Solids and Fluids

AIEEE Syllabus
Elastic Behaviour, Stress-Strain relationship, Hooke’s Law, Young’s modulus, CHAPTER
Bulk modulus, Modulus of rigidity. Pressure due to a fluid column; Pascal’s
law and its applications. Viscosity, Stokes’ law, terminal velocity, streamline
and turbulent flow, Reynolds number. Bernoulli’s principle and its
applications. Surface energy and surface tension, angle of contact,
application of surface tension - drops, bubbles and capillary rise.

Surface energy and surface tension angle of contact application of surfactonsia

drops, bubbles and capilars rise. THIS CHAPTER
COVERS :
INTERATOMIC AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
1. The force between molecules of a substance is called intermolecular force.
 Inter-atomic and
Inter-molecular
2. U
forces
F
 Hooke’s law
 Moduli of Elasticity
r0  Cohesion and
r0 r Adhesion
r
Umin  Surface tension and
surface energy
The above graphs show the variation of potential energy and force with  Capillary action
interatomic or intermolecular separation.
 Bernoulli's theorem
(a) For r = , F = 0, U = 0
 Viscosity and
(b) r > r0, F is attractive as r decreases from  to r0, potential energy
decreases.
terminal velocity

(c) r = r0, potential energy U = Minimum, F = 0. This is equilibrium position.

(d) r < r0, F is repulsive, therefore, potential energy increases.

Elasticity : Property of a solid by which it tries to restore its original shape

by developing a restoring force in it.
Stress : Restoring force developed/Area.
Strain : Change in dimension/original dimension.

Stress
Modulus of Elasticity =
Strain
Greater is modulus of elasticity greater is the stress developed i.e., greater
is the restoring force. Such a body will be more elastic.
That is why steel is called more elastic than rubber because its modulus
of elasticity is more than that of rubber.
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Types of Stress

‘A’ (area) r 2
A = 4 r
F
(1) (2)
l
l

Longitudinal Stress (Tensile) = F/A Volumetric Stress (Compressive) = P (pressure)

A(area)

L
(3) 
L

F
Tangential Stress or shear stress =
A
Types of Strain
l
(1) Longitudinal strain =
l
V
(2) Volumetric strain = 
V
L
(3) Shear strain =  
L
Stress - Strain Curve :
Stress

Breaking B
strength
Elastic
limit E
Proportional P
limit

O Strain

HOOKE’S LAW
Within the proportional limit stress is directly proportional to strain.
Stress  strain
Stress
 Elastic constant
Strain
(1) In region OE, material returns to original position after removal of stress.
(2) For deformation beyond E, material does not return to original size.
This phenomenon is known as elastic hysteresis.
(3) At B, fracture of the solid occurs.

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Some Important points :

(1) A material having smaller value of Y is more ductile. It can be easily drawn into a wire.
(2) A material having smaller value of K (bulk modulus) is more malleable.
(3) A solid possesses all the three modulii of elasticity Y, K or .
(4) A liquid or gas possesses a finite value of K only.
(5) For a gas, K depends on the processes by which gas expands/compresses.
For a process PVN = constant

dP
K   NP
dV / V
(i) For isothermal process N = 1 K=P
(ii) For adiabatic process N =   K = P
(iii) For isobaric process N=0 K=0
(iv) For isochoric process N= K=

PRESSURE
Pressure is defined as the force acting on a surface per unit area. It is a scalar quantity.
F
P  SI unit Nm–2
A

PASCAL LAW
It states that if effect of gravity is neglected, then the pressure at every point of a liquid in equilibrium is same.

The increase in pressure at any point of the enclosed liquid in equilibrium is transmitted equally to all other
points of the liquid and also to the walls of the container.
Pressure difference between two points :

The pressure difference between two points, which are at different horizontal level is given as, P2 – P1 = hg

P1
h
P2 P2 > P1 & P2 – P1 = hg

Following cases illustrate the common problems related to pressure difference :

1. P = P0 + hg
P0(atmospheric pressure)

h
P

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2. PB – PA = hg
A
PC – PB = 0
L h
Stationary Fluid
C B

