1.

2 ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE - AN OVERVIEW

1.2.1 Introduction to Organizational Climate
Organizational climate1 is the shared perception of employees who work and live
in the organization. It is the sum of individual perceptions regarding the organizational
procedures, policies and practices. It represents the psychological environment of the
organization consisting of individual opinions framed upon micro events that happen to
them as well as to others around, over a period of time. It is the set of measurable
properties of the work environment, perceived directly or indirectly by the members,
influencing their work and satisfaction.

The Organizational Climate2 facilitates the firm to identify to the deficiencies in

connection with different organizational factors, such as organizational structure,
employee compensation system, communication level, physical atmosphere,
organizational culture, etc. It is the apparent trait of a firm and its sub-systems as
replicated in the mode in which an organization deals with its associates, team members
and organizational problems. It is comparatively enduring excellence of the in-house
atmosphere that is experienced by its employees which influences their performance and
can be described in terms of the values of a specific set of behaviors in the firm.

Organizational Climate3 is comprised of a mixture of norms, values, expectations,

policies and procedures that influence work motivation, commitment and ultimately
individual or work unit performance.

Climate4 can be defined as the perceived attributes of an organization and its

subsystems, as reflected in the way an organization deals with its members, groups and
issues. The Emphasis is on perceived attributes and the working of subsystems.Climate5,
as used in the Organizational context, consists of a total affective system of human group
in the Organization, including attitude towards the system, sub-systems and super
ordinate to the systems and other systems of the persons, tasks, procedures and
conceptualizations. Climate, thus, refers to the relationships in any situations as the
people in that particular situation experience.

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 Positive Climate6 encourages, while negative climate inhibits discretionary effort.
‘Organizational Climate’ refers to the quality of working environment. If people feel that
they are valued and respected within the organization, they are more likely to contribute
positively to the achievement of business outcomes. Creating a ‘healthy’ organizational
climate requires attention to the factors which influence employees’ perceptions,
including the quality of leadership, the way in which decisions are made and whether the
efforts of employees are recognized.

Organizational Climate refers to the prevalent attitudes, values, norms and

feelings which the employees have about the organizations. Every organization has an
internal and external climate which influences the practices and behavior of both the
management and the employees. Just like the personality of an individual, climate is the
personality of an organization as seen by its members. All the organizational components
structure, system, culture, leader behavior, psychological needs of the employees, social-
cultural values etc., interact with one another and create organizational climate.

Organizational Climate7 is an important concept because it is an influence on the

behavior of organization members. It has been linked to outcome measures such as job
satisfaction and productivity.

Organizational Climate8 serves as the guidelines for dealing with people, and has
a major influence on motivation and productivity of individuals as well as total work
group. A sound climate is a long-term proposition. Managers take an asset approach
meaning that they take the climate as organizational assets. “A set of attributes specific to
a particular organization that may be induced from the way that organization deals with
its members and its environment. For the individual members within the organization,
climate takes the form of a set of attitudes and expectancies which describe the
organization in terms of both static characteristics (such as degree of autonomy) and
behavior outcome and outcome-outcome contingencies”.

Organizational Climate9 reflects a person’s perception of the organization to

which he belongs. It is a set of characteristics and factors that are perceived by the

10
employees about their organizations that serve as a major force in influencing their
behavior. These factors may include job descriptions. Organizational structural format,
performance and evaluation standards, leadership style, challenges and innovations,
organizational values and culture and so on

Organizational climate10 refers to a set of measurable properties of the work

environment, that are perceived by the people who live and work in it, and that influence
their motivation and behavior. Climate characteristics that have been determined to
significantly impact a company’s bottom line are: flexibility, responsibility, standards,
rewards, clarity and team commitment.

The idea of “organizational climate”11 appears to refer to an attribute, or set of

attributes, of the work environment. The idea of a “perceived organizational climate”
seems ambiguous; one cannot be sure whether it implies an attribute of the organization
or of the perceiving individual. If it refers to the organization, then measures of perceived
organizational climate should be evaluated in terms of the accuracy of the perceptions. If
it refers to the individual, then perceived organizational climate may simply be a different
name for job satisfaction or employee attitudes.

Climate12 has been viewed as a function of: (a) the organization’s structure: (b)
the organization’s memberships: and (c) more recently the memberships’ efforts to
understand the organization. The third view is interactionism. The interactionist approach
is extended by a consideration of the roles of the workgroup, affect, corporate culture,
symbolic management, and physical setting.

Organizational climate, defined as the way in which organizational members

perceive and characterize their environment in an attitudinal and value-based manner. It
has been asserted as an important and influential aspect of satisfaction and retention, as
well as institutional effectiveness and success in higher education.

The Dimensions13 of Organizational Climate is

 Challenge. The Emotional involvement of the members of the organization in
its operations and goals. A high – challenge climate is seen when the people

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 are experiencing joy and meaningfulness in their job, and, therefore, they
invest much energy. Low challenge means feelings of alienation and
indifference; the common sentiment and attitude is apathy and lack of interest
for the job and the organization.
 Freedom. The independence in behavior exerted by the people in the
organization. In a climate with much of this kind of freedom people make
contacts and give and receive information; discuss problems and alternatives;
plan and take initiatives of different kinds; and make decisions. The opposite
climate would include people who are passive, rule-bound and anxious to stay
inside established boundaries.
 Idea Support. The ways new ideas are treated. In a supportive climate, ideas
and suggestions are received in an attentive and supportive way by bosses and
workmates. People listen to each other and encourage initiatives. Possibilities
for trying out new ideas are created. The atmosphere is constructive and
positive. When idea support is low, the reflexive “no” prevails. Every
suggestion is immediately refuted by a counter-argument. Fault finding and
obstacle raising are the usual styles of responding to ideas.
 Trust/Openness. The emotional safety in relationships. When there is a
strong level of trust, everyone in the organization dares to put forward ideas
and opinions. Initiatives can be taken without fear of reprisal and ridicule in
case of failure. Communication is open and straightforward. Where trust is
missing, people are suspicious of each other and are wary of making
expensive mistakes. They also are afraid of being exploited and robbed of
their good ideas.
 Dynamism/Liveliness. The eventfulness of life in the organization. In the
highly dynamic situation, new things are happening all the time and
alterations between ways of thinking about and handling issues often occur.
There is a kind of psychological turbulence which is described by people in
those organizations as “full speed”, “go”, breakneck”, “maelstrom”, and the
like. The opposite situation could be compared to a slow jog-trot with no

