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural

design and estimate their effects upon the findings.

(e) The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its

significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The

validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.

(f) Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the

research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate

basis.

(g) Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is

experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

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Activity 2:
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CHAPTER 3

The Research Design

A research design is simply the framework or plan for a study that is used as a

guide in collecting and analyzing the data. It is a blueprint that is followed in completing

a study. Research design is the blue print for collection measurement and analysis of data.

Actually, it is a map that is usually developed to guide the research.

Definitions:

“Research design is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for

collection and analyzing the needed information.”

William Zikmund

“Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so

as to obtain answers to research questions and to control variance.”

Kerlinger

Thus, we can say that a research design is the arrangement of condition for

collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to generalize the findings of the

sample on the population.

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Purpose of a Research Design:

(i) To minimize the expenditure:

Research design carries an important influence on the reliability of the results

attained. It therefore provides a solid base for the whole research. This makes the

research as effective as possible by providing maximum information with minimum

spending of effort, money and time by preparing the advance plan of all about the

research.

(ii) To facilitate the smooth scaling:

Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth scaling of the various

research operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal

information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.

(iii) To collect the relevant data and technique:

Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for

collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in

view the objective of the research and the availability of staff time and money. Poor

preparation of research design upset the entire project.

(v) To provide blue print for plans:

Research design is needed due to the fact that it allows for the smooth working of

many research operations. It is like blue print which we need in advance to plan the

methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and techniques to be used in its

analysis for preparation of research project. Just as for better economical and attractive
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construction of a house need a blue print and a map of that, similarly we need a blue print

or a design for the smooth flow of operation of research.

(vi) To provide an overview to other experts:

A research design provides an overview of all the research process and with the

help of the design we can take the help and views of experts of that field. The design helps

the investigator to organize his ideas, which helps to recognize and fix his faults.

(vii) To provide a direction:

A research design provides a proper or particular direction to the other executives

and others who are helping us into the process. The researcher studies available,

literature and learns about new (alternative approaches.

Characteristics of Good Research Design:

Generally, a good research design minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of

the data collected and analyzed. The design which gives the smallest experimental error

is reported to be the best design in scientific investigation. Similarly, a design which yields

maximum information and provides an opportunity for considering different aspects of a

problem is considered to be the most appropriate and efficient design.

A good research design possesses the following characteristics;

(i) Objectivity:

It refers to the findings related to the method of data collection and scoring of the

responses. The research design should permit the measuring instruments which are fairly
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objective in which every observer or judge scoring the performance must precisely give

the same report. In other words, the objectivity of the procedure may be judged by the

degree of agreement between the final scores assigned to different individuals by more

than one independent observer. This ensures the objectivity of the collected data which

shall be capable of analysis and interpretation.

(ii) Reliability:

It refers to consistency throughout a series of measurements. For example, if a

respondent gives out a response to a particular item, he is expected to give the same

response to that item even if he is asked repeatedly. If he is changing his response to the

same item, the consistency will be lost. So, the researcher should frame the items in a

questionnaire in such a way that it provides consistency or reliability.

(iii) Validity:

Any measuring device or instrument is said to be valid when it measures what it is

expected to measure. For example, an intelligence test conducted for measuring the IQ

should measure only the intelligence and nothing else and the questionnaire shall be

framed accordingly.

(iv) Generalizability:

It means how best the data collected from the samples can be utilized for drawing

certain generalizations applicable to a large group from which sample is drawn. Thus, a
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research design helps an investigator to generalize his findings provided he has taken due

care in defining the population, selecting the sample, deriving appropriate statistical

analysis etc. while preparing the research design. Thus, a good research design is one

which is methodologically prepared and should ensure that generalization is possible.

For ensuring the generalization we should confirm that our research problem has

the following characteristics;

a) The problem is clearly formulated.

b) The population is clearly defined.

c) Most appropriate techniques of sample selection are used to form an

appropriate sample.

d) Appropriate statistical analysis has been carried out.

e) The findings of the study are capable of generalizations.

(v) Adequate Information:

The most important requirement of good research design is that it should provide

adequate information so that the research problem can be analyzed on a wide

perspective. An ideal design should take into account important factors like;

(i) Identifying the exact research problem to be studied

(ii) The objective of the research

(iii) The process of obtaining information

(iv) The availability of adequate and skilled manpower and

(v) The availability of adequate financial resources for carrying research.

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(vi) Other Features: Some other important features of a good research design are

flexibility, adaptability, efficiency, being economic and so on. A good research design

should minimize bias and maximize reliability and generalization.

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Activity 3:
Direction:
Look for 5 research studies on education. Get the:
a. Research Title
b. Year and Setting
c. Research Design (full)

 Submit in Word doc. format.

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CHAPTER 4
The Research Problem

The problems lie everywhere around us. They even lie at our door step and in our

backyards. Human nature is so complicated, that a problem solved for one individual may

still exist for another individual, a problem solved for one class/ school/teacher/

situation/ system/time etc., still remains a problem for another class/ school/ teacher/

situation/system/time or a problem solved for the time being may reappear with a lapse

of time. We become habitual of living in the age of problems i.e. we are so much

surrounded by the problem that we suffer from,” problem blindness”. But in order to

solve the problem or making research we need to delimit the problem.

Selection of problem is not the first step in research but identification of the

problem is the first step in research. Selection of problem is governed by reflective

thinking. It is wrong to think that identification of a problem means to select a topic of a

research or statement of the problem.

A topic or statement of the problem and research problem are not the synonyms

but they are inclusive. The problem concerns with the functioning of the broader area of

field studied, whereas a topic or title or statement of the problem is the verbal statement

of the problem. The topic is the definition of the problem which delimits or pin points the

task of a researcher.

It is the usual practice of the researcher that they select the topic of the study

from different sources especially from research abstracts. They do not identify the
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problem, but a problem is made on the basis of the topic. It results that they have no

active involvement in their research activities, whatever, they do, do mechanically.

Definitions of the Problem:

The obstacles which hinder our path are regarded as problem. Different

definitions of the problem are given below;

“Problem is the obstacle in the path of satisfying our needs.”

John Geoffery

“Problem is a question which is to be solved.”

John. G. Tornsand

“To define a problem means to put a fence around it, to separate it by careful

distinctions from like questions found in related situations of need.”

Whitney

“A problem is a question proposed for a solution generally speaking a problem

exists when there is a no available answer to same question.”

J.C. Townsend

“A problem is an interrogative sentence or statement that asks: What relation

exists between two or more variables?”

F.N. Kerlinger

“To define a problem means to specify it in detail and with precision each question

and subordinate question to be answered is to be specified, the limits of the investigation

must be determined. Frequently, it is necessary to review previous studies in order to

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determine just what is to be done. Sometimes it is necessary to formulate the point of

view or educational theory on which the investigation is to be based. If certain

assumptions are made, they must be explicitly noted.”

Monero and Engelhart

Identification of a Research Problem:

The following steps are to be followed in identifying a research problem;

Step I Determining the field of research in which a researcher is keen to do the

research work.

Step II The researcher should develop the mastery on the area or it should be the

field of his specialization.

Step III He should review the research conducted in area to know the recent trend

and studies are being conducted in the area.

Step IV On the basis of review, he should consider the priority field of the study.

Step V He should draw an analogy and insight in identifying a problem or employ

his personal experience of the field in locating the problem. He may take help of

supervisor or expert of the field.

Step VI He should pin point specific aspect of the problem which is to be

investigated.
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The Sources of the Problem:

(i) The classroom, school, home, community and other agencies of education are obvious

sources.

(ii) Social developments and technological changes are constantly bringing forth new

problems and opportunities for research.

(iii) Record of previous research such specialized sources as the encyclopedias of educational,

research abstracts, research bulletins, research reports, journals of researches,

dissertations and many similar publications are rich sources of research problems.

(iv) Text book assignments, special assignments, reports and term papers will suggest

additional areas of needed research.

(v) Discussions-Classroom discussions, seminars and exchange of ideas with faculty members

and fellow scholars and students will suggest many stimulating problems to be

solved, close professional relationships, academic discussions and constructive academic

climate are especially advantageous opportunities.

(vi) Questioning attitude: A questioning attitude towards prevailing practices and research

oriented academic experience will effectively promote problem awareness.

(vii) The most practical source of problem is to consult supervisor, experts of the field and

most experienced persons of the field. They may suggest most significant problems of the

area. He can discuss certain issues of the area to emerge a problem.

Although research problems should not be assigned or they should not be

proposed and allotted by a guide but consultation with the more experienced faculty

member or research worker is a desirable practice.

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One of the most important functions of the research guide is to help the student

clarify his thinking, achieve a sense of focus and develop a manageable problem from one

that may be vague and too complex.

Statement of Problem:

Kerlinger has identified following three criteria of good problem statements;

1. A problem should be concerned with relation between two or more variables.

2. It should be stated ‘clearly and unambiguously in question form’.

3. It should be amenable to empirical testing.

Meeting these criteria in his problem statement will result, in a clear and concise

idea of what the researcher wants to do. This sets the state for further planning.

Objectives of Assumptions about the Problem:

1. To make the research work feasible.

2. To delimit the scope of the problem.

3. To establish the proper frame of reference.

Aspects of Delimiting a Problem:

1. Delimited to certain variables that should be mentioned clearly in the problem.

2. Delimited to the area or level as primary level, secondary level, college or university level.

3. Delimited to size of sample, considering the time, energy and money.

4. Delimited to the best method only.

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5. Delimited to the best available tool for measuring the variable.

6. Delimited to the most appropriate techniques.

7. Other delimitations particular to a problem.

As the above delimitations help the researcher for conducting the study, the findings of

studies also confine to these delimitations.

Evaluation of the Problem:

When considering a problem a researcher is required to ask himself a series of

questions about it. These are helpful in the evaluation of the problem on the basis of

personal suitability of the researcher and social value of the problem.

Following questions must be answered affirmatively before the study is

undertaken:

1. Is the Problem Researchable?

2. Is the Problem New

3. Is the Problem Significant?

4. Is the Problem Feasible for the Particular Researcher?

In order to be feasible, a problem should agree with the following:

a) Research competencies of the Researcher

b) Interest and enthusiasm of the Researcher

c) Financial consideration in the Project

d) Time requirement for the Project

e) Administrative considerations in the Project.

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Activity 4:
Direction: Think of a research topic then formulate its problem statement.

Name: _________________________________________________________________
Year/Section: ___________________________________________________________

Research Topic:
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Problem Statement:
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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CHAPTER 5

Variables and Their Types

Variable is a concept which can take on different quantitative values.

For example; height, weight, income, age etc. The main focus of the scientific

study is to analyse the functional relationship of the variables. A variable is a quantity

which can vary from one individual to another. The quantity which can vary from person

to person.