3. PB – PA = hg
A
PC – PB = La
h a
Accelerated Fluid
L
C B

h

h a
a 2h At rest 
4. tan   
g L L

Hydraulic Lift :
It is an arrangement to lift heavy objects by applying a small force. For equilibrium of the weight W, pressure
at M should be equal to pressure at N,

F
W F
  hg Area = a
A a h W
Area A
N M

Equilibrium of Different Liquids in a U tube

1. PA = PB (as A & B are at same level)
 P0 + h11g = P0 + h22g (where P0 is atmospheric pressure)
h11g = h22g
P0 P0

h2 h1 1
A B

2

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2. When the U tube accelerates, difference of levels of liquid satisfies the relation,

a h
tan   
g L

a
h


Buoyancy
When a body is immersed wholly or partially in a fluid, it experiences a loss of weight, due to an upward force
called upthrust or buoyant force.

Archimedes Principle
It states that when a solid body is immersed wholly or partially in a liquid, then there is some apparent loss
in its weight. This loss of weight is equal to weight of liquid displaced by the body.

Buoyant Force
Consider a body (assumed cylinderical) of density  and volume V
immersed completely in a liquid of density .
As P2 – P1 = hg P1 Area = A
 F2 – F1 = hgA
 Fupward = Vg = loss of weight h 

P2

Following cases are possible depending on the relation between  and .

Case - I :
<
The body will float in the liquid with some part inside and
remaining out side.
V = volume of body
Vi = volume of body inside liquid
VO
V0 = volume of body outside liquid 
Vi
Vig = Vg

Vi  V0  
  
V  V 

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Case - II :
=
Body floats, completely immersed in the liquid.
V0 = 0

Body remains at rest wherever it is left


Case - III :
 > (Body will sink to the bottom) Vg
R
For figure-1,
R = Normal reaction between body and bottom of container 
R = Vg – Vg

MODULI OF ELASTICITY Figure-1

Vg

Young’s modulus of elasticity Y  Tensile stress Fl

(1) 
Longitudin al strain Al
Normal or compressiv e stress P dP
(2) Bulk modulus of elasticity K   V or, K  V
Volumetric strain V dV

1
Compressibility =
K

Shear stress F FL
(3) Modulus of rigidity  or G   
Shear strain A AL
Some Important Points :

Fl YA
For a wire Y   F  l
Al l
i.e. a wire behaves like a spring with spring constant

YA  1
k   i .e., k  
l  l
When this wire is stretched by applying an external force F, and l is extension produced, then
(1) Work done by external force = Fl

1
(2) Work done by restoring force = Fl
2
1
(3) Heat produced = Fl
2
1
(4) Elastic potential energy stored = Fl
2

Energy density U  1 Fl  1 Fl

2 volume 2 Al
1 1 (stress)2 1
= stress × strain =  Y (strain)2
2 2 Y 2

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(5) A rod of mass m and length l hangs from a support

Area of cross-section = A
Extension produced due to its own weight, l
Mgl gl 2
l  = ( = density of wire)
2 AY 2Y

Thermal Stress : Rod Fixed between Rigid Support

If  = Rise in temperature
l
l F F
Compressive strain =   Y, A
l

Compressive stress = Y × strain = Y

 F = Y × A
Heated

Note : If the rod is placed on horizontal frictionless surface, then stress developed on heating is Zero.

Poisson’s Ratio
l
(1) Longitudinal strain =
l R R – R
F F
R
(2) Lateral strain = 
R
l
R / R
(3) Poisson’s ratio    l + l
l / l
(a) Theoretically – 1   0.5
(b) Practically 0  0.5
(c) When density of material is constant  = 0.5

9 3 1
(4)  
Y  K

Y
(5) K 
3(1  2)

Y
(6) 
2(1  )

3K  2
(7) 
2  6K

(8) Young’s modulus of a wire is numerically equal to stress required to double the length of wire.

(9) When a pressure dP is applied on a substance, its density changes from  to  so that

 P 
'  1  
 K 

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(10) The energy density of water in a lake h meter deep is

1 (hg )2
U where  is density of water, K is Bulk modulus.
2 K

(11) In case of a rod of length L and radius r fixed at one end. Angle of shear  is related to angle of twist
 by the relation L = r.

COHESION AND ADHESION

The force of attraction between similar molecules is known as cohesive force. It is very strong in solids, weak
in liquids and very weak in gases.