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 surprises. There are no new projects; no different plans. Everything goes its
usual way.
 Playfulness/Humor. The Spontaneity and ease that is displayed. A relaxed
atmosphere with jokes and laughter characterizes the organization which is
high in this dimension. The opposite climate is characterized by gravity and
seriousness. The atmosphere is stiff, gloomy, and cumbrous. Jokes and
laughter are regarded as improper.
 Debates. The Occurrence of encounters and clashes between view points,
ideas, and differing experiences and knowledge. In the debating organization
many voices are heard and people are keen on putting forward their ideas.
Where debates are missing, the people follow authoritarian patterns without
questioning.
 Conflicts. The presence of personal and emotional tensions (in contrast to
conflicts between ideas) in the organization. When the level of conflict is
high, groups and single individuals dislikes each other and the climate can be
characterized by “warfare”, Plots and traps are usual elements in the life of the
organization. There is gossip and slander. In the opposite case, people behave
in a more mature manner; they have psychological insight and control of
impulses.
 Risk Taking. The tolerance of uncertainty in the organization. In the high
risk-taking case, decisions and actions are prompt and rapid, arising
opportunities are taken and concrete experimentation is preferred to detailed
investigation and analysis. In a risk-avoiding climate there is a cautious,
hesitant mentality. People try to be on the “safe side”, they decide “to sleep on
the matter”, they set up committees and they cover themselves in many ways
before making a decision.
 Idea Time. The amount of time people can use (and do use) for elaborating
new ideas. In the high idea-time situation, a possibility exists to discuss and
test impulses and fresh suggestions that are not planned or included in the task
assignment; and people tend to use these possibilities. In the reverse case,
every minute is booked and specified. The time pressure makes thinking
outside the instructions and planned routines impossible.

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 Climate14 is presented as a perceptual attribute on an organizational, group, and
individual level. The Key issues are level of analysis, measurement, validity, redundancy
and usefulness. A firm's15 organizational climate: its degree of trust, morale, conflict,
rewards equity, leader credibility, resistance to change, and helps determine its success.

Organizational climate relevant to the attribution to discrimination process,

climate for diversity is the obvious place to begin because climate for diversity deals with
the treatment of members of protected groups within an organization.

The Managers16 create a climate that reflects their beliefs about workers. If they
believe that the workers need to be cajoled into working, work only for money, or are not
to be trusted to make important decisions, managers create a “Theory X” climate. If they
believe in the inherent maturity and creativity of employees and trust their capacity to
make decisions in the interest of the firm, they create a “Theory Y” climate. Climate
encompasses the prevailing conditions across diverse organizational activities. Because
of this diversity and the habitual nature of many elements, the climate of an organization
is very difficult to change. Regardless of the focus of an organization’s goals for change,
the probability of actually having the change take root is enhanced when people feel their
work is challenging, when they can participate in decisions regarding how the change
will be achieved, and when their interpersonal relationships are characterized by mutual
trust. How organizations function for their members determines the degree to which
change in the focus of people’s energies and competencies will be sustained. An
organization can’t just alter a reward system and produce sustainable changes in
behavior. It also can’t just make boring jobs into challenging ones, or just implement
participatory decision making. It must do all of these things. Only by attending to the full
range of these concerns will the psychology or feel of the organization be altered and the
changes take root.

Organizational Climate17 has been classified into two major categories. An

analogy with an iceberg where there is a part of the iceberg that can be seen above the
surface and another part that is under water and is not visible. The visible part that can be
observed or measured include the structure of hierarchy, goals and objectives of the

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organization, performance standards and evaluations, technological state of the
operations and so on. The second category contains factors that are not visible and
quantifiable and include such subjective areas as supportiveness, employee’s feelings and
attitudes, values, morale, personal and social interaction with peers, subordinates and
superiors and a sense of satisfaction with the job.

Organizational Climate18 usually refers to current situations in an organization

and the linkages among work groups, employees, and work performance. Climate,
therefore, is usually more easily manipulated by management to directly affect the
behavior of employees.

Importance of Organizational Climate

The behavior of people is affected in many ways. Organizational climate
provides a useful platform for understanding such characteristics of organizations as
stability, creativity, innovation, communication and effectiveness. Organizational climate
is the manifestation of the attitudes of organizational members toward the organization
itself. An organization tends to attract and keep people who fit its climate, so that its
patterns are perpetuated at least to some extent.

In order to bring about change in the behavior pattern of people in the

organization, a change in the organizational climate will be enough. If the change in the
climate is incongruent with the perceptual system of the individual in the organization,
there may arise some resistance from the part of the people in the organizations first, and
if the changed climate continues in the organizations.

In order to maintain homeostatic condition people will start to change according

to the changed climate. But when change in procedures and practices are such that it
cannot be incorporated into the perception of the individual in the organization, resistance
may continue and finally that may lead to distress and dissatisfaction among employees.
It is easy to bring about change in the climate of the organization. But we cannot aspire
for a change in the behavior of the employees as speedily as that of the organizational
change. His lag occurs because people first have to form new climate perceptions which

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serve as a frame of reference for coherent set of adaptive behavior. This observation is
very much important for those who are concerned to bring about change in a work
setting.