“Variable is a property that taken on different value”,

Kerlinger

It is any feature or aspect of an event, function or process that, by its presence

and nature, affects some other event or process, which is being studied.

i. Continuous Variable:

It is that which can assume any numerical value within a specific range.

ii. Discrete Variable:

A variable for which the individual values fall on the scale only with distinct gaps

is called a discrete variable.

iii. Dependent Variable or Criterion variable:

If one variable depends or is a consequence of other, it is termed as dependent

variable. Criterion variable is the basis on which the effectiveness of the experimental

variable is studied.
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iv. Independent Variable or Experimental Variable:

The variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as an

independent variable. The variable whose effect is going to be known is known as

experimental variable.

v. Controlled Variable:

The effectiveness of an experimental variable is examined by comparing with

other variable, known as controlled variable.

vi. Confounding Variable:

Those aspects of study or sample, that might influence the dependent variable

(outcome measures), and whose effect may be confused with the effects of the

independent variable. They are of two types; Intervening and extraneous variable.

vii. Intervening Variable:

There are a number of abstract variables in educational/social experiments, which

intervene the effect of experimental or criterion variable. For controlling intervening

variable appropriate research design should be used. Intervening variables are hard if not

impossible, to observe because they usually have to do with an individual’s feelings like

boredom, stress, fatigue, excitement etc. Extraneous variable on the other hand, are

more readily observed or measured and thus are more easily controlled.

viii. Extraneous Variable:

Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may

affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables. Suppose the

researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between children’s
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gain in social studies achievement and their self-concept. Here self-concept is

independent variable and achievement in social study is dependent variable. Intelligence

may as well affect the social studies achievement; but since it is not related to the purpose

of the study undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as extraneous variable.

Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of extraneous variable(s) is

technically described as an ‘experimental error.’

A study must always be so designed that the effect upon the dependent variable

is attributed entirely to the independent variables and not to some extraneous

variable(s).When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous

variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and independent variable is said to

be confounded by an extraneous variable(s).

Extraneous variable can be controlled by removing the variable causing

distraction. It may be eliminated by selecting cases with uniform characteristics and

through randomization.

ix. Organismic Variable:

There are some variables which cannot be manipulated. They are accepted by the

researcher as they are. They are levels of intelligence, sex, class levels, and the like. The

researcher can classify the subjects by sex but he cannot modify to suit his research

condition. If a researcher attempts to compare boys and girls on some learning task, any

differences might be attributed to sex differences but not necessarily so. The differences

between boys and girls could be due to differences in intelligence, training, motivation or

a myriad of other conditions present in all human beings and not necessarily to biological
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differences between sex. Those variables which cannot be manipulated and cannot

themselves point out causal relations are called organismic variables.

Formulation of Hypothesis

The word hypothesis consists of two words –Hypo+Thesis. ‘Hypo’ means tentative

or subject to the verification. ‘Thesis’ means statement about solution of the problem.

Thus, the literal meaning of the term hypothesis is a tentative statement about the

solution of the problem. Hypothesis offers a solution of the problem that is to be verified

empirically and based on some rationale.

Again, ’hypo’ means the composition of two or more variables which are to be

verified and ‘thesis’ means position of these variables in the specific frame of reference.

Definitions of Hypothesis:

“Any supposition which we make in order to endeavor to deduce conclusions in

accordance with facts which are known to be real under the idea that if the conclusions

to which the hypothesis leads are known truths, the hypothesis itself either must be or at

least likely to be true.” J.S. Mill

“A hypothesis is a tentative generalization the validity of which remains to be

tested. In its most elementary stage the hypothesis may be any hunch, guess, imaginative

idea which becomes basis for further investigation.” Lundberg

“It is a shrewd guess or inference that is formulated and provisionally adopted to

explain observed facts or conditions and to guide in further investigation.” John W. Best
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“A hypothesis is a statement temporarily accepted as true in the light of what is,

at the time, known about a phenomenon, and it is employed as a basis for action in the

search for new, truth, when the hypothesis is fully established, it may take the form of

facts, principles and theories.” Barr and Scates

“Hypothesis is an assumption whose testability is to be tested on the basis of the

compatibility of its implications with empirical evidence and previous knowledge.” Gorge

J. Mouly

Nature of Hypothesis:

i. Conceptual: Some kind of conceptual elements in the framework are involved

in a hypothesis.

ii. Verbal statement in a declarative form: It is a verbal expression of ideas and

concepts. It is not merely mental idea but in the verbal form, the idea is ready

enough for empirical verification.

iii. It represents the tentative relationship between two or more variables.

iv. Forward or future oriented: A hypothesis is future-oriented. It relates to the

future verification not the past facts and information.

v. Pivot of a scientific research: All research activities are designed for

verification of hypothesis.

Functions of Hypothesis:

H.H. Mc Ashan has mentioned the following functions of hypothesis;

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1. It is a temporary solution of a problem concerning with some truth which enables an

investigator to start his research works.

2. It offers a basis in establishing the specifics what to study for and may provide possible

solutions to the problem.

3. It may lead to formulate another hypothesis.

4. A preliminary hypothesis may take the shape of final hypothesis.

5. Each hypothesis provides the investigator with definite statement which may be

objectively tested and accepted or rejected and leads for interpreting results and drawing

conclusions that is related to original purpose.

6. It delimits field of the investigation.

7. It sensitizes the researcher so that he should work selectively, and have very realistic

approach to the problem.

8. It offers the simple means for collecting evidences for verification.

Importance of a Hypothesis:

i. Investigator’s eyes: Carter V. Good thinks that by guiding the investigator in

further investigation hypothesis serves as the investigator’s eyes in seeking

answers to tentatively adopted generalization.

ii. Focuses research: Without hypothesis, a research is unfocussed research and

remains like a random empirical wandering. Hypothesis serves as necessary link

between theory and the investigation.

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iii. Clear and specific goals: A well thought out set of hypothesis places clear and

specific goals before the research worker and provides him with a basis for

selecting sample and research procedure to meet these goals.

iv. Links together: According to Barr and Scates, “It serves the important function of

linking together related facts and information and organizing them into wholes.”

v. Prevents blind research: In the words of P.V. Young, ”The use of hypothesis

prevents a blind search and indiscriminate gathering of masses of data which may

later prove irrelevant to the problem under study."

vi. Guiding Light: ”A hypothesis serves as powerful beacon that lights the way for the

research work.”

vii. It provides direction to research and prevent the review of irrelevant literature

and the collection of useful or excess data.

viii. It sensitizes the investigator certain aspects of situation which are irrelevant from

the standpoint of problem at hand.

ix. It enables the investigator to understand with greater clarity his problem and its

ramification.

x. It is an indispensable research instrument, for it builds a bridge between the

problem and the location of empirical evidence that may solve the problem.

xi. It provides the investigator with the most efficient instrument for exploring and

explaining the unknown facts.

xii. It provides a frame work for drawing conclusion.

xiii. It stimulates the investigator for further research.

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Forms of Hypothesis:

According to Bruce W. Tuckman following are the forms of hypothesis;

(i) Question form:

A hypothesis stated as a question represents the simplest level of empirical

observation. It fails to fit most definitions of hypothesis. It frequently appears in the list.

There are cases of simple investigation which can be adequately implemented by raising

a question, rather than dichotomizing the hypothesis forms into acceptable / reject able

categories.

(ii) Declarative Statement:

A hypothesis developed as a declarative statement provides an anticipated

relationship or difference between variables. Such a hypothesis developer has examined

existing evidence which led him to believe that a difference may be anticipated as

additional evidence. It is merely a declaration of the independent variables effect on the

criterion variable.

(iii) Directional Hypothesis:

A directional hypothesis connotes an expected direction in the relationship or

difference between variables. This type of hypothesis developer appears more certain of

anticipated evidence. If seeking a tenable hypothesis is the general interest of the

researcher, this hypothesis is less safe than the others because it reveals two possible

conditions. First that the problem of seeking relationship between variables is so obvious
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that additional evidence is scarcely needed. Secondly, researcher has examined the

variables very thoroughly and the available evidence supports the statement of a

particular anticipated outcome.

(iv) Non –Directional Hypothesis or Null Hypothesis:

This hypothesis is stated in the null form which is an assertion that no relationship

or no difference exists between or among the variables. Null hypothesis is a statistical

hypothesis testable within the framework of probability theory. It is a non-directional

form of hypothesis.

There is a trend to employ or develop null hypothesis in research in most of the

disciplines. A null hypothesis tentatively states that on the basis of evidence tested there

is no difference. If the null hypothesis is rejected, there is a difference but we do not know

the alternative or the differences. In this the researcher has not to anticipate or give the

rational for the declaration or directional form. It does not make researcher biased or

prejudiced. He may be objective about the expected outcomes of the research or findings.

Actually, this is a statistical hypothesis which is self- explanatory. Null hypothesis

means zero hypotheses. A researcher has not to do anything in developing it. While

research hypothesis is second step in the process of reflective thinking.

A null hypothesis in an appropriate form is order to accommodate the object of

inquiry for extracting this information. It does not necessarily reflect the expectations of

the researcher so much as the utility of the null form as the best fitted to the logic of

chance in statistical knowledge or science.

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It is the no difference form, i.e. there is no difference or relationship between or

among variables under certain conditions.

Statistical tests of significance are used to accept and reject the null hypothesis. If

it is rejected, the general hypothesis is accepted.

Non-directional hypothesis is known as null hypothesis because it ‘nullifies’ the

positive argument of the findings or non-directional statement of the generalization. It is

also termed as statistical or zero hypothesis because it denies the existence of any

systematic principles apart from the effect of chance. It assumes that none or zero

difference exists between the two population means or the treatments.

Formulation of Testable Hypothesis:

A hypothesis is a tentative assumption drawn from knowledge and theory. It is

used as a guide in the investigation of other facts and theory that are as yet unknown. Its

formulation is one of the most difficult and most crucial steps in the entire scientific

process. A poorly chosen or poorly worded hypothesis can prevent the following:

(i) The obtaining of enough pertinent data,

(ii) The drawing of conclusions and generalizations, and

(iii) The application of certain statistical measures in the analysis of the result.

Hypothesis is the central core of study that directs the selection of the data to be

gathered, the experimental design, the statistical analysis and the conclusions drawn

from the study.

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A study may be devoted to the testing of one major hypothesis, a number of

subsidiary hypothesis, or both major and subsidiary hypotheses. When several

hypotheses are used, each should be stated separately in order to anticipate the type of

analysis required and in order to definitely accept or reject each hypothesis on its own

merit. Irrespective of number or type used each hypothesis should be testable and based

upon a logical foundation.

Fundamental Basis of Hypothesis:

The researcher deals with reality on two levels;

1. The Operational Level:

On the operational level researcher must define events in observable terms in

order to operate with the reality necessary to do researches.