The force between dissimilar molecules is known as adhesive force. Corresponding phenomenon is known as
adhesion.

SURFACE TENSION AND SURFACE ENERGY

1. Property of a liquid due to which it behaves like a stretched membrane. A free liquid drop tries to acquire
spherical shape (minimum surface area) due to surface tension.
b
F
2. Surface tension is force/length. T  (N/m) F2
l

F=T×l F1 F1 (Two surfaces)

a
F1 = T × a × 2
F1
F2 = T × b × 2

3. Surface energy = T × surface area

(a) Liquid drop of radius R  Surface Energy = T × 4R2

(b) Soap bubble of radius R  Surface Energy = 2 × T × 4R2

Angle of Contact
It is the angle between solid surface inside the liquid and the tangent drawn to the liquid surface at the point
of contact.
It depends on
1. Relative cohesive and adhesive force of solid liquid pairs
2. Temperature

Application of Surface Tension

1. Work done to blow a soap bubble of radius r = 2 × T × 4r2
2. A drop of radius R breaks up into n identical drops
work done = S.E. = [n × 4r2 – 4R2]T …(1)
R3 = nr3 …(2)
 Work done = 4R2T [n1/3 – 1]
3. n identical drops coalesce to form a single drop
Heat produced = 4R2T [n1/3 – 1] = mc 
4
where, c = Specific heat, m = mass = R 3  ,  = Rise in temperature.
3
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4. A needle floats on the surface of a liquid due to surface tension.

5. Surface tension decreases with rise in temperature.
6. Surface tension decreases by adding sparingly soluble impurities like detergents.
7. Surface tension increases by adding soluble impurities like NaCl, sugar.

Excess pressure
If Po = Atmospheric pressure

Pi = Inside pressure

then Pi – Po = Excess pressure

Liquid drop Soap bubble Air bubble

Po Po
Pi Po
(1) (2) Pi (3) Pi
r r

2T 4T 2T
Pi = Po + Pi - Po = Pi = Po +
r r r
(4) Capillary tube, concave meniscus

2T O
(a) Pi  Po  R
R
r PO
Fc
(b) Fa 
2 Pi

Capillary tube,
Concave Meniscus

PO
(5) Capillary tube, convex meniscus.
r
2T Pi
(a) Pi  Po  R
R o
Fc
(b) Fa 
2

Combining of Bubbles Convex Meniscus

1. If the soap bubble coalesce in vacuum, then Po = 0

 r2 = r12 + r22
2. If two soap bubbles come in contact to form a double bubble then
r = radius of interface, r1 > r2
1 1 1
 
r r2 r1

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The interface will be convex towards larger bubble and concave towards smaller bubble because
P2 > P1 > P0.

r2
P2

r1
P0
P1
Radius ‘r’

CAPILLARY ACTION
Rise or fall of liquid in a tube of fine diameter. O
R
Ascent formula 
r
2T 2T cos  
h 
Rg rg

where,  = angle of contact (as shown in figure)

Some Important Points :

1. hR = constant and mass of liquid raised is proportional to r.
2. h > 0 for concave meniscus ( < 90°) i.e. rise
3. h < 0 for convex meniscus ( > 90°) i.e. fall
4. For water glass interface  = 0° i.e., meniscus is nearly hemispherical.
5. For mercury glass interface  = 135°.
6. Two capillary tubes of radius r1 and r2 (r2 > r1) are joined to form a U-tube opened at both ends. This
U-tube is filled with water. The level in the two limbs will not be same due to capillary action.

2T cos   r2  r1 
(a) Difference in level h   
g  r1r2 
(b) Liquid in tube of lower radius will be at higher level.

Stream Line Flow or Steady Flow

The flow of a fluid is said to be steady if all particle of the fluid passes through or cross-section with same
velocity.

Turbulent Flow
Above a certain critical speed, fluid flow becomes unsteady. This irregular flow is called turbulence.