Organizational climate is essentially about ‘what it’s like to work here’. True to
the climate metaphor, organizational climate is primarily about the perceptions of the
climate rather than its absolute measures. While temperature is an important measure of
geographic climate, it is not the temperature that is of interest, but our perception of it.
What may be too cool for me may be too warm for you.

To facilitate measurement and manipulation of organizational climate, researchers

have dissected its characteristics and perceptions into categories such as the nature of
interpersonal relationships, the nature of the hierarchy, the nature of work, and the focus
of support and rewards. It is through those characteristics and perceptions that climate
has a bi-directional relationship with everything the organization is and does - it affects
everything, and is affected by everything. For example:
 Organizational literature describes climates of crisis, trust, cooperation, calm,
trust, distrust, entrepreneurialism, innovation, fear, respect, collective learning,
and openness.
 Climates are also described as political, supportive, creative, strong, etc.
 For each climate there is an opposite: climate of calm vs. crisis, and trust vs.
distrust etc.
 Climate relates strongly to performance measures.

Before organization-wide strategic thinking and conversation can occur,

employees must 'feel' they are in a safe climate that encourages their understanding of ,
and involvement in, strategic conversation .

It is even intuitively reasonable to expect a different climate report from within an

organization that merely 'permits' strategic thinking, to one that proactively encourages it
from within a climate of psychological safety. In support of this approach is empirical
evidence that climate and culture do indeed impact strategic thinking.

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Measuring climate
Measurement19 of climate seeks to identify the components of both bad and good
climate, both in absolute terms and perceptual terms. While there are commercial
instruments that measure climate, there are powerful arguments for having one tailor-
made to the organization, and that change as the organization changes. Generally, the
areas of interact to measure are:
 External environment - organizational interface with it
 Organizational leadership / mission
 Organizational structure / systems
 Organization and you
 Management practices
 Working - co-workers / teams / supervisor
 Self - at work - your role, development, opportunities, motivation, commitment,
stress
 Self - outside work - how work affects your life (good/bad) - vice-versa.

Climate is worthwhile to understand and measure because there are organizational

and human benefits a ‘good’ climate, and powerful disadvantages of many kinds of bad
climate.

‘Good’ Climate has been linked to desirable outcomes such as:

 Job satisfaction
 Confidence in management
 Affective commitment
 Intention to quit
 Emotional Exhaustion
 Faith in Organizational
 Performance

Desirable Good behaviours such as:

 risk-taking (strategic),
 departure from the status quo,

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  open communication,
 trust,
 operational freedom, and
 employee development

‘Bad’ Climate has been linked to:

 Turnover
 Stress
 Sickness
 Poor performance
 Error rate
 Wastage
 Accidents

Desirable Bad behaviours such as:

 Sabotage
 Absenteeism
 Go-slow
 Bullying

A key point to make is that a ‘good’ climate is not just one that keeps people
comfortable, but one that is strategically advantageous to the organization while
simultaneously bringing out the best in its members because they are in a motivational
climate.

A study on heterogeneity20 of organizational climate is important because

organizational climate has important outcomes. Understanding of these outcomes is
necessary for elucidating the implications of heterogeneity of organizational climate.

The framework of Motivational Analysis of Organizations - Climate (MAO-C),

developed by Pareek (1989), MAO-C climate motives are briefly described as follows.
1. Achievement, which promotes quality, excellence, and attainment of
organizational goals.

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 2. Expert Influence, which promotes the use of expertise for facing organizational
challenges, solving organizational problems and improving organizational
working.
3. Extension climate emphasizes making oneself relevant to others in the work
group, work team, section, department and organization,
4. Control climate, which emphasizes consolidation of personal power,
5. Dependency climate, that promotes excessive dependence on others, seeking
direction or approval before taking action, and
6. Affiliation climate, which emphasizes maintaining friendly personal relationship
even when it comes in way of attainment of goals.

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Patterson et al. (2005) developed and validated a multidimensional measure of
organizational climate naming organizational climate measure (OCM). The model based
on constructs of organizational theory, comprising of values system of human relations,
internal process, open system and rational goal values. Each value in the model is derived
from a spatial mapping along the dimensions having an opposite value with contrasting
emphasis and two parallel values. The competing value framework has four quadrants
that explain four areas of outcomes related to managerial beliefs and perceptions.
Human relations model

Flexibility and internal focus values end results of teamwork and human resource
development. Climate dimensions, included in this quadrant are employee welfare,
autonomy, involvement, training, integration and supervisory support.

Internal process model

Control and internal focus values stability, exhibits formalization and internal
control to efficiently use the resources (Patterson et. al., 2005) this quadrant emphasizes
bureaucracy where there are workers with well defined roles and there are clear policies
to follow (Buckner and Williams, 1995). Climate dimensions which are included in this
quadrant are formalization and tradition.

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Open system model
Flexibility and external focus values flexibility, adaptability and innovativeness
with climate dimensions of flexibility, manage and innovation, outwards focus and
reflexivity.

Rational goal model

Control and external focus values productivity, goal achievement. Important
dimensions included in this quadrant are clarity of organizational goals, effort, efficiency,
quality, pressure to produce and performance feedback.

Organizational Climate22 is a micro phenomenon and reflects how employees in

an organization feel about the characteristics and quality of culture like morale, goodwill,

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 A high level of organizational commitment is an expression of an employee’s
willingness to contribute to the working culture as part of his or her belief in common
values and goals. From the employee’s perspective, his or her degree of job involvement
is an indication that he or she enjoys a partnership of values and organizational goals,
satisfaction with his or her role at work, and a desire to support the organization in order
to achieve the same goals.

Organizational Commitment27 is defined as “the psychological attachment felt by

the person for the organization; it will reflect the degree to which the individual
internalizes or adapts characteristics or perspectives of the organization.

Commitment28 is primarily a structural phenomenon which occurs as a result of

individual organizational transactions and alternations inside bets or investments over
time.