2. The Conceptual Level:

On the conceptual level the researcher must define events in terms of underlying

communality with other events. Defining at a conceptual level, the researcher can

abstract from single specific to general instance and begin to understand how

phenomena operate and variables interrelate. The formulation of a hypothesis very

frequently requires going from an operational or concrete level to the conceptual or

abstract level. This movement to the conceptual level enables the result to be generalized

beyond the specific conditions of a particular study and thus to be of wider applicability.
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Research requires the ability to move from the operational to the conceptual level

and vice–versa. This ability is required not only in constructing experiments but in

applying their findings as well. The process of making conceptual contrasts

between operational programme is called conceptualization or dimensionalization.

Difficulties in the Formulation of Useful Hypothesis:

Moving from the operational to the conceptual level and vice –versa is a critical

ingredient of the research to demonstration process. The following are the difficulties

in the formulation of hypothesis:

1. Absence of knowledge of a clear theoretical framework.

2. Lack of ability to make use of the theoretical framework logically.

3. Lack of acquaintance with available research technique resulting in failure to be able to

phrase the hypothesis properly.

A survey may be conducted by either of two methods

1. Census Method or Parametric method and

2. Sampling method or Non-parametric method.

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1. Census method:

It deals with the investigation of the entire population. Here the data are collected

for each and every unit of the universe. This method provides more accurate and exact

information as no unit is left out.

2. Sampling method:

Here a small group is selected as representative of the whole universe. It works

with the objective to obtain accurate and reliable information about the universe with

minimum of cost, time and energy and to set out the limits of accuracy of such estimates.

It makes exhaustive and intensive study possible with much less time, money and

material. Its more popular in research work.

Population:

Population or universe means, the entire mass of observations, which is the

parent group from which a sample is to be formed. The term population or universe

conveys a different meaning than a traditional one. In census survey, the count of

individuals (men, women and children) is known as population.

But in Research Methodology population means characteristics of a specific group.

For example, secondary school teachers of, who have some specific features like teaching

experience, teaching attitudes etc.

Sampling means selecting a given number of subjects from a defined population

as representative of that population.

One type of population distinguished by educational researchers is called the

target population.
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By target population distinguished by educational researchers is called the target

population.

By target population, also called universe, we mean all the members of a real or

hypothetical set of people, events or objects to which we wish to generalize the results

of our research.

The first step in sampling is to define the target population.

Research work is guided by inductive thinking. The researcher proceeds from

specificity to generality. The sample observation is the specific situation, which is applied

to the population, it is the general situation.

The measures of a sample are known as statistics and measures of a population

are termed as parameter. Mean, S.D., coefficient of Correlation of sample observation

known as Statistics and Mean, S.D., coefficient of correlation of population are known as

parameters. Generally, parameters are estimated on the basis of sample statistics.

Sampling is indispensable technique in behavioral research and not so common in

physical sciences. It is fundamental to all statistical methodology of behavioral and social

research. It makes research findings economical and accurate. Sampling means selection

of individuals from the population in such a way that every individual has equal chance to

be taken into the sample.

Term sample should be reserved for a set of units or portion of an aggregate of

material which has been selected in the belief that it will be representative of the whole

aggregate. By Frank Yates “Sample is set of units of an aggregate.”

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Assumptions of Sampling:

1. Homogeneity amidst complexity:

Social phenomenon is very complex in nature and every unit appears to be

different from another. But at the same time, they also possess similarities in many

respects. It is, therefore, assumed that there is the possibility of such representative types

in the whole population that makes sampling possible.

2. Possibility of Representative Selection:

Sampling has its origin in the mathematical theory of probability and law of

statistical regularity. The law of statistical regularity lays down that a group of objects

chosen at random from a large group tend to possess the characteristics of that large

group (universe) by

L. R. Conner.

3. Absolute accuracy not essential but relative or significant accuracy

i.e. needed in case of large-scale observations. Because it is practically impossible to achieve

because of errors in measurement, collection of data, its analysis, interpretation.

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Definition:

“A statistical sample is a miniature picture or cross –section of the entire group or

aggregate from which the sample is taken.”

P. Y. Young

A sample is a small proportion of a population selected for observation and

analysis. It is a collection consisting of a part or sub-set of the objects or individuals of

population which is selected for the express purpose of representing the population.

By observing the characteristics of the sample, one can make certain inferences

about characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.

Sampling, ”It is the process of selecting a sample from the population. For this

purpose, the population is divided into a number of parts called sampling units.”

Sampling designs means the joint procedure of selection and estimation. Sampling

is a part of the strategy of research.

Sampling should be such that the error of estimation is minimum.

Good and Hatt, “A sample as the name implies, is a smaller representation of a

larger whole.”

W. G. Cocharn, “In every branch of science we lack the resources, to study more

than a fragment of the phenomenon that might advance our knowledge.” i.e. fragment is

sample and phenomenon is population. The sample observations are applied to the

phenomenon i.e. generalization.

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David S. Fox, “In the social sciences, it is not possible to collect data from every

respondent relevant to our study but only from some fractional part of the respondents.

The process of selecting the fractional part is called sampling.”

Need of Sampling:

1. Economy of time.

2. Economy of money.

3. True detailed knowledge.

4. Utility in experimental study.

5. It has reliability because it is based on probability theory.

Advantages of Sampling:

1. It has a greater adaptability.

2. It is an economical technique.

3. It has high speed for generalization.

4. According to W.G. Cocharan, “It has greater precision and accuracy in the observation”.

5. This technique has great accuracy.

6. It has a greater speed in conducting a research work.

7. It has a greater scope in the field of research.

8. It reduces the cost of observation or data collection.

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Disadvantages or Limitation of Sampling:

1. Scope of biasness. (Less accuracy)

2. Problem of representative sample-Difficulty in selecting a truly representative sample.

3. Need of eligible researchers.

4. Instability of sample subjects or changeability of units i.e. in heterogeneous population.

5. There are certain situations where sampling is possible.

Essentials of an Ideal Sample:

Homogeneity: The units included in sample must be as likeness with other units.

Adequacy: A sample having 10% of the whole data is adequate.

Independence: Every unit should be free to be included in the sample.

Representativeness; An ideal sample must be such that it represents the whole data

adequately.

In the number of units included in a sample should be sufficient to enable

derivation of conclusions applicable to the whole data.

Economical in terms of time and money.

High level of reliability.

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Characteristics of a Good Sample:

1. A good sample is the true representative of the population corresponding to its

properties.

2. The population is known as aggregate of certain properties and sample is called sub-

aggregate of the universe.

3. A good sample is free from bias; the sample does not permit prejudices, the learning and

pre-conception, imaginations of the investigator to influence its choice.

4. A good sample is an objective one; it refers objectivity in selecting procedure or absence

of subjective elements from the situation.

5. A good sample maintains accuracy. It yields an accurate estimate

or statistics and does not involve errors.

6. A good sample is comprehensive in nature. This feature of a closely linked with true-

representativeness. Comprehensiveness is a quality of a sample which is controlled by

specific purpose of the investigation. A sample may be comprehensive in traits but may

not be a good representative of the population.

7. A good sample has the practicability for research.

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Types of Sampling Designs/Methods of Sampling

A Probability Sampling B Non-Probability Sampling

A-1 Random Sampling B-1 Incidental or Accidental Sampling

A-2 Systematic Sampling B-2 Judgment Sampling

A-3 Stratified Sampling B- 3 Purposive Sampling

A-4 Multistage Sampling B-4 Quota Sampling A-5 Purposive Sampling

A-5 Cluster Sampling

A-6 Multiple Sampling or Double Sampling

Difference between Probability and Non-Probability Sampling

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Probability Sampling:

G.C. Halmstadter, “A probability sample is one that has been used selected in such

a way that every element chosen has a known probability of being included.”

Probability sampling is of different types:

(1) Simple Random Sampling:

It is one in which each element of the population has an equal and independent

chance of being included in the sample i.e. a sample selected by randomization method

is known as simple random sample and this technique is simple randomizing.

Randomization is done by using the following techniques:

(a) Tossing a coin (b) Throwing a dice

(b) Lottery method (d) Blind folded method

(c) Tippett’s table method

Merits of Randomization:

1. It requires the minimum knowledge of population.

2. It is free from subjectivity and free from personal error.

3. It provides appropriate data for one’s purpose.

4. The observations of the sample can be used for inferential purpose.

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Demerits of Randomization:

1. It cannot ensure the representativeness of a sample.

2. It does not use the knowledge about the population.

3. Its inferential accuracy depends upon the size of the sample.

(2) Systematic Sampling:

Systematic sampling is an improvement over the simple random sampling. This

method requires the complete information about the population. There should be a list

of information of all the individuals of the population in any systematic way.

Now we decide the size of the sample:

Let the size of sample is = n and population size is = N

Now we select each N/n individual from the list and thus we have the desired size

of sample which is known as systematic sample. Thus for this technique of sampling

population should be arranged in any systematic way.

Merits:

1. This is a simple method of selecting a sample.

2. It reduces the field cost.

3. Inferential statistics may be used.

4. Sample may be comprehensive and representative of population.

5. Observations of the sample may be used for drawing conclusions and generalizations.
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Demerits:

1. This is not free from error, since there is subjectivity due to different ways of systematic

list by different individuals.

2. Knowledge of population is essential.

3. Information of each individual is essential.

4. This method can’t ensure the representativeness.

5. There is a risk in drawing conclusions from the observations of the sample.

(3) Stratified Sampling:

It is an improvement over the earlier methods. When we employ this technique,

the researcher divides his population into strata on the basis of some characteristics and

from each of these smaller homogenous groups (strata) draws at random a

predetermined number of units. Researcher should choose that characteristic as criterion

which seems to be more relevant in his research work.

Stratified sampling may be of three types;

(a) Disproportionate:

Means that the size of the sample in each unit is not proportionate to the size of

the unit but depends upon considerations involving personal judgement and

convenience. This method of sampling is more effective for comparing strata which have

different error possibilities. It is less efficient for determining population characteristics.

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(b) Proportionate:

It refers to the selection from each sampling unit of a sample that is proportionate

to the size of the unit. Advantages of this procedure includes representativeness with

respect to variables used as the basis of classifying categories and increased chances of

being able to make comparisons between strata. Lack of information on proportion of the

population in each category and faulty classification may be listed as disadvantages of

this method.

(c) Optimum allocation:

Stratified sampling is representative as well as comprehensive than other

stratified samples. It refers to selecting units from each stratum. Each stratum should be

in proportion to the corresponding stratum the population. Thus, sample obtained is

known as optimum allocation sample.

Merits:

(i) It is a good representative of the population.

(ii) It is an improvement over the earlier technique of sampling.

(iii) It is an objective method of sampling.

(iv) Observations can be used for inferential purpose.