Equation of Continuity
It is based on conservation of mass. According to it, P1, a1 P2, a2
mass entering per second = mass leaving per second v2
v1
That is, 1 a1 v1 = 2 a2 v2

1
For incompressible liquid 1 = 2  a1v1 = a2v2  v 
a

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Energy of a Liquid
Various energies per unit mass :
1. Potential energy/mass = gh

1 2
2. Kinetic energy/mass = v
2
P
3. Pressure energy/mass =


Energy Heads
Various energy heads per unit mass :
1. Gravitational head = h

v2
2. Velocity head =
2g

P
3. Pressure head =
g

BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
It is based on conservation of energy.
For an ideal, non-viscous and incompressible liquid,

P1 v 12 P v2
  gh1  2  2  gh2 = constant
 2  2

Applications of Bernoulli’s Theorem

(1) To find rate of flow of liquid Q = av [area × velocity]. Value of Q in various cases is given by
Case - (a) :
P1, a1
P2, a2
2(P1  P2 ) v1 v2
Q  a1a2
(a12  a22 )

Case - (b) :
Venturimeter

2g (h1  h2 )
Q  a1a2
a12  a22

h1

h2
a1 v1 v2 a2

(2) Hole in a tank problem

(a) Speed of efflux v e  2gh (If a << A)

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If a is comparable to A then
A2
v e  2gh
A  a2
2
h
H
ve  2gh

Hole area = ‘a’

Area = A

(b) Time taken by water level to fall from h1 to h2

t 
A 2
a g
h 1  h2 
(c) Time taken to completely empty the container by a hole at bottom

t H [Put h1 = H, h2 = 0]

 h 
(d) v e  2g  h2  1 1  in the situation
 2 
h1 1
shown in figure

2 h2
ve

(e) Range of liquid

R  2 h(H  h )
h
H H
Rmax = H when h 
2 

(f) H

R = 2 h( H - h) for both holes

(3) If A0 = area of cross-section of mouth of tap

A0
A = area of cross-section of water jet at a depth h
h
A0v0 = Av = Q [rate of flow] A

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v 02 v2
By Bernoulli’s theorem  gh  1 [ pressure is atmospheric at both points]
2 2

2gh
 Q  AA0
A02  A2

Reynold’s Number
vD Inertial Force
NR  
 Viscous force
Value of NR for various cases :
(1) NR < 2000, flow is streamline
(2) NR > 3000, flow is turbulent
(3) 2000 < NR < 3000, flow is unstable
(4) When NR = 2000, flow is critical

vD 
 2000  v c  2000 D (Critical velocity)


Viscosity & Viscous Force

1. The property of the liquid by virtue of which, it opposes the relative motion between its adjacent layers is
known as viscosity. Fluid friction is due to viscosity.
2. Fluid in contact with the plate is moving with velocity v.

Plate F
v

Stationary plate Fluid at rest

Viscous force is given in this case by,

dv
F   A
dy

dv
 = coefficient of viscosity & = velocity gradient
dy

Units of  : SI  1 Pa-s = 10 poise = 1 decapoise

C.G.S  1 dyne/cm2-s = 1 poise

Poiseuille’s Equation
Volume flow rate across a tube with pressure difference between its ends is,

dV  Pr 4
Q 
dt 8 l

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Where, P = P1 – P2 = pressure difference

V P1 P2
Comparing with I  (V  P1 – P2 & I  Q) Q
R
r
8l
 Resistance to fluid flow R  l
r 4
Series combination of two tubes
Two tubes of radius r1, length l1 and radius r2, length l2 are connected in series across a pressure difference
of P. Length of a single tube that can replace the two tubes is found using,
l l1 l2
4
 
r r14 r24

STOKES LAW
When a small spherical body of radius r is moving with velocity v through a perfectly homogeneous medium
having coefficient of viscosity , it experiences a retarding force given by
F = 6rv.
Important cases : 6rv V g
(1) A body of radius r released from rest in a fluid
If  = density of body
 = density of liquid or fluid 
Terminal velocity is given by, v

2 r 2g
vT  (   )
9 
V g
Thus, velocity increases from 0 to vT .Variation of velocity is shown by the graph.
V
vT

t
(2) A body is thrown downwards with speed greater than vT then its speed decreases, becomes equal
to vT .
v

vT

Some Important Points :

1. With increase in temperature of water  decreases, terminal velocity increases.
2. When  < , body will move upward with terminal speed.
3. When water is replaced by glycerine, terminal speed decreases.

  
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