Commitment29 is viewed as a partisan, affective attachment to the goals and

values of the organization for its own sake, apart from its purely instrumental worth. The
three components30 of commitment are: Identification with the organization's goals
and/or mission manifested in pride in and defense of the organization. Long-term
membership in the organization and intention to remain with the organization, often
termed loyalty High levels of extra role behavior, that is, behavior beyond required
performance- Often referred to as citizenship behavior or pro-social behavior.

Factors influencing organizational commitment

Turnover31 can influence employees’ levels of commitment. While some staff
turnover in an organization is healthy because it introduces new ideas and innovations,
too much turnover can work against overall staff commitment to the organization.

Employee commitment has long been a concern of those who investigate human
resources issues in organizations, and a substantial amount of research on organizational
commitment has been conducted in relation to turnover (Ferris & Aranya, 1983; Hom,
Katerburg & Hulin, 1979; Huselid & Day, 1991; Mowday et al., 1979; O’Reilly &
Caldwell, 1980; Steers, 1977; Stumpf & Hartman, 1984; Wiener & Vardi, 1980). Steers

26
(1977) determined that organizational commitment in a sample of hospital employees
was negatively related to turnover, which suggested that those healthcare employees who
were not committed to the hospital were more likely to seek other employment. When
translated to financial considerations, the lack of commitment that eventually leads to
increased turnover increases the cost of recruitment and training replacement staff.
Excessive employee turnover in hospitals is especially costly because so many healthcare
professionals require licensing and certification that necessitates background checks prior
to hire and continuing education afterwards. Heavy turnover also dampens employee
morale and can affect patient satisfaction. Many factors are related to organizational
commitment. Training, benefits, mentoring, job enrichment, job autonomy, task
involvement, downsizing, and supervision are just a few typical concerns in an
employee’s decision to stay with an organization. There are also demographic issues that
cannot be discounted, such as income level and organizational sensitivity to race, gender,
and age (Luthans, Baack, & Taylor, 1987).Organizational Commitment32 is often defined
as a psychological bond or personal attachment to an organization.

Dunham,et al.33 identify three factors as being antecedents of affective

commitment: a) job characteristics, b)organizational dependability, and c) perceived
participatory management which they define as “the extent to which employees feel that
they can influence decisions regarding the work environment and other issues of concern
to them”. The antecedents of Continuance commitment: a) age, b) tenure, c) career
satisfaction, and d) intent to leave. Antecedents of Normative commitment include: a)
coworker commitment, b) organizational dependability, and c) participatory
management.

Affective commitment34 is an individual’s emotional attachment with (i.e.

identification with and involvement in), the organization. Continuance commitment
refers to the individual’s recognition of the benefits of continued organizational
membership versus the perceived cost of leaving the organization. Finally, normative
commitment refers to the employee’s feeling of obligation to stay in the organization. All
three forms of commitment affect not only employees’ willingness to remain with an
organization, but their work related behavior as well.

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 Penley and Gould (1998)35 observe that “Some employees put effort into their
work well beyond what appears to be instrumentally required for the expected reward”.
They go on to suggest that the sickness found in organizational commitment can likely be
attributed to its affective dimension. The significance that stickiness has for organizations
is that “Contributions may remain high even when inducements diminish and conversely.
Contributions may remain low even when inducements increase”

Gouldner (1960)36 suggests that when looking at organizational commitment, it

becomes necessary to distinguish between employees’ commitment to the values or goals
of the organization and their commitment to the organization as a whole.

Gould (1979)37 observed that affective commitment displays a certain stickiness

that sometimes causes employees to give far more to an organization than what they
would be expected to give under an exchange theory of commitment.

Mathieu and Zajac(1990)38 Organizational Commitment leads to both extrinsic

rewards such as wages and benefits and intrinsic rewards such as job satisfaction and
relationship with coworkers. It can be influenced by a number of factors including job
security, job satisfaction, organizational leadership and motivation. Two main types of
organizational commitment are: attitudinal and calculated. Attitudinal organizational
commitment based on three factors: a) a belief in and acceptance of the organization’s
goals and values, b) a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the
organization and c) a desire to maintain membership in the organization. Calculated
Organizational commitment is based on the transactions between individuals and
organizations.

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 Morrow(1983)39 found that personal values as well as the career, current job
status and union memberships all contribute to organizational commitment.

Factors of Organizational Commitment (Organizational Characteristics):

Factors40 that provided nurses’ commitment are
 Organizational Readiness: Organizational readiness was defined as employees’
cognitive stage of understanding the organization and a state of preparedness for
change, “its plans for continuous organizational refinement, and its ability through
its social and technical systems to initiate and sustain that change”
 Training program: Training program means that courses were provided to assist
an employee to become a part of the system and allowed the employee to acquire
the job skills needed to feel competent. Training program included
recruitment/retention plans and professional development.
 Communication: Communication was defined to mean: accessibility of the
supervisor for listening and guidance, effective communication, and clear
expectations and feedback that was needed for better work performance.
 Shared Decision: Shared decision was defined that approaches were group
interventions, which included an open distribution of information, group problem
solving, and giving out of power to create a desired future.
 Group Cohesiveness: Group cohesiveness was defined as a strong force in the
socialization process within an organization that was the interactive dynamics
between the individual and co-workers
 Working Schedules: Working schedules were defined to mean working hours and
duty shifts system
 Promotional Opportunity: Opportunity means the vertical mobility or promotion
within an organization that occurred because of professional development such as
clinical proficiency (professional development) and promotion in the hospitals’
hierarchy
 Autonomy: Autonomy was defined in terms of “the characteristics of the position
that allow or encourage individual decision making with daily operational
activities”

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  Environmental Security: Environmental security referred to the safe working
environment that was perceived by employees. Suggestion from the International
Council of nurses (2000) promoted the development policies or instruments that
would protect the nurse in a safe work environment, including continuing
education, immunization, and protective clothing and protective equipment.
 Job Security: Job Security was defined as contentment in being secure about not
losing a job
 Organizational Commitment: Organizational Commitment can be defined as the
relative strength of an individual’s identification with and involvement in a
particular organization.
 Turnover: Turnover is defined to mean when employees resign voluntarily, are
discharged, retired, and laid off. On disability, or die. This included resignations,
terminations, retirements, transfers and promotions.
Scholl (1981)41 there are at least four possible commitment mechanisms: 1)
investments, 2) reciprocity, 3) lack of alternatives, and 4) identification.