Demerits:

(i) Serious disadvantage of this method is that it is difficult for the researcher to decide the

relevant criterion for stratification.

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(ii) Only one criterion can be used for stratification, but generally it seems more than one

criterion relevant for stratification.

(iii) It is costly and time-consuming method.

(iv) Selected samples may be representative with reference to the used criterion but not for

the other.

(v) There is a risk of generalization.

(4) Multiple or Double Repetitive Sampling:

Generally, this is not a new method but only a new application of the samplings.

This is most frequently used for establishing the reliability of a sample. When employing

a mailed questionnaire, double sampling is sometimes used to obtain a more

representative sample. This is done because some randomly selected subjects who are

sent questionnaires may not return them.

Obviously, the missing data will bias the result of the study, if the people who fail

to reply the query differ in some fundamental way from the others in respect to the

phenomenon being studied.

To eliminate this bias, a selected sample may be drawn at random from the non-

respondents and the people interviewed to obtain the desired information. Thus, this

technique is also known as repeated or multiple sampling.

This double sampling technique enables one to check on the reliability of the

information obtained from first sample. Thus, double sampling, where in one sample is
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analyzed and information obtained is used to draw the next sample to examine the

problem further.

Merits:

(i) Thus sampling procedure leads to the inferences of free determine precision based

on a number of observations.

(ii) This technique of sampling reduces the error.

(iii) This method maintains the procedure of the finding evaluate the reliability of the sample.

Demerits:

(i) This technique of sampling cannot be used for a large sample. It is applicable only for

small sample.

(ii) This technique is time consuming and costly.

(iii) Its planning and administration is more complicated.

(5) Multi Stage Sampling:

This sample is more comprehensive and representative of the population. In this

type of sampling primary sample units are inclusive groups and secondary units are sub-

groups within these ultimate units to be selected which belong to one and only one group.
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Stages of a population are usually available within a group or population,

whenever stratification is done by the researcher. The individuals are selected from

different stages for constituting the multi stage sampling.

Merits:

(i) It is a good representative of the population.

(ii) Multistage sampling is an improvement over the earlier methods.

(iii) It is an objective procedure of sampling.

(iv) The observations from multi stage sample may be used for inferential purpose.

Demerits:

(i) It is a difficult and complex method of sampling.

(ii) It involves errors when we consider the primary stages.

(iii) It is again a subjective technique of sampling.

(6) Cluster Sampling:

To select the intact group as a whole is known as a cluster sampling. In cluster

sampling the sample units contain groups of elements (cluster) instead of individual

members or items in the population. Rather than listing all elementary school children in

a given city and randomly selecting 15 % of these students for the sample, a researcher

lists all of the elementary schools in the city, selects at random 15 % of these clusters of

units, and uses all of the children in the selected schools as the sample.

Merits:

(i) It may be a good representative of the population.

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(ii) It is an easy method.

(iii) It is an economical method.

(iv) It is practicable and highly applicable in education.

(v) Observations can be used for inferential purpose.

Demerits:

(i) Cluster sampling is not free from errors.

(ii) It is not comprehensive.

Non-Probability Sampling Method:

Samples which are selected through non-random methods are called non-

probability samples. Depending upon the technique used it may be;

(1) Incidental or Accidental Sampling:

The term incidental or accidental applied to those samples that are taken because

they are most frequently available i.e. this refers to the groups which are used as samples

of a population because they are readily available or because the researcher is unable to

employ more acceptable sampling methods.

Merits:

(i) It is very easy method of sampling.

(ii) It is frequently used method in behavioural sciences.

(iii) It reduces the time, money and energy i.e. it is an economical method.
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Demerits:

(i) It is not representative of the population.

(ii) It is not free from errors.

(iii) Parametric statistics cannot be used.

(2) Judgment Sampling:

This involves the selection of a group from the population on the basis of available

information assuming as if they are representative of the entire population. Here group

may also be selected on the basis of intuition or on the basis of the criterion deemed to

be self-evident. Generally, investigator should take the judgment sample so this sampling

is highly risky.

Merits:

(i) Knowledge of investigator can be best used in this technique of sampling.

(ii) This method of sampling is economical.

Demerits:

(i) This technique is objective.

(ii) It is not free from errors.

(iii) It includes uncontrolled variation.

(iv) Inferential statistics cannot be used for the observation of this sampling, so generalization

is not possible.
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(3) Purposive Sampling:

The purposive sampling is selected by some arbitrary method because it is known

to be representative of the total population, or it is known that it will produce well

matched groups. The idea is to pick out the sample in relation to criterion which are

considered important for the particular study. This method is appropriate when the study

places special emphasis upon the control of certain specific variables.

Merits:

(i) Use the best available knowledge concerning the sample subjects.

(ii) Better control of significant variables.

(iii) Sample groups data can be easily matched.

(iv) Homogeneity of subjects used in the sample.

Demerits:

(i) Reliability of the criterion is questionable.

(ii) Knowledge of population is essential.

(iii) Errors in classifying sampling subjects.

(iv) Inability to utilize the inferential parametric statistics.

(v) Inability to make generalization concerning total population.

(4) Quota Sampling:

This combines both judgment sampling and probability sampling: on the basis of

judgment or assumption or the previous knowledge, the proportion of population falling

into each category is decided. Thereafter a quota of cases to be drawn is fixed and the
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observer is allowed to sample as he likes. Quota sampling is very arbitrary and likely to

figure in municipal surveys.

Merits:

(i) It is an improvement over the judgment sampling.

(ii) It is an easy sampling technique.

(iii) It is not frequently used in social surveys.

Demerits:

(i) It is not a representative sample.

(ii) It is not free from errors.

(iii) It has the influence of regional, geographical and social factors.

(5) Snowball Sampling:

The term; snow ball sampling’ has been used to describe a sampling procedure in

which the sample goes on becoming bigger and bigger as the observation or study

proceeds. The term snowball stems from the analogy of a snowball sample which would

allow computation of estimates of sampling error and use of statistical test of

significance.

For example, an opinion survey is to be conducted on smokers of a particular

brand of cigarette. At the first stage, we may pick up a few people who are known to us

or can be identified to be the smokers of that brand. At the time of interviewing them,

we may obtain the names of other persons known to the first stage subjects. Thus, the
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subjects go on serving an informant for the identification of more subjects and the sample

goes on increasing.

Merit:

Snowball sampling which is generally considered to be non-probabilistic can be

converted into probabilistic by selecting subjects randomly within each stage.

Demerits:

Sampling errors may creep in.

(6) Purposive or Expert Choice Sampling:

Samples are sometimes expressly chosen because, in the light of available

information, these mirror some larger group with reference to one or more given

characteristics. The controls in such samples are usually identified as representative

areas (city, country, state, district), representative characteristics of individuals (age, sex,

marital status, socio-economic status, race) or types of groups (administrator, counselors,

teachers etc.).

These controls may be further sub-divided by specified categories within classes

such as amount of training, years of experience or attitudes towards a specific

phenomenon. Up-to this stage, these controls are somewhat similar to those used in

satisfaction. Purposive sampling differs from stratified random sampling in that the actual
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selection of the units to be included in the sample in each group is done purposively

rather than by random method.

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Activity 5:
Name:____________________________________________________________
Section: ____________________________

Give examples of the following variables:

1. Continuous

2. Dependent

3. Independent

4. Controlled

5. Confounding

6. Intervening

7. Extraneous

8. Organismic
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Activity 6:

Name: _____________________________________________________________
Section: ____________________

Direction:
Formulate different hypotheses based on the research title:

“The Impact of Modern Technologies on the Students’ Study Habits”

1. Question form –

2. Declarative Statement –

3. Directional Hypothesis –

4. Non-Directional Hypothesis -
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CHAPTER 6

Formulation of Hypothesis

A researcher requires many data – gathering tools or techniques. Tests are the

tools of measurement and it guides the researcher in data collection and also in

evaluation. Tools may vary in complexity, interpretation, design and administration. Each

tool is suitable for the collection of certain type of information.

One has to select from the available tools those which will provide data he seeks

for testing hypothesis. It may happen that existing research tools do not suit the purpose

in some situation, so researcher should modify them or construct his own.

Different tools used for data collection may be;

9. Questionnaires

10. Interviews

11. Schedules

12. Observation Techniques

13. Rating Scales

1. Questionnaire:

It is list of questions related to one topic. It may be defined as;

“A questionnaire is a systematic compilation of questions that are submitted to a

sampling of population from which information is desired.”

Barr, Davis & Johnson

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“In general, the word questionnaire refers to a device for securing answers to

questions by using a form which the respondent fills in himself.”

W. J. Goode &

K. Hall

The questionnaire is probably most used and most abused of the data gathering

devices. It is easy to prepare and to administer.

The questionnaire is a form prepared and distributed to secure responses to

certain questions. It is a device for securing answers to questions by using a form which

the respondent will fill by himself.

It is a systematic compilation of questions. It is an important instrument being

used to gather information from widely scattered sources. Normally used where one

cannot see personally all of the people from whom he desires responses or where there

is no particular reason to see them personally.

Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire:

1. It deals with an important or significant topic.

2. Its significance is carefully stated on the questionnaire itself or on its covering letter.

3. It seeks only that data which cannot be obtained from the resources like books, reports

and records.

4. It is as short as possible, only long enough to get the essential data.

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5. It is attractive in appearance, nearly arranged and clearly duplicated or printed.

6. Directions are clear and complete, important terms are clarified.

7. The questions are objective, with no clues, hints or suggestions.

8. Questions are presented in a order from simple to complex.

9. Double negatives, adverbs and descriptive adjectives are avoided.

10. Double barreled questions or putting two questions in one question are also avoided.

11. The questions carry adequate number of alternatives.

12. It is easy to tabulate, summarize and interpret.

Merits of Questionnaire Method:

1. it’s very economical.

2. It’s a time saving process.

3. It covers the research in wide area.

4. It’s very suitable for special type of responses.

5. It is most reliable in special cases.

Demerits of Questionnaire Method:

1. Through this we get only limited responses.

2. Lack of personal contact.

3. Greater possibility of wrong answers.

4. Chances of receiving incomplete response are more.

5. Sometimes answers may be illegible.

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6. It may be useless in many problems.

The Interview:

Interview is a two-way method which permits an exchange of ideas and

information.

“Interviewing is fundamentally a process of social interaction.”

J. Goode & P.K. Hatt

“The interview constitutes a social situation between two persons, the

psychological process involved requiring both individuals mutually respond though the

social research purpose of the interview call for a varied response from the two parties

concerned.”

Vivien Palmar

“The interview may be regarded as a systematic method by which a person enters

more or less imaginatively into the inner life of a comparative stranger.”

P.V. Young

In an interview a rapport is established between the interviewer and the

interviewee. Not only is physical distance between them annihilated, the social and

cultural barrier is also removed; and a free mutual flow of ideas to and fro takes place.

