➢ Data collection is a term used to describe a process of preparing and collecting

data.
➢ Systematic gathering of data for a particular purpose from various sources, that
has been systematically observed, recorded, organized.
➢ Data are the basic inputs to any decision making process in business.
➢ PURPOSE OF DATA COLLECTION:
➢ To obtain information
➢ To keep on record
➢ To make decisions about important issues
➢ To pass information on to others
➢ There are two types of data:
➢ Primary Data and Secondary Data
➢ PRIMARY DATA:
Data that is developed specifically for the purpose of study at hand.
➢ Sources Include:
Individual, group or organization, directly / indirectly related to your topic and
can provide data for testing of your hypothesis. Like:
Customers
Employees
Managers
People etc.
➢ SECONDARY DATA:
Data that was developed for some purpose, other than to solve the problem
at hand.
➢ Sources Include:
Newspaper
Journals
Magazine
Websites
Govt. publications
Other published data
❑ Population: whole area under observation.
❑ A finite group is called population whereas a non-finite (infinite) group is
called universe.
❑ Sample: part of population which represents the whole.
❑ A sample is a subset of a larger population of objects individuals, households,
businesses, organizations and so forth.
❑ Sampling enables researchers to make estimates of some unknown
characteristics of the population in question.
❑ Parameter: numerical characteristic of a population
❑ Statistic: numerical characteristic of a sample
❑ Two issues to satisfy representation of sample:

▪ What Size of sample represents the whole

▪ What method of selection represents the whole

Size Of Sample:
➢ No hard & fast rule
➢ Depends upon many factors, Researcher has to decide
➢ For descriptive studies, 10% is advisable, if appropriate
✓ Budget and time Constraints (in case of large populations)

✓ High degree of accuracy and reliability (if sample is representative of

population)
✓ Sampling may sometimes produce more accurate results than taking a
census as in the latter, there are more risks for making interviewer and other
errors due to the high volume of persons contacted and the number of
census takers, some of whom may not be well-trained

✓ Results from data collection are needed quickly

✓ Industrial production and import / export

❖ The target population is that complete group whose relevant characteristics are
to be determined through the sampling

❖ A target population may be, for example, all faculty members in the
Department of Management Sciences, all pre-college students in Rawalpindi,
and all medical doctors in Pakistan

❖ The target group should be clearly delineated if possible, for example, do all
pre-college students include only primary and secondary students or also
students in other specialized educational institutions?
❖ The sampling frame is a list of all those population elements that will be used in
the sample

❖ Examples of sampling frames are a student telephone directory(old) or BISE

records(new) (for the student population), the list of companies on the stock
exchange, the directory of medical doctors and specialists, the yellow pages (for
businesses), NADRA records etc.

❖ Often, the list does not include the entire population. The discrepancy is often a
source of error associated with the selection of the sample (sampling frame
error)

❖ Information relating to sampling frames can be obtained from commercial

organizations
❖ The sampling unit is a single element – or group of elements – subject to
selection in a sample. Examples:

▪ Every student at university whose first name begins with the letter “S”

▪ All child passengers under 18 years of age who are traveling in a train
from destination X to destination Y

▪ All jeweler shops in phase 1 DHA

Probability Sampling:
➢ Every element in the population under study has a non-zero probability of
selection to a sample, and every member of the population has an equal
probability of being selected

Non – Probability Sampling:

➢ An arbitrary means of selecting sampling units based on subjective
considerations, such as personal judgment or convenience. It is less
preferred to probability sampling
Probability Sampling:
➢ Random Sampling
➢ Stratified Random Sampling
➢ Cluster Sampling
➢ Systematic Sampling
➢ Multi-Stage Sampling

Non – Probability Sampling:

➢ Convenience sampling
➢ Judgment/purposive sampling
➢ Quota Sampling
➢ Snowball Sampling
➢ Self – Selection Sampling
➢ Simple Random Sampling:

▪ This is a technique which ensures that each element in the population has an
equal chance of being selected for the sample.
▪ Involves you selecting at random frame using either random number tables,
a computer or an online random number generator such as Research
Randomizer.
▪ All individuals must get EQUAL and INDEPENDENT chance of selection in the
sample.
▪ Example: Choosing raffle tickets from a drum, computer-generated
selections, random-digit telephone dialing, common example is balloting .
▪ The major advantage of simple random sampling is its simplicity
➢ Steps in Simple Random Sampling:

1. This Define population

2. Determine Sample Size
3. Prepare list of all individuals in population
4. Code S. No. and start with zero
5. Select a number from Table of Random Number & look for appropriate digits
6. Check the number in list (code), if it is there, that individual is selected. If not
ignore it.
7. Repeat the above step, until desired sample size achieved
➢ Simple Random Sampling:
➢ Stratified Random Sampling:

▪ Stratified random sampling is a modification of random sampling in which

you divide the population into two or more relevant and significant strata
based in a one or a number of attributes.

▪ In effect, your sampling frame is divided into a number of subsets.

▪ A random sample (simple or systematic) is then drawn from each of the

strata.

▪ Sampling in which individuals are selected from each strata randomly, with
the same proportion as they present in population.
➢ Stratified Random Sampling:

▪ Example: The student body of university is divided into two groups

(Economic & Finance (Non Engineering), Engineering) and from each group,
students are selected for a sample using simple random sampling in each of
the two groups, whereby the size of the sample for each group is determined
by that group’s overall strength.

▪ The advantage of stratified RS is giving more representative samples and less

random sampling error.

▪ The disadvantage lies therein, that it is more complex and information on the
strata may be difficult to obtain
➢ Stratified Random Sampling:
➢ Cluster Sampling:
▪ Sampling in which group(s), not individuals are selected randomly.
▪ Similar to stratified as you need to divide the population into discrete groups
prior to sampling. The groups are termed clusters in this form of sampling
and can be based in any naturally occurring grouping.
▪ For example, you could group your data by type of manufacturing firm or
geographical area.
▪ For cluster sampling your sampling frame is the complete list of clusters
rather than complete list of individual cases within population, you then
select a few cluster normally using simple random sampling.
▪ Data are then collected from every case within the selected clusters
➢ Cluster Sampling:
➢ Systematic Sampling:
▪ Systematic sampling involves you selecting the sample at regular intervals
from the sampling frame.
▪ Number each of the cases in your sampling frame with a unique number. The
first is numbered 0, the second 1 and so on.
▪ Select the first case using a random number.
▪ Calculate the sample fraction: Sampling in which individuals are selected
through ‘K’ number. K = Total population (List) / Sample size.
▪ Select subsequent cases systematically using the sample fraction to
determine the frequency of selection.
➢ Systematic Sampling:

▪ Example: From a list of 1500 name entries, a name on the list is randomly
selected and then (say) every 25th name thereafter.

▪ The sampling interval in this case would equal 25.

▪ For systematic sampling to work best, the list should be random in nature
and not have some underlying systematic pattern
➢ Systematic Sampling:
➢ Multi-Stage Sampling:

▪ It is a development of cluster sampling, it is normally used to overcome

problems associated with a geographically dispersed population when face
to face contact is needed or where it is expensive and time consuming to
construct a sampling frame for a large geographical area.

▪ However, like cluster sampling you can use it for any discrete groups,
including those not are geographically based.

▪ The technique involves taking a series of cluster samples, each involving

some from of random sampling.
➢ Multi-Stage Sampling:
➢ Convenience Sampling:

✓ Sampling in which individuals are selected conveniently, whoever is available

easily.
✓ This is a sampling technique which selects those sampling units most
conveniently available at a certain point in, or over a period, of time
✓ Major advantages of convenience sampling is that is quick, convenient and
economical.
✓ Major disadvantage is that the sample may not be representative.
✓ Convenience sampling is best used for the purpose of exploratory research
and supplemented subsequently with probability sampling.
➢ Convenience Sampling:
➢ Judgement / Purposive Sampling:

✓ This is a sampling technique in which the business researcher selects the

sample based on judgment about some appropriate characteristic of the
sample members and to meet your objectives.
✓ Example: Selection of certain voting districts which serve as indicators for the
national voting trend
✓ This form of sample is often used when working with very small samples
such as in case research and when you wish to select cases that are
particularly informative.
✓ Purposive sampling can also be used by researchers adopting the grounded
theory strategy.
➢ Judgement / Purposive Sampling:
Extreme, Typical, Critical or deviant Case: Rare
✓ Down Syndrome Patients
✓ Intensity: Depicts interest strongly
✓ Average Students
✓ Maximum variation: Range of national, profession
✓ Education/Not educated, Religious Groups
✓ Homogenous: Similar Sampling Groups
✓ Only Muslims/Only Christians/Only Americans
✓ Stratified Purposeful: Across sub-categories
✓ Stratified but not complete representation
✓ Mixed: Multistage which combines different sampling like: Sampling
Politically Important Case
✓ Kashmiris / Palestine
➢ Judgement / Purposive Sampling:

✓ Purposeful Random: If sample is larger than what can be handled and help to
reduce sample size (Like Random but no equal representation)

✓ Opportunist Sampling: New technology /implementation

✓ Confirming Case (Favor of Sample) Disconfirming (against)

✓ Criterion: All above 5 feet tall

✓ Purposive: Subset of larger population – high level business

➢ Quota Sampling:
✓ This is a sampling technique in which the business researcher ensures that
certain characteristics of a population are represented in the sample to an extent
which is he or she desires
✓ It is entirely non random and it is normally used for interview surveys.
✓ It is based on the premise that your sample will represent the population as the
variability in your sample for various quota variables is the same as that in
population.
✓ Quota sampling is therefore a type of stratified sample in which selection of
cases within strata is entirely non-random.
✓ Divide the population into specific groups.
✓ Calculate a quota for each group based on relevant and available data.
✓ Give each interviewer an ‘assignment', which states the number of cases in each
quota from which they must collect data.
➢ Quota Sampling:
✓ Example: A business researcher wants to determine through interview, the
demand for Product X in a district which is very diverse in terms of its ethnic
composition.
✓ If the sample size is to consist of 100 units, the number of individuals from each
ethnic group interviewed should correspond to the group’s percentage
composition of the total population of that district
✓ Advantages include the speed of data collection, less cost, the element of
convenience, and representativeness (if the subgroups in the sample are
selected properly)
✓ Disadvantages include the element of subjectivity (convenience sampling rather
than probability-based which leads to improper selection of sampling units)
➢ Quota Sampling:
✓ Based on some traits like age, gender, education, race, religion, socio-
economic status etc.
➢ Snowball Sampling:

✓ It is commonly used when it is difficult to identify members of desired

population.
✓ For example people who are working while claiming unemployment benefit
you therefore, need to:
✓ 1. Make contact with one or two cases in the population.
✓ 2. Ask these cases to identify further cases.
✓ 3. Ask theses new cases to identify further new cases (and so on)
✓ 4. Stop when either no new cases are given or the sample is as large as
manageable
➢ Snowball Sampling:

✓ The advantage of snowball sampling is that smaller sample sizes and costs
are necessary.

✓ A major disadvantage is that the second group of respondents suggested by

the first group may be very similar and not representative of the population
with that characteristic.
✓ Accuracy – Samples should be representative of the target population (less
accuracy is required for exploratory research than for conclusive research
projects).

✓ Resources – Time, money and individual or institutional capacity are very

important considerations due to the limitation on them. Often, these resources
must be “traded” against accuracy.

✓ Availability of Information – Often information on potential sample participants

in the form of lists, directories etc. is unavailable (especially in developing
countries) which makes some sampling techniques (e.g. systematic sampling)
impossible to undertake.
✓ Geographical Considerations – The number and dispersion of population
elements may determine the sampling technique used (e.g. cluster sampling).

✓ Statistical Analysis – This should be performed only on samples which have

been created through probability sampling.
✓ Choice of sampling techniques depends upon the research question(s) and their
objectives.
✓ Factors affecting sample size include:
▪ Confidence needed in the findings
▪ Accuracy required
▪ Likely categories for analysis
✓ Probability sampling requires a sampling frame and can be more time
consuming.
✓ When a sampling frame is not possible, non- probability sampling is used.
✓ Many research projects use a combination of sampling techniques.
Name of Student:----------Class:-------
Hypothesis: --------------------
S.No Primary source population Sampling Method Sample Size

1 Customers 2.1 m Judgment 3000

2 Managers 134 Random 30

3 Dealers 44 Cluster 10

4 Sales Persons 176 Stratified Random 50