Building Commitment among Employees

The Commitment to an organization, a relationship, or a course of action may
develop naturally over time; there are ways in which some organizations actively seek to
develop the level of commitment among employees. Walton (1985)42 presented two
fundamental approaches to workforce management: the control approach and the
commitment approach. These two approaches present two integrated human resource
strategies for the selection, development, motivation and retention of employees. The
fundamental difference between these two strategies lies in the overriding philosophy and
values regarding the employment of people and organizations. Control and Commitment
represent two distinct approaches to shaping employee behaviors and attitudes at work.
 Control Strategy or Control-Oriented Approach- The goal of control human
resource systems is to reduce direct labor costs, or improve efficiency, by
enforcing employee compliance with specified rules and procedures and basing
employee rewards on some measurable output criteria.

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  Commitment Strategy- Commitment-based human resource systems shape
desired employee behaviours and attitudes by forging psychological links
between organizational and employee goals. In other words, the focus is on
developing committed employees who can be trusted to use their discretion to
carry out job tasks in ways that are consistent with organizational goals.

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mployers need to remember that employees decide each day how much of
themselves to invest in the success of the organization. A highly affiliated work force
brings more than just work to the job. Such employees are aligned with the organization's
mission, vision and values, and they're motivated to help the organization succeed. This
sense of common bond and mutual commitment to individual and organizational success
is the hallmark of winning companies. When employees feel safe and secure in the
workplace, when they feel they are compensated for their performance, feel pride and
spirit in the organization, perceive personal and organizational growth opportunities, and
perceive balance between job and personal demands; work-force commitment is at its
highest. When work-force commitment is high, retention, pride, productivity and trust are
affected. The employer experiences positive internal recognition, as well as greater
success in the marketplace.

Gain employee commitment

igh levels44 of employee commitment of individual projects or to the business as a
whole are considered to be indicators of an organization’s success. Commitment,
however, cannot be assumed. Rather, it requires continuing, credible and confident
actions that gain employees’ trust and support. Although there is no single way of gaining
commitment, there are some key considerations:

1. Be clear about what is required

There are many examples of the lengths people are prepared to go in support of
causes to which they are committed. As a manager, you can’t expect your employees to
be committed to something that they, and perhaps you, don’t understand. So before your
employees commit their time and resources, they have every right to know exactly what

31
it is they are letting themselves in for. And, of course, any confusion you have will soon
be communicated to employees – so be clear about what you want.

2. Focus on action goals

Assemble those employees whose commitment you are seeking, explain the
situation as you see it, and describe the outcomes envisaged. Explain any short-term
goals and the specific actions needed for their achievement. Outline the benefits
(including what’s in it for them) to be derived from successful accomplishment of those
goals. The noblest dream and the most appealing strategy are worthless until those
involved make a commitment to achieve the objectives.

3. Adopt a problem-solving approach

Use group facilitation skills (eg a force-field analysis) to identify blockages
preventing achievement of goals. Involve employees in planning for the elimination or
reduction of those blockages. Allocate responsibilities to agreed actions and confirm
individual commitment. Document all actions agreed on and circulate them to everyone
involved.

4. Measure progress
If possible, decide how goals and their progress can be measured. Rarely will
employees be prepared to make or maintain a commitment when there are no measures of
their progress and achievement. You will need to use measures as a means of assessing
levels of commitment – if you can’t measure it, you can’t manage it.

5. Monitor employee responses

Employees will be waiting to see what you do. Even if they appear to show little
interest towards your proposal or project, they will be keeping your subsequent actions
under observation. Gaining and building commitment cannot be rushed and what you do
will lead the way. If you find that commitment is not forthcoming, you will need to
decide whether to persevere, to adopt another approach, or to scrap the idea.

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6. Foster interdependence among employees
The development of strong links among employees benefits you and the
organization. One of those benefits, for example, is a decrease in absenteeism – staff
realizes how others are affected by their non-attendance. Interdependence helps to build
ownership, trust and commitment among employees as they see how their individual
contributions affect, or are affected by, fellow workers.

7. Develop a work environment where commitment grows

Make your workplace one where employees want to be. A harmonious working
environment brings out the best in people. Employees will be prepared to commit to a
project or organization they feel part of.

8. Recognize achievements
When employee commitment has resulted in goal achievement, provide rewards
and other forms of recognition that individual employee’s value. Recognition should
cater for individuals, work groups and even families. After all, the success of many
projects depends, in part, on the support provided by life partners and other family
members. Feedback and evaluation keep commitment high.

A fairly robust45 body of literature details the role of Organizational policies and
supervisors in the level of employees’ attachment to their organization. Employees whose
supervisors allow them to participate in decision-making show higher levels of
commitment, as do those individuals who are treated with consideration.

Organizational commitment46 is one of the organizational concepts that have widely been
examined in administrative literature due to its importance for organizational performance and
effectiveness. Organizational commitment is seen as the degree to which an employee is loyal to
their organization. It is characterized by 3 factors “acceptance of the organization’s values;
willingness to exert effort on behalf of the organization; and desire to remain an employee of the
organization”

Commitment47 of an individual to an organization implies the person’s willingness to

remain and work for the organization because of the values and norms it represents.

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 Organizational Commitment48 is unlike job satisfaction in that it connotes a sense of
loyalty to an organization. In acute care settings, organizational commitment is particularly
important. Nurses who are committed to their employers are more apt to work hard in very trying
conditions regardless of the benefits they receive.