Both create their respective impression upon each other.

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The interview brings them both on the same level and an emotional attachment

supervenes between them.

In an interview all formalities are laid down and the gate is opened for delivering

into the intellectuals, emotional and subconscious stirrings of the interviewee. Thus, here

the ‘depth’ of subject (man) is gone to the very bottom of his emotional pool and may

check his truthfulness of responses.

Difference between Interview and Questionnaire

Questionnaire Method Interview Method

1. Data is gathered indirectly. 1. Data is gathered directly.

2. No face to face contact between 2. There is face to face contact

two. between

3. Interviewer should have the general interviewer and

knowledge of
Characteristics ofthe topic.
an Interview: interviewee.

4. Interviwee will hesitate to write it.3. Skillful interviewer is needed.

5. We get
1. The interviewer written
can probe information only. 4. determine
into casual factors, Some confidential
attitudes,information
discover the origin of

problem. can

alsoperson.
2. It’s appropriate to deal with young children and illiterate be obtained.

3. It can make cross questioning possible. 5. We get written and oral both

type
4. It helps the investigator to gain an impression ofofthe person concerned.

information.
5. It can deal with delicate, confidential and even intimate topics.
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6. It has flexibility.

7. Sincerity, frankness, truthfulness and insight of the interviewee can be better judged

through cross questioning.

8. It gives no chance for respondent to modify his earlier answer.

9. It is applicable in survey method, but it is also applicable in historical, experimental,

case studies and clinical studies.

Merits of Interview:

1. Direct research.

2. Deep research

3. Knowledge of past and future.

4. Knowledge of special features.

5. Mutual encouragement is possible.

6. Supra-observation is possible.

7. Knowledge of historical and emotional causes.

8. Examination of known data.

Disadvantage of Interview:

1. May provides misleading information.

2. Defects due to interviewee (low level of intelligence or may be emotionally unbalanced)

3. Result may be affected due to prejudices of interviewer.

4. Result may be affected due to the difference in the mental outlook of interviewee

and interviewer.
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5. One sided and incomplete research.

6. Art rather than science.

Schedule:

When a researcher is using a set of questionnaires for interview purpose it is

known as schedule.

“Schedule is the name usually applied to set of questions, which are asked and

filled by an interviewer in a face to face situation with another.”

W.J. Goode & P. K. Hatt

By a schedule we cannot, however, obtain information about many things at

once. It is best suited to the study of a single item thoroughly.

According to Thomas Carson Macormie, “The schedule is nothing more than a list

of questions which, it seems necessary to test the hypothesis.”

Thus schedule is a list of questions formulated and presented with the specific

purpose of testing an assumption or hypothesis.

In schedule method interview occupies a central and plays a vital role.

As a matter of fact success in the use of schedule is largely determined by the

ability and tact of the interviewer rather than by the quality of the questions posed.

Because the interviewer himself poses the questions and notes down the answers

all by himself, the quality of questions has not any great significance.
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Important Features of Schedule:

1. The schedule is presented by the interviewer. The questions are asked and the answers

are noted down by him.

2. The list of questions is a mere formal document, it need not be

attractive.

3. The schedule can be used in a very narrow sphere of social research.

4. It aids to delimit the scope of the study and to concentrate on the circumscribed elements

essential to the analysis.

5. It aims at delimiting the subject.

6. In the schedule the list of questions is preplanned and noted down formally and the

interviewer is always armed with the formal document detailing the questions.

Thus, interviewer not to depend upon the memory.

Points to be kept in mind while designing schedule;

1. Interviewer should not frame long, complex, defective questions.

2. Unrelated and unnecessary questions should not be asked.

3. Schedule should not contain personal and upsetting questions.

4. Its questions should be simple, clear and relevant to topic.

5. Questions be suitable to respondent’s intelligence level.

6. Impersonal, indirect and unambiguous questions should be included in schedule.

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Merits of Schedule:

1. Higher percentage of responses.

2. Possible to observe personality factors.

3. Through interview personal contact is possible.

4. It is possible to give human touch to schedule.

5. Removal of doubts is possible because face to face interaction is there.

6. It is possible to know about the defects of the interviewee.

Observation Technique:

This is most commonly used technique of evaluation research. It is used for

evaluating cognitive and non-cognitive aspects of a person. It is used in evaluation

performance, interests, attitudes, values towards their life problems and situations. It is

most useful technique for evaluating the behaviors of children.

It is technique of evaluation in which behavior are observed in a natural situations.

“It is thorough study based on visual observation. Under this technique group

behaviours and social institutions problems are evaluated.”

Y. Younge

“Observation employs relatively more visual and senses than audio and vocal

organs.”

Mourse

The cause- effect relationship and study of events in original form, is known as

observation.
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Observation seeks to ascertain what people think and do by watching them in

action as they express themselves in various situations and activities.

Observation is recognized as the most direct means of studying people when one

is interested in their overt behavior.

In questionnaires and interview people may write answer as they think, they do

but this is often different from what they actually do. These restrictions are missing in

observation so observation is a more natural way of gathering data. Artificiality and

formality of questionnaires and interview is replaced by reality and informality in

observation. Data obtained through observation are more real and true than the data

collected by any other method. It also plays a particular part in survey procedure.

Characteristics of Observation Schedule:

According to Jahoda it has many characteristics;

1. It serves a formulated research purpose.

2. It is planned systematically rather than occurring haphazardly.

3. It is systematically recorded and related to more general propositions.

4. It is subjected to checks and controls with respect to validity, reliability and precision.

5. It is a direct technique to study an object, an event or a problem.

6. It is based mainly on visual –audio scene.

7. It employs own experiences.

8. It establishes cause-effect relationship.

9. It is an objective technique of data collection.

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10. It is both objective and subjective evaluation technique.

11. It is formal as well as informal technique.

12. It is quantitative as well as qualitative technique for data collection.

Advantages:

1. It is reliable and valid technique of collecting data and information.

2. We get first hand data through this method.

3. Record of observation is also available immediately.

4. It is simple, broad and comprehensive method.

5. It is an oldest technique of data collection and getting direct information.

Limitations:

1. It has a limited scope for its use because all the events cannot be observed directly.

2. It is subjective method.

3. It is very time-consuming process.

4. Costly so energy consuming also.

5. Presence of observer influences the behavior of the person i.e. subject becomes

conscious.

6. In case covert behavior, which can’t be observed, it is not useful.

7. Observer should be trained and experienced.

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Rating Scale:

Ratting is term applied to express opinion or judgment regarding some situation,

object or character. Opinions are usually expressed on a scale of values; rating techniques

are devices by which such judgments may be quantified.

“Rating is an essence and direct observation.”

Ruth Strong

“A rating scale ascertains the degree, intensity and frequency of a variable.”

Von Dallen

Rating techniques are more commonly used in scaling traits and attributes.

A rating method is a method by which one systematizes, the expression of opinion

concerning a trait.

The rating is done by parents, teachers, a board of interviewers and judges and

even by the self as well.

The special feature of rating scale is that the attitudes are evaluated not on the

basis of the opinions of the subjects but on the basis of the opinions and judgments of

the experimenter himself.

In rating scale data are collected by; Verbal behavior, facial expression, personal

documents, clinical type interview, projective techniques and immediate experiences as

emotions, thoughts and perceptions.

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Advantages:

1. Writing reports to parents.

2. Filling out admission blanks for colleges.

3. Finding out students’ needs.

4. Making recommendations to employers.

5. Supplementing other sources of under taking about child.

6. Stimulating effect upon the rates.

Limitations:

1. Difference in rating abilities.

2. Difference in reliability as subjects for rating.

3. Agreement among raters of one type of contact only.

4. Average superior than single.

5. Impact of emotions.

6. Limits of self-rating.

7. Over rating.

8. Limits of rating of specific qualities.

9. Limits of justifications.
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Activities Involved in Data Collection:

Data must be collected and recorded in a form suitable for the intended analysis.

The collection of data requires time and substantial effort for acquiring skills and making

the necessary arrangements for collection and to ensure adequate quality.

Access to Data:

Generally, it is a problem for researcher to get access to data because the

institutions or the persons who generally control the data are not willing to provide him

data for one or the other reason or excuse. Some necessary steps are required to

motivate such institutions or persons to provide necessary data willingly. Some

educational problems are of such nature that the subjects specially girls are not willing to

disclose correct information. Similarly, a researcher of any board or university may not

have access to confidential data.

Adequate Standard:

The researcher should demonstrate that his data were properly collected. It

is possible if the following conditions are fulfilled.

(i) It should be ensured that the supplied data met e requirement of validity. In other words

the data should, ensure what they claimed to measure.

(ii) Proper attention should be paid to measurement error. The following types of error are

possible in data collection;

(a) Errors due to malfunctioning of measuring equipment/ instrument.

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(b) Error of bias.

(c) Deliberate falsehood.

(d) Distortion of facts.

(e) Random errors.

(iii) It should be ensured that a suitable sample was drawn out of the population so that

proper generalization could be made.

(iv) It should also be checked that the data were properly recorded. The conditions under

which the data were gathered should be properly noted and suitable data recording

method should be used. The efforts should be made to detect and eliminate errors arising

during recording. The data are generally recorded in the following forms;

(a) notes of the researcher

(b) Log books and journals are used by a researcher doing the experiment or conducting

a field study

(c) Interview notes

(d) Responses to questionnaires

(e) Recording on tape recorder.

(f) Video cameras

(g) Transcribing data for computer input

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Data Organization:

Whatever method is used for collection of data it will be necessary that an

extensive set of supplementary notes should be made for the following;

(a) Sources of data

(b) Conditions under which data were gathered.

There should be stored in such a way as offer some reasonable prospects of

retrieval when required.

Collecting Primary Data and Secondary Data:

The primary data can be collected through laboratory measurement, field

observation, questionnaires, interviews, opinionnaires, schedules etc.

The secondary data can be collected from technical publications such as manuals,

handbooks, data sheets, and standards, books and journals, official publications of the

Central government, state governments, local bodies, private data services and computer

data base.

General Rules:

There are some general rules that apply to all types of data collection. They are as

follows;

(i) Do not collect more information than is required for the research problem.

(ii) Make sure the wording of the data collection instrument is clear and unambiguous.
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(iii) Use clear and explicit instructions in data collection instruments.

(iv) Design the response options as carefully as the items stems themselves.

(v) Make responding to the measuring instrument as alternative as possible.

(vi) Make sure that the final products look professional.

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Activity 7:

Name: ___________________________________________________________

Section: _____________________

Direction:

Construct a 25-item survey questionnaire for a research about death penalty.

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CHAPTER 7

Data Analysis

Data analysis embraces a whole range of activities of both the qualitative and

quantitative type. It is usual tendency in behavioral research that much use of

quantitative analysis is made and statistical methods and techniques are employed. The

statistical methods and techniques are employed. The statistical methods and techniques

have got a special position in research because they provide answers to the problems.

Kaul defines data analysis as,”Studying the organized material in order to discover

inherent facts. The data are studied from as many angles as possible to explore the new

facts.”

Purpose:

The following are the main purposes of data analysis:

(i) Description:

It involves a set of activities that are as essential first step in the development of

most fields. A researcher must be able to identify a topic about which much was not

known; he must be able to convince others about its importance and must be able to

collect data.

(ii) Construction of Measurement Scale:

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The researcher should construct a measurement scale. All numbers generated by

measuring instruments can be placed into one of four categories:

(a) Nominal: The number serves as nothing more than labels. For example, no 1 was not less

than no 2. Similarly, no 2 was neither more than no 1 and nor less than no 3.

(b) Ordinal: Such numbers are used to designate an ordering along some dimensions such as

from less to more, from small to large, from sooner to later.

(c) Interval: The interval provides more précised information than ordinal one. By this type

of measurement, the researcher can make exact and meaningful decisions. For example,

if A, B and C are of 150 cm, 145cm and 140 cm height, the researcher can say that A is 5

cm taller than B and B is 5 cm taller than C.

(d) Ratio Scale: It has two unique characteristics. The intervals between points can be

demonstrated to be precisely the same and the scale has a conceptually meaningful zero

point.

(iii) Generating empirical relationships:

Another purpose of analysis of data is identification of regularities and

relationships among data. The researcher has no clear idea about the relationship which

will be found from the collected data. If the data were available in details it will be easier

to determine the relationship. The researcher can develop theories if he is able to

recognize pattern and order of data. The pattern may be showing association among

variables, which may be done by calculating correlation among variables or showing

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order, precedence or priority. The derivation of empirical laws may be made in the form

of simple equations relating one interval or ratio scaled variable to a few others through

graph methods.

(iv) Explanation and prediction:

Generally, knowledge and research are equated with the identification of causal

relationships and all research activities are directed to it. But in many fields the research

has not been developed to the level where causal explanation is possible or valid

predictions can be made. In such a situation explanation and prediction is construct as

enabling the values of one set of variables to be derived given the values of another.

Functions:

The following are the main functions of data analysis:

(i) The researcher should analyze the available data for examining the statement of the

problem.

(ii) The researcher should analyze the available data for examining each hypothesis of the

problem.

(iii) The researcher should study the original records of the data before data analysis.

(iv) The researcher should analyze the data for thinking about the research problem in lay

man’s term.

(v) The researcher should analyze the data by attacking it through statistical calculations.
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(vi) The researcher should think in terms of significant tables that the available data permits

for the analysis of data.

Statistical Calculations:

The researcher will have to use either descriptive statistics or inferential statistics

for the purpose of the analysis.

(i) The descriptive statistics may be on any of the following forms:

(a) Measures of Central Tendency:

These measures are mean, median, mode geometric mean and harmonic mean.

In behavioral statistics the last two measures are not used. Which of the first three will

be used in social statistics depends upon the nature of the problem.

(b) Measures of Variability:

These measures are range, mean deviation, quartile deviation and standard

deviation. In social statistics the first two measures are rarely used. The use of standard

deviation is very frequently made for the purpose of analysis.

(c) Measures of Relative Position:

These measures are standard scores (Z or T scores), percentiles and percentile

ranks. All of them are used in educational statistics for data analysis.
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(d) Measures of Relationship:

There measures are Co-efficient of Correlation, partial correlation and multiple

correlations. All of them are used in educational statistics for the analysis of data.

However, the use of rank method is made more in comparison to Karl Pearson method.

(ii)The inferential statistics may be in any one of the following forms:

(a) Significance of Difference between Means:

It is used to determine whether a true difference exists between population

means of two samples.

(b) Analysis of Variance:

The Z or t tests are used to determine whether there was any significant difference

between the means of two random samples. The F test enables the researcher to

determine whether the sample means differ from one another to a greater extent then

the test scores differ from their own sample means using the F ratio.

(c) Analysis of Co-Variance:

It is an extension of analysis of variance to test the significance of difference

between means of final experimental data by taking into account the Correlation
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between the dependent variable and one or more Co-variates or control variables and by

adjusting initial mean differences in the group.

(d) Correlation Methods:

Either of two methods of correlation can be used for the purpose of calculating

the significance of the difference between Co-efficient of Correlation.

(e) Chi Square Test:

It is used to estimate the like hood that some factor other than chance accounts

to the observed relationship. In this test the expected frequency and observed frequency

are used for evaluating Chi Square.

(f) Regression Analysis:

For calculating the probability of occurrence of any phenomenon or for predicting

the phenomenon or relationship between different variables regression analysis is cone.

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Activity 8:

Name: _________________________________________________________

Section: ______________________

Direction:

Give 5 examples each of the following measurement scales:

1. Nominal

2. Ordinal

3. Interval

4. Ratio
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CHAPTER 8

Interpretation of Data

According to F.L. Whitney, interpretation means an adequate exposition of the

true meaning of the material presented in terms of the purposes of the study being

reported and of the chapter and section topic involved.

Purposes:

The following are the main purposes of interpretation of data or results;

(i) To throw light on the real significance of the material in the context.

(ii) To understand implications of the data.

(iii) To provide hints of conclusions and recommendations of the researcher.

(iv) To show the values of greatest worth that has resulted from the research.

(v) To refer important generalization.

Factors:

The researcher should keep the following factors in consideration in

interpretation of data;

(i) Not to ignore those factors which are unstudied:

In social / behavioral researches there are many factors which have their impact upon the

findings of the research but no researcher is in the position to study all the factors.
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Naturally he does not take into account in interpretation of the results those factors

which have not been studied. It has its effect upon the search of truth. Thus, the

researcher should take into consideration such factors in his interpretation. For example,

if a comparison has been made between the traditional method of teaching and any

modern method of teaching in respect of effectiveness of teaching, the interpretation

that successful attainment is the result of method of teaching only is complete denial of

the role of general mental ability, high achievement motivation and better study habits

etc.

(ii) Not to ignore those factors which have not been selected for study:

In social / behavioral researches, the subjects are generally so large that the

researcher collects the data from a selected group only. The researcher should remember

that some factors which have not been included in selective group are equally important

in their impact upon findings. For example, if the researcher collects data from a

particular school in a particular area and then he concludes about all the schools/colleges.

(iii) Not to over –interpret the expected results:

The researcher should remember that even if he finds the findings of the research

as per his expectations, he should not interpret more than what can be interpreted on
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the basis of data available. The researcher should be cautious that he reports all such

factors which might be responsible for the findings.

(iv) Not to exercise defense mechanism in interpreting the results:

The researcher should remember that it is not necessary that the hypotheses

should always be confirmed. It is possible that the researcher may exercise defense

mechanism if the results of the study are not found as per expectations of the research.

In such a situation he should not try to find faults in tools or samples for the results against

his expectations. If any researcher tries to do so, his interpretation will not be considered

fair. The hypotheses are made in the beginning of the research when the knowledge of

the researcher about the problem is very limited. Agreement between the tentative and

the results is not necessary.

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Activity 9:

Name:_______________________________________________________________

Section:__________________________

Direction:

Look for an example of a research study with a good Interpretation of Results section.

Submit in a Word doc. format

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CHAPTER 9

Historical Research

Historical Research Method:

History is the record of the changing processes. History consists of changes which

social structures undergo. Social scientists study the past to gain a better understanding

of the present state of affairs. History is the meaningful record of man’s achievement. It

is not merely a list of characteristics of chronological events, but an integrated account of

the relationship between persons, events, times and places.

John W. Best, “Man uses history to understand the past, and try to understand

the present in the light of past events and developments.”

F.N. Kerlinger, “Historical research is the application of the scientific method of

inquiry to historical problems.”

Whitney, “Historical research deals with the past experiences….its aim is to apply

the method of reflective thinking of social problems , still unsolved , by means of discovery

of past trends of event, fact and attitude. It traces the lines of development in human

thought and action in order to reach some basis for social activity.”

Redcliff Browne, “Historical method may be defined as a system in which present

day events are studied with reference to the events that took place in the past.”

Historical method seeks to find explanation of questions of current interest by an

intensive study of the past. Many studies in the field of economics, politics, sociology,

education and psychology are essentially historical in approach.

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Purpose of Historical Research:

(i) Historical researches provide important information concerning the effects of certain

past practices and may suggest plans for future actions.

(ii) It also offers explanation of the how and why of many of the theories and practices that

has developed and now prevails in the school/college.

(iii) It contributes to an understanding of the significance of the phenomenon studied.

(iv) It helps to gain an accurate account of the past.

(v) It helps to gain a clear perspective of the present.

Sources of Historical Research:

There are many sources for collection of historical data like; Autobiographies,

Diaries, Confessions, Memories, Personal letters, Accessible documents, news-papers

and literature, books and Magazines, Cultural and Analytical history material, Artistic

materials, historical paintings, Portraits, charts etc.

These sources can be divided into two categories i.e. Primary sources and

Secondary sources.
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Primary sources:

The original documents are termed as Primary sources. These are solid basis of

historical research and are highly prized by a historian.

According to Kerlinger, “A primary source is the only repository of an historical

datum, like an original record kept of an important occasion, an eye witness description

of an event, a photograph, minutes of organization meeting and so on.”

(i) Document or records:

These are maintained and written by actual participant or witness of an event.

These sources are produced for the purpose of transmitting information to be used in

the future. Documents classified as primary sources are constitution, charters, laws, court

decisions, diaries, deeds, genealogies, contracts, wills, autobiographies, letters, official

minutes or records, permits, licenses, affidavits, depositions, declarations,

proclamations certificates, lists, bills, handbills, receipts, newspapers, magazines,

accounts, maps, diagrams, books, pamphlets, catalogues, films, pictures, paintings,

recordings, transcriptions and research reports.

(ii) Remains or Relics:

These are associated with a person, group, period, fossils, skeletons, tools,

weapons, food utensils, clothing, buildings, furniture, coins, art objects, pictures and

paintings are examples of relics.

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(iii) Oral Testimony:

These are spoken account of witness or participant in an event. It is obtained in a

personal interview. It may be recorded or transcript as the witness relates his

experiences.

Secondary Sources of Data:

In the words of Kerlinger, “A secondary source is an account or record of an

historical event or circumstance one or more steps removed from an original history.”

Secondary sources are the reports of a person who relates the testimony of actual

witness of, or participant in an event. The writer of the secondary source who was not on

the scene of the event, merely reports what the person who was there said or wrote.

Most history books and encyclopedias are the examples of secondary source.

Characteristics of Historical Method:

(i) Historical method is universal.

(ii) Historical method involves very deep and intensive investigation of material that already

exists.