1.2.3 Job Satisfaction

Mottaz and Potts (1986)49 created the Perceived Reward Model as another
framework for understanding overall job satisfaction. Their model cites the five extrinsic
rewards they believe most strongly influence job satisfaction: These rewards are:
 Supervisors – the degree to which supervisors are perceived as supportive and
helpful to employees and include such traits as competence, fairness,
trustworthiness, and friendliness.
 Coworkers – the degree to which colleagues are perceived as being supportive
and helpful and include such traits as competence, helpfulness, and friendliness
 Working conditions – the general circumstances, such as environment and
resources that improve or impede work quality.
 Salary – the level of fixed compensation paid regularly for services rendered.
 Promotional opportunities – favorable circumstances and possibilities for
advancement or progress within the organization.

Hackman and Oldham (1975)50 proposed yet another five-factor model of job satisfaction
related to aspects of the job itself:
 Skill variety refers to the need to use a number of different abilities and skills to
accomplish a task.
 Task identity refers to the ability of the worker to see his or her task as whole and
complete action with an end product instead of just one small piece.
 Task significance refers to the way the task has an effect on, or is useful to, the
other people in the company or organization.
 Autonomy is the feeling of freedom within an individual’s job, and the ability to
make personal choices on issues of personal, independent choice.
 Feedback is the extent to which an employee is given an appraisal of his or her
performance by their manager, by self-evaluation, or from co-workers.

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 Roznowski and Hulin (1992)51 maintain that well constructed, validated scales of
job satisfaction are “the most informative data an organizational psychologist or manager
can have” for predicting organizationally relevant behavior in individuals. Job
satisfaction52 refers to “a collection of attitudes that workers have about their jobs”

Employees throughout the organization want to feel that they are important
participants in their job functions and want to have a voice in how their work will be
done, including scheduling; work sequence; outcome assessment; and, to some extent,
who will be hired to work with them. The intrinsic rewards satisfy higher-order needs, for
example feelings of accomplishment and achievement and the satisfaction of utilizing
one’s skills and abilities.

Job Satisfaction53 can be defined as an affective or emotional reaction that an

employee has towards a job that is this result of his or her comparison of actual outcomes
with expected or deserved outcomes. Job Satisfaction54 as a personal evaluation of the
current conditions of the job or the outcomes that arise as a result of having a job.

Locke (1976)55 defines job satisfaction as a “pleasurable or positive emotional

state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences”.

Correlates of Job Satisfaction

According to Abraham A. Korman, there are two types of variables which are
found correlated with the job satisfaction of an individual. These are: 1) Organizational
variables, and 2) Personal variables

Organizational Variables
1. Occupational Level. The higher the level of the job, the greater the satisfaction of
the individual. This is because higher level jobs carry greater prestige and self-
control. This relationship between occupational level and job satisfaction stems
from social reference group theory in that our society values some jobs more than
others. Hence people in valued jobs will like them more than those who are in
non-valued jobs. The relationship may also stem from the need-fulfillment theory.

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 People in higher level jobs find most of their needs satisfied than when they are in
lower level ones.
2. Job Content. Greater the variation in job content and the less the repetitiveness
with which the tasks must be performed, the greater the satisfaction of the
individuals involved.
3. Considerate Leadership. People like to be treated with consideration. Hence
considerate leadership results in higher job satisfaction than inconsiderate
leadership.
4. Pay and Promotional Opportunities. All other things being equal these two
variables are positively related to job satisfaction.
5. Interaction in the Work Group. Interaction is most satisfying when-
a) it results in the cognition that other person’s attitudes are similar to one’s
own, since this permits the ready calculability of the other’s behavior and
constitutes a validation of one’s self;
b) it results in being accepted by others; and
c) it facilitates the achievement of goals.

Personal Variables
For some people, it appears most jobs will be dissatisfying irrespective of the
organizational conditions involved, whereas for others, most jobs will be satisfying.
Personal Variables like age, educational level, sex, etc., are responsible for this
difference.
1. Age. Most of the evidence on the relation between age and job satisfaction, holding
such factors as occupational level constant, seems to indicate that there is generally a
positive relationship between the two variables up to the preretirement years and then
there is a sharp decrease in satisfaction. An individual aspires for better and more
prestigious jobs later years of his life. Finding his channel for advancement blocked,
his satisfaction declines,
2. Educational Level. With occupational level held constant there is a negative
relationship between the educational level and job satisfaction. The higher the

36
 education, the higher the reference group which the individual looks to for guidance
to evaluate his job rewards.
3. Role Perception. Different individuals hold different perceptions about their role, i.e.,
the kind of activities and behaviours they should engage in to perform their job
successfully. Job satisfaction is determined by this factor also. The more accurate the
role perception of an individual the greater his satisfaction.
4. Sex. There is as yet no consistent evidence as to whether women are more satisfied
with their jobs than men.

Job satisfaction describes how content an individual is with his or her job. The
happier people are within their job, the more satisfied they are said to be. Job satisfaction
is not the same as motivation, although it is clearly linked. Job design aims to enhance
job satisfaction and performance; methods include job rotation, job enlargement and job
enrichment. Other influences on satisfaction include the management style and culture,
employee involvement, empowerment and autonomous work groups. Job satisfaction is a
very important attribute which is frequently measured by organizations. The most
common way of measurement is the use of rating scales where employees report their
reactions to their jobs. Questions relate to rate of pay, work responsibilities, variety of
tasks, promotional opportunities the work itself and co-workers.

The understanding of how emotion regulation relates to job satisfaction concerns

two models:

1. Emotional dissonance. Emotional dissonance is a state of discrepancy between

public displays of emotions and internal experiences of emotions that often follows the
process of emotion regulation. Emotional dissonance is associated with high emotional
exhaustion, low organizational commitment, and low job satisfaction.