(iii) Historical facts cannot be repeated in an accurate fashion as can be done in laboratory

observation.

(iv) Only such problems which are based on historical records can be investigated by following

this approach.
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(v) Historical approach to research is the application of scientific method to historical

problems.

(vi) In Historical Method hypothesis may or may not be formulated depending upon the

nature of the research.

(vii) The interpretation of data entirely depends upon the topic of research.

Approaches to Historical Research:

1. Perspective Approach:

It means to study the events from the past towards present. It is ancient

approach. Ancient approach was to study the political personality approach.

2. Retrospective Approach:

It means to study the events of present and proceed to past events. It is a recent

approach to study the phenomena in social milieu.

Types of Historical Research:

(1) Approach:

An example is the pragmatic approach used by Karl max to arrange facts of history

to support his concept of socialism.

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(2) Subject:

It includes the bibliography of a given person, monography of a town, state, nation

or civilization or slightly higher level the history of ideas, institutions or trends.

(3) Technique:

It is based either on documents or relics.

(4) Classical studies

(5) Documentary research:

It considers only documents.

(6) Bibliographical research:

It includes history of a unit. (nation, person, culture)

(7) Legal Research

The Steps of Historical Research:

(1) Identification and Definition of the Problem:

It involves not only the location of the problem, which has a historical significance,

but also the availability of adequate data.

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(2) Collection of Data:

It may involve anything from digging up ancient ruins to stumbling on old

documents or remains. Most educational data have to be gathered in the routine fashion

by giving minutes of meetings, diaries etc. Data are collected by two sources: primary or

secondary.

(3) Criticism of Data:

The establishment of the validity of data involves a dual process, of first

establishing the authenticity of the sources and then the validity of its content.

(4) Interpretation of Data:

This should be made from the standpoint of a hypothesis or theory of the data.

Data should be considered in relation to one another and synthesized into a

generalization or conclusion which places the overall significance in focus.

Limitations of Historical Research:

1. It is very difficult to study historical events on the basis of cause- effect relationship.

2. Many obstacles hinder the objectivity of the study.

3. The investigator must have a special historical perspective.

4. The importance of historical research has declined due to use of scientific method in

social sciences.
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Guidelines of Historical Research:

1. Primary sources should be used as extensively as possible.

2. Personal bias should not be allowed to influence research procedure.

3. Proper recognition should be given to the inter-relationship of education with other social

institutions and forces.

4. Words and expressions should be interpreted in the light of their usages in earlier times.

5. Various facts should be synthesized and integrated into meaningful generalization.

6. Significant facts must be distinguished from trivial facts in a situation.

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Activity 10:

Name:___________________________________________________________

Section: _________________________

Direction:

Look for a historical research conducted in the Philippines.

Submit in a Word doc. format

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Chapter 10

Descriptive or Survey Method

The term survey is used for the techniques of investigation by a direct observation

of a phenomenon or a systematic gathering of data from population by applying personal

contact and interviews when adequate information about certain problem is not available

in records, files and other sources.

The survey is an important tool to gather evidences relating to certain social

problems. The term social survey indicates the study of social phenomena through a

survey of a small sampled population and also to broad segments of population. It is

concerned with the present and attempts to determine the status of the phenomenon

under investigation.

Definitions:

“A social survey is a process by which quantitative facts are collected about the

social aspects of a community composition and activities.”

A. F. Well

“The survey is in briefly a method of analysis in scientific and orderly form for

defined purpose of given social situation of problem and population.”

S. Herman

Objects of Social Survey:

(i) Direct and close contact of researcher to the phenomenon under study.

(ii) To collect general information.

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(iii) A basis for hypothesis.

(iv) To explain cause and effect relationship.

(v) To know opinion and attitudes of the people.

Purposes:

(i) It provides necessary information which helps the administrator for making

decisions.

(ii) It provides necessary information and plan for improvement so it is forward-

looking.

(iii) It interprets, synthesizes and integrates data and points out their implications.

(iv) It is more realistic because investigation is done in this method in natural

setting.

(v) It is the only method through which the researcher can obtain the opinions,

attitudes and suggestions for improvement.

(vi) It is useful in the development of research tools such as checklists,

questionnaires etc.

Types of Descriptive Method:

Descriptive method is divided into four parts. They are;

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The Content Analysis deals with the nature utility and procedure of

content analysis. The important problems in this area are as follows;

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(viii) Developing and modifying curriculum.

(ix) Developing a standardized test in any subject.

(x) Differentiating aspects of different writing styles.

Characteristics of Survey Method:

8. Social survey is confined to the study of specific current problems of society eg poverty,

unemployment etc.

9. A survey research is planned collection of data for prediction of relations between the

variables.

10. Survey is concerned with large or widely dispersed group of peoples contrasted

with the lab experiments.

(xi) Under this method observation, interviews, attitude scales, projective

techniques, small scale experiments etc. are used to collect data.

(xii) The facts collected here may form the basis of further social researches.

Planning a Survey Method:

The following are the steps which are involved in survey methods;

1. Select a problem.

2. Preliminary or pilot study should be done.

3. General and Specific objectives of the study are to be framed.

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4. It should be determined that for which of the variables, identified in the problem

whether; adequate techniques for data collection are available, and if not then

is it possible for the researcher to design them.

5. Population should be identified and representative sample should be

selected.

6. Data collection design should be prepared.

7. The data should be collected.

8. The data should be analyzed.

9. The report should be prepared which should have descriptive

10. past, comparative or evaluative past and findings.

Merits of Survey Methods:

1. Direct and close contact between researcher and respondents.

2. Great objectivity.

3. Testing the validity of theories.

4. Formulation and testing of hypothesis.

5. Social surveys are based on actual observation.

6. It has universal application.

Limitations:

(i) Survey method is costly, time consuming and wasteful in certain

cases where the objectives are limited.

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(ii) The survey method is unsuitable if the numbers of persons to be surveyed are very large

or if they spread over a large geographical area.

(iii) In this method personal bias may vitiate the result.

(iv) It lacks the flexibility.

(v) In this method, it is very difficult to verify the accuracy of the data collection.

(vi) Only useful for current problems.

(vii) It does not permit more comprehensive and dynamic study of the society but deals with

the problems of immediate importance only.

(viii) Under this method most of the surveys are conducted on sample basis. If the

sample is not carefully planned, inferences drawn may be inaccurate and misleading.
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Activity 11:

Name:___________________________________________________________

Section: _________________________

Direction:

Look for a descriptive research conducted from 2015 onwards.

Submit in a Word doc. format

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Chapter 11

Research Proposal

Each researcher has to write a research proposal before he undertakes any

research work. For a new researcher it presents a great problem because he does not know

the components of any research proposal. Even an experienced research worker is required

to write a research proposal if he proposes to obtain financial assistance for a research

project from any research organization. In our own country NCERT, UGC, AICTE, ICSSR etc.

have developed their own research formats but a few basic components are common to all

well-prepared research proposals.

Title of the Proposal:

The first part of any research proposal is its title. If the title is not clearly stated it will not

help the researcher in his work. A good title should clearly identify the research proposal

and must clearly state about the following:

1. What variables are included in the research proposal?

2. What is the relationship between the different variables?

3. Which is the population to which the results may be generalized?

While independent and dependent variables are stated in the research proposal

title, which are of experimental nature, the variates and criterion variables are written

in non-experimental studies. One example of each is given below;

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Experimental Study:

“The Effect of Lecture Method and Text Book Method on the Academic Achievement in

Economics of Class IX Students”

Non-Experimental Study:

“The Relationship between Socio-Economic Status and Academic Achievement in a

Foreign Language of Class X Students”

In the experimental study the title of the research proposal is so stated that it

shows the effect of independent variable upon dependent variable. This type of title indicates

which variable will be manipulated by the research and upon which variable its effect will be

observed. In non- experimental study, the title should indicate the relationship between the

variate and the criterion variable. In non –experimental study the variables are not

manipulated, only relationship between variate and criterion variable is stated. In the above

examples, “Lecture method” and “Text Book Method” are independent variable and

academic achievement is dependent variable. In the second example the ‘Socio-Economic

Status’ is an example of criterion variable.

The boundaries should be identified for which the research findings may be

generalized. They are generally expressed in the terms of ‘Target Population’.

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In the above examples, students of class IX and students of class X are target

population in experimental and non-experimental population respectively.

Another requirement for a good,, research title is that it should not be too

lengthy. Attempts should not be made to answer all questions relating to variables and the

population in a title. Fifteen to twenty words are the maximum can be included in a

research title.

Some good titles are given below;

1. “A Comparison Between Two Methods of Teaching Algebra- Expository and

Discovery-in the Tenth Class in a Recognized Secondary School”.

2. “The Effects of Grading on Achievement in Mathematics.”

3. “The Relationship between Spelling, Achievement and a Personality Factor”.

4. “A Comparison of the Evaluation of Teacher Performance by Principals and

Teachers”.

5. “A Study of the Effect of Two Seating Arrangements in the in the

6. Foreign Language Achievement of Class VI.”

Research Problem:

The second part of any research proposal is the research problem. It is of special

importance on account of its strategic location. The problem should define and delimit the

specific area of the proposed research. It should begin with the general background of the
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problem and end with a specific statement of the problem. The research problem should be

so structured that it should begin with a broad base of general problems and explanations. It

should be followed by a survey of related research literature. It should end with the problem

statement. The background of the research should identify the variables of the research

problem, discuss the variables which are selected for the research study. Other important

variables which are not included in the research study should also be briefly discussed. It

should also be made clear that which criteria were used for the selection of the variables.

This part of the research proposal should be written in simple language and should also be

précised.

The significance of the problem should also be written. It should meet the following

requirements;

• The research proposal is time bound document. Thrust areas of research

changes from time to time. Only such areas should be selected which are of crucial

importance these days.

• The research proposal should be related with practical problems. It should

provide solution to any existing social / behavioral /educational /institutional/library

related problem etc.

• The research problem should not have small target population, because its result

cannot be verified.

• Target population of any research problem should be related to a popular

population.
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If the research proposal is to be submitted for financial assistance it should also be seen

that what the areas of priority of the funding agency are. Each agency grants financial

assistance to those research studies which it considers as central to its area of concern and

others as peripheral.

The statement of the problem is the last stone in the pyramid of the research problem. It

specifies the variate and criterion variables in non-experimental studies and independent and

dependent variables in an experimental study, the type of relationship between variables and

target population.

Another criterion of a good problem statement is that it can be measured. A research

problem in which the relationship between variables cannot be measured empirically cannot

be categorized a research problem.

The statement which seeks to answer the question of value- judgment should not be

included in research problem. Such questions cannot be answered by a research study. They

should be avoided in a research proposal.

Statement of Hypothesis:

The third part of a research proposal is statement of Hypotheses. It is done more

sophistically than the statement of problem. The research hypothesis is presented in an

affirmative form rather than in the interrogative form. They state what is expected to occur
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if various conditions are evoked or presumed. The researcher should review the related

literature thoroughly before formulating hypotheses.

All the terms which are used in any hypothesis should be carefully defined. The

hypothesis should be unambiguous and testable. Since the quantum of achievement is

difficult to predict at the time of statement of hypothesis, researchers prefer ‘null hypothesis’

which assumes that only a chance difference is expected to occur between the groups .A null

hypothesis merely states that there is no relationship between the variables. It is expressed

in statistical terms; Xa-Xb=0.

Suppose a researcher observed that Mr.X appeared to have better teacher-

student relation that Mr.Y. It was observed that Mr.X used to discuss personal problems of

the students and find out their solutions while Mr.Y used to have only formal relationship of

classroom teaching. The researcher formulated the following problem.

“What are the effects of discussion of personal problems of the students on the teacher-

student relationship”?

The problem statement could be written as substantive hypothesis in the following words;

“The discussion of personal problems of the students will have better teacher-student

relationship than not having any such discussion.”

This hypothesis can be written as null hypothesis in the following form;

“Discussion of personal problems of the students by the teachers with them and no

discussion will have no differential effect upon the teacher-student relationship.”

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The following criteria should be used for the formulation of testable and significant

hypothesis;

1. The hypothesis must be clearly stated in operational terms.

2. The hypothesis must be specific and testable.

3. Research problems should be selected which are directly related to previous research or

theoretical formulations.

Procedures:

The fourth part of a research proposal is called procedures. It is also called as

‘Methodology’ and ‘Method of Procedure.’

It comprises of the following;

i. Target Population:

It is also called universe. The salient characteristics of the population should be thoroughly

described so that it should be definite that what is the target population for which sample is

to be drawn and to which the results of the study could be generalized.

ii. Sampling Plan:

The method of sampling should be specified in the research proposal. If the sample is not

thoroughly analyzed and precisely described, faulty generalizations may be made. The

sample should be made the true representative of the population. The sampling plan should
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also be described in the proposal. It should describe how the units in the target population

will be selected and used . A good sampling plan should meet the following criteria;

a. Obtaining or constructing an accurate, current list of the target

population units.

b. Method of drawing the sample.

c. Number of subjects or population units to be selected.

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iii. Research Design:

The research design should indicate how the research setting will be arranged in order

to yield the desired data with the least possible contamination/ error by intervening

variables. There is no single design that can be applied in all the cases. It depends upon

individual researcher to devise his design. The design should ensure the answer of every

hypothesis designed in the proposed research work.

A well-prepared research design should contain the following characteristics;

a. Specifications of its relationship to each research hypothesis.

b. Description of the methods of proposed control of confounding variables and

threats to validity.

c. Description of the design in statistical terms.

d. Identification of the types of interferences that may be made.

iv. Stimulus Materials:

It should also be specified in the research proposal that what stimulus materials will be

used in the study. Kinds and ways of stimuli should be described.

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Most commonly used stimuli are printed instructional materials. Instructional materials

should include the following elements;

1. Title

2. Author/Editor

3. Publisher

4. Year of publication

5. Intended population

6. Time required for administration

7. Cost of material

v. Response Measures:

The researcher should specify clearly what raw data are required by the research design

and how they will be collected. Each instrument should be described including the following

items of information:

1. Title

2. Author/Editor

3. Publisher

4. Population

5. Forms

6. Test Objectives

7. Description of test, items, scoring procedures

8. Traits represented in score

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9. Predictive / Concurrent validity

10. Reliability data

11. Normative data

12. Internal consistency of tests

13. Time required for administration

14. Cost of material

15. Data of publication

vi. Data Collection Methods:

The research proposal should identify the schedules and procedures to be used for

acquiring the data and recording it accurately. If they are lengthy, they should be placed in

an appendix and reference be given in the body of the proposal.

vii. Data Analysis:

The researcher should specify how the data will be ordered and reduced to relate

directly to the research problem. The statistical procedure to be used in the analysis of data

they should be described. It will be done hypothesis wise or not, it should be indicated in the

research proposal.

If a complex design or obscure statistical test is to be used, it should be

indicated in the proposal.

If the research proposal is to be submitted to a Funding agency, the following information

should also be provided in the research proposal;

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Logistics:

It consists of the following;

1. Time Schedule

2. Personnel

3. Facilities, equipment and supplies

4. Travel expenses

5. Publication costs and other direct costs

6. Budget forms

The researcher should identify the funding agency such as; UGC, ICSSR, NCERT, SCERT,

Universities.

The researcher should also obtain the research format from the funding agency and

prepare research proposal on the guidelines provided by the funding agency.

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Activity 12:

Name:___________________________________________________________

Section: _________________________

Direction:

Submit a research proposal (Chapters 1-3) in Word doc. format

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Chapter 12

Research Report

A detailed account of the research experience from selection and definition

of the problem, formulation of hypotheses, gathering, analyzing and interpreting data,

testing of hypotheses, making conclusion and suggesting further research in the related

problem area is called a research report.

Components:

The basic components of a research report are as follows;

I. Introduction of the research problem:

The researcher will write in it;

1. What is the problem?

2. What is its importance?

3. What is the relation of the problem with previous theory and research,

4. What are the objectives of the study?

5. What are the hypotheses?

ii. Description of the procedure of the research: The researcher will write in it;

1. How did he select the subjects?

2. How many subjects were used?

3. How were the subjects assigned to groups?

4. What was done to the subjects?

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5. How was it done?

6. When was it done?

7. How long was it done?

8. How was the reliability of the measuring instruments measured?

9. How was the validity of the measuring instruments measured?

iii. Description and presentation of the results: The researcher will write in it;

a. Which statistical procedures he used to test the hypotheses?

b. What were the outcomes of those procedures?

c. What were the subsidiary findings of the research?

iv. Discussion of the study findings: The researcher will write in it;

a. Why did the results manifest themselves in a particular way?

b. What did the results signify?

c. What was the relationship between this research and the

previous research upon which it was based?

Features:

The following are the essential features of a good research report;

1. Clarity

2. Conciseness

3. Veracity
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4. No place for figures of speech, lyrical prose and in using anecdotes.

5. No lengthy digressions

6. Only necessary details

7. Absolute uncompromising honesty

8. Serious attempt and not a game

Reasons for Writing:

The following are the main reasons on account of which the researcher should write the

research report.

i. It is a logical conclusion of doing the research.

ii. It enriches the curriculum vitae of the researcher which helps him in

appointment and promotion.

iii. Writing of the research report is an easy task and it is not that difficult as

understood.

Mode of Communications:

The researcher may use any of the following mode for communicating his research

results;
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(v) A research monograph:

The researcher may publish a research monograph on the basis of his research results

through a research journals or a reputed research publisher.ph depends upon the

standard of the research work and the reputation of the researcher.

(vi) A research journal:

The researcher may publish a research paper in a reputed research journal. But this

requires that the paper should be acceptable to the Editor of the journal. The prestigious

journals send these papers to reviewers who are conversant with the research area in

which the research paper has been written.

(vii) Presenting in the meeting of the Association/ Society /Congress:

There are annual conferences of the associations, societies and Congress in each

subject area. They provide opportunities to the researchers to present their research

results in the form of a research paper before the members of the association or the

society or the delegates of the Congress which are followed by the discussions. The

journals of those organizations publish these papers in the form of the proceedings of the

Association / Society / Congress.

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Format:

The research reports are divided into the following parts;

a. Preliminary Section:

It consists of the following:

i. Title Page

ii. Preface

iii. Table of Contents

iv. List of Tables

v. List of figure, maps and illustrations

b. Introduction:

It consists of the following:

i. Importance of the problem under investigation.

ii. A review of related literature

iii. Statement of Hypotheses or relationships being studied

iv. Delimitations of the study

v. Assumptions of the study

vi. Definition of important terms

c. Methods:

It consists of the following;

a. How was the study conducted?

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b. From which population was the sample selected?

c. How many subjects were selected?

d. What were the demographic characteristics of the subjects?

(male/female, average age)

e. Was there any characteristic which make the sample a typical to the

population?

f. How were the subjects assigned to groups?

g. What instructions were given to the subjects?

h. How conditions were controlled?

i. What was the treatment of variables?

j. How, when and on what were subjects measured?

k. What data collection instruments were used?

l. What was the format of items?

m. What was the reliability of the instrument?

n. What was the validity of the instrument?

o. What are the details of the instruments which was prepared by the

researcher?

d. Results:

It consists of the following

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i. What statistical procedure was used to study the hypotheses?

ii. What was the probability level of each hypotheses test?

iii. What was the probability level of each statistics?

iv. What was the attendant degree of freedom?

v. What was the strength of the relationship of the variables?

vi. What were the group means and standard deviation?

vii. What were principle finding?

e. Discussion:

It consists of the following;

a. What were the original purposes of the study?

b. How were these purpose met?

c. Why the obtained occurred?

d. What were the conclusions of the researcher for practice, theory and

future research?

e. What is the contribution of the study to the research literature?

f. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the study?

f. Reference Section:

It consists of the following:

a. Bibliography

b. Appendices: Questionnaires, Copies of letters used, evaluation sheets,

checklists etc.
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Activity 13:

Name:___________________________________________________________

Section: _________________________

Direction:

Conduct your research. Complete the contents of a research and be ready for an online

defense.
 130

Reference:

Download Research Methodology Tools And Techniques-PDF Free Download. (n.d.).

Zbook.Org. Retrieved September 8, 2020, from https://zbook.org/download

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Evaluation Questionnaire

Student’s Feedback on the Module

Thank you very much for the effort you have so far put in going through this module. I

hope you have not only enjoyed the course but also benefited from the contents. I look

forward to you putting into practice all that you have learnt from the module. To wrap

up the course, there are some questions that I would like you to respond. Kindly tick the

best option that reflects how you feel about the different aspects of the module.

1. I find the module:

A) Very interesting to read

B) Interesting to read

C) Somehow interesting to read

D) Not interesting at all.

2. I find the contents of the module:

A) Very adequate

B) Adequate

C) Somehow adequate

D) Inadequate
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3. I find the hours allotted for the module:

A) Just right

B) Right

C) Rather inadequate

D) Inadequate

4. The contents in the module have greatly contributed to my clear understanding of the

Research in Values Education:

A) Yes

B) No

5. The different learning activities that are in the module are interesting and worth

trying them out:

A) Yes

B) No

6. The author of this module did put in a lot of effort to produce a good material for my

reading:

A) Yes

B) somehow

C) Not at all
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7. I find difficulties in locating the references that have been included in the

module:

A) Yes

B) Not at all

8.In the space provided suggest some areas that you think need improvement:

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………….

Thank you for your time 😊