2. Social interaction model. Taking the social interaction perspective, workers’

emotion regulation might beget responses from others during interpersonal encounters
that subsequently impact their own job satisfaction.

37
 Edwin (1990)56 some ways to increase job satisfaction include deploying efficient
motivation programs which make employees more fulfilled with and committed to their
jobs. Armstrong (2006)57 This include better compensation packages, improving working
conditions, fiscal benefits, staff training, availability of information, and enhanced
internal communication.

Theories that relate to job satisfaction58

a. Need hierarchy theory:
This theory was developed by Abraham Maslow whereby he described the 5
hierarchy of needs, they include physiological needs, safety, social, esteem and self
actualization needs Deckers (2002, pp. 19-26). The lowest level of need is physiological
needs and these needs include those required to sustain life and they include water and
sleep Mullins (2007, pp. 63-67). When an individual has satisfied these needs he moves
to higher needs and in this case an employee who has satisfied physiological needs will
want to satisfy safety needs, therefore individuals will satisfy one need and move to
higher needs. This theory relates to job satisfaction in terms of meeting employee needs,
employees are motivated to meet their needs in an organization whereby motivation is
associated with the unsatisfied needs, and therefore managers should understand workers
needs and allow workers to satisfy their needs as a way of motivating them. Individuals
are likely to work hard if they expect that their needs will be met, also if workers expect
to be rewarded they will be highly motivated, for this reason therefore it is important to
understand employee needs and satisfy them, it is also important to understand the
importance of these outcomes to employees, this way the most important needs should be
met in order to motivate workers, for example from Maslow’s theory when workers have
satisfied lower needs then it will be not important when an organization tend to satisfy
these lower needs because they are less important to them.

b. Equity theory:
John Adams (1965) developed the Equity theory Cook(1993, pp 14-18), this is
also another theory that relates to job satisfaction, individuals job satisfaction will be
influenced by how fairly they are treated in an organization, it is important that
employees are fairly treated in an organization whereby rewards should be based on

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performance. Therefore the equity theory is related to job satisfaction given that
employees will be more satisfied when employees are fairly treated. (Cook, 1993)

c. Goal setting theory:

The goal setting theory was developed by Edwin Locke (1965) states that
individuals are highly motivated if specific and not general goals are set Edwin (1990, pp
24-26), when there are goals set by employees then they are more likely to be motivated
and therefore have higher job satisfaction if these goals are met, the other concept in this
theory is that goals that are moderately difficult are more likely to motivate workers than
difficult goals. (Edwin 1990).There are also other factors that will influence job
satisfaction in the organization, according to researchers age will influence job
satisfaction whereby older workers are more likely to have higher job satisfaction than
younger workers, other factors include gender, and race and occupational level,
employees at higher occupational levels are highly motivated than those at lower
positions. (Koontz 2006)

Benefits of job satisfaction

Investing in employee satisfaction programs can be costly; however, it should be
considered a worthy investment in employee health and well-being due to the several
benefits it yields for organizations. First, it can be seen as yielding ethical capital, as
promoting job satisfaction in the workplace is the “right thing to do” from a humanistic
perspective. Second, it can reduce the costs of employee turnover, which can include lost
productivity, temporary staffing wages, overtime pay, recruitment costs, and training
costs for new employees. Loyal employees are likely to stay at their jobs longer, resist
competitive job offers, refrain from actively seeking other employment, and recommend
the organization to others as potential employees and customers. There is a relationship
between job satisfaction and turnover intentions. These behaviors are leading indicators
of employee retention and are shown to positively influence the balance sheet. It is,
therefore, a reasonable assumption that the longer hospitals are able to retain their
employees, the longer they can avoid having to pay to recruit, replace, and train them.
Rather than focusing only on employee retention, it appears that healthcare organizations
can yield long-term benefits from continually building trust and improving employee

39
satisfaction by also focusing on increasing their employees’ organizational commitment.
Healthcare organizations are more likely to be successful competitors when they can
adapt to the realities of the current industry environment where success is dependent
upon innovation, quality of care, and employee dedication suggested that the true
potential of any organization can best be realized when the productivity level of all
individuals and teams are fully aligned, committed to organizational goals, and motivated
to successfully achieve those goals.

Relationship between Job Satisfaction & Morale:

According to Seashore (1959), morale is a condition which exists in a context
where people are :
a) motivated towards high productivity.
b) Want to remain with organization.
c) Act effectively in crisis.
d) Accept necessary changes without resentment or resistance.
e) Actually promote the interest of the organization and
f) are satisfied with their job.

According to this description of morale, job satisfaction is an important dimension

of morale itself. Morale is a general attitude of the worker and relates to group while job
satisfaction is an individual feeling which could be caused by a variety of factors
including group. This point has been summarized by Sinha (1974) when he suggests that
industrial morale is a collective phenomenon and job satisfaction is a distributed one. In
other words, job satisfaction refers to a general attitude towards work by an individual
works. On the other hand, morale is group phenomenon which emerges as a result of
adherence to group goals and confidence in the desirability of these goals.

Relationship Between job satisfaction and work behavior:

Generally, the level of job satisfaction seems to have some relation with various
aspects of work behavior like absenteeism, adjustments, accidents, productivity and
union recognition. Although several studies have shown varying degrees of relationship
between them and job satisfaction, it is not quite clear whether these relationships are
correlative or casual. In other words, whether work behavior make him more positively

40
inclined to his job and there would be a lesser probability of getting to an unexpected,
incorrect or uncontrolled event in which either his action or the reaction of an object or
person may result in personal injury.

Job satisfaction and productivity:

Experiments have shown that there is very little positive relationship between the
job satisfaction & job performance of an individual. This is because the two are caused
by quite different factors. Job satisfaction is closely affected by the amount of rewards
that an individual derives from his job, while his level of performance is closely affected
by the basis for attainment of rewards. An individual is satisfied with his job to the extent
that his job provides him with what he desires, and he performs effectively in his job to
the extent that effective performance leads to the attainment of what he desires. This
means that instead of maximizing satisfaction generally an organization should be more
concerned about maximizing the positive relationship between performance and reward.
It should be ensured that the poor performers do not get more rewards than the good
performers. Thus, when a better performer gets more rewards he will naturally feel more
satisfied.

Job Satisfaction and Absenteeism:

One can find a consistent negative relationship between satisfaction and
absenteeism, but the correlation is moderate-usually less than 0.40. While it certainly
makes sense that dissatisfied Sales Persons are more likely to miss work, other factors
have an impact on the relationship and reduce the correlation coefficient. E.g.
Organizations that provide liberal sick leave benefits are encouraging all their Sales
Persons, including those who are highly satisfied, to take days off. So, outside factors can
act to reduce the correlation.

Job Satisfaction and Turnover:

Satisfaction is also negatively related to turnover, but the correlation is stronger
than what we found for absenteeism. Yet, again, other factors such as labor market
conditions, expectations about alternative job opportunities, and length of tenure with the
organization are important constraints on the actual decision to leave one's current job.
Evidence indicates that an important moderator of the satisfaction-turnover relationship is

41
the Sales Person's level of performance. Specifically, level of satisfaction is less
important in predicting turnover for superior performers because the organization
typically makes considerable efforts to keep these people. Just the opposite tends to apply
to poor performers. Few attempts are made by the organization to retain them. So one
could expect, therefore, that job satisfaction is more important in influencing poor
performers to stay than superior performers

Job Satisfaction and Adjustment:

If the Sales Person is facing problems in general adjustment, it is likely to affect
his work life. Although it is difficult to define adjustment, most psychologists and
organizational behaviorists have been able to narrow it down to what they call
neuroticism and anxiety. Generally deviation from socially expected behavior has come
to be identified as neurotic behavior. Though it may be easy to identify symptoms of
neuroticism, it is very difficult to know what causes. Family tensions, job tensions, social
isolation, emotional stress, fear, anxiety or any such sources could be a source of
neuroticism. Anxiety usually shows itself in such mental state as depression,
impulsiveness, excessive worry and nervousness. While everyone aspires for a perfect
state of peace and tranquility, the fact is that some anxiety is almost necessary for an
individual to be effective because it provides the necessary push for efforts to achieve
excellence.

Factors influencing job satisfaction

Personality59 type, coping skills, fairness, trust, and organizational involvement
are factors specific to an employee that affect his or her job satisfaction. Yousef (1998)60
has suggested that a direct driver of job satisfaction is communication that moves freely
throughout the organization and includes those who may not be in a decision-making
capacity but, nonetheless, are considered part of the organizational family.

1.2.4 Leadership
Leaders who model the way demonstrate high standards and establish clear
expectations for individual performance. The Art61 of influencing and directing the
people in such a way as to obtain their willing obedience, confidence, respect and
cooperation

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 “Leadership62 is not a solo act”. Leaders should renew their teams. Even the best
teams should be refreshed periodically. The goal is to stay ahead of the competition by
staying ahead in the knowledge of current technology and the market.

Different leadership63 theories have emerged; most can be classified as one of

eight major types:

1. "Great Man" Theories:

Great man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent – that great
leaders are born not made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic
and destined to rise to leadership when needed. The term "Great Man" was used because,
at the time, leadership was thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of
military leadership. Learn more about the great man theory of leadership.

2. Trait Theories:
Similar in some ways to "Great Man" theories, trait theories assume that people
inherit certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories
often identify particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. If
particular traits are key features of leadership, then how do we explain people who
possess those qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using
trait theories to explain leadership.

3. Contingency Theories:
Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the
environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for
the situation. According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations. Success
depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the
followers and aspects of the situation.

4. Situational Theories:
Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based
upon situational variables. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for
certain types of decision-making.

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5. Behavioral Theories:
Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are
made, not born. Rooted in behaviorism, this leadership theory focuses on the actions of
leaders not on mental qualities or internal states. According to this theory, people can
learn to become leaders through teaching and observation.

6. Participative Theories:
Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that
takes the input of others into account. These leaders encourage participation and
contributions from group members and help group members feel more relevant and
committed to the decision-making process. In participative theories, however, the leader
retains the right to allow the input of others.

7. Management Theories:
Management theories, also known as transactional theories, focus on the role of
supervision, organization and group performance. These theories base leadership on a
system of rewards and punishments. Managerial theories are often used in business; when
employees are successful, they are rewarded; when they fail, they are reprimanded or
punished. Learn more about theories of transactional leadership.

8. Relationship Theories:
Relationship theories, also known as transformational theories, focus upon the
connections formed between leaders and followers. Transformational leaders motivate
and inspire people by helping group members see the importance and higher good of the
task. These leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also want each
person to fulfill his or her potential. Leaders with this style often have high ethical and
moral standards.

Styles of Leadership
Leadership style64, more than leadership traits, determines leader effectiveness.
Style is related to one's model of organizational behavior. The leader's style or manner of
dealing with the organization's members and communicating with them contributes to or

44
detracts from the group's overall functioning. Lippitt and White (1943) identified three
general approaches to these interactions: authoritarian leadership style, democratic
leadership style, and laissez-faire leadership style.

Authoritarian, or autocratic, leadership relies on legitimate, coercive, and reward

power to influence others. Sometimes these leaders are aggressive, parental, and
dictatorial in their dealings with the group. However, while these approaches often work
well in crisis situations, a constant use of this style can cause followers to be apathetic
and unproductive when the leader's back is turned. In other words, when a leader
constantly uses authoritarian leadership, the group members fail to develop a sense of
ownership of their work. They will work if they are watched, but perhaps since they do
not feel a part of the decision making process, they are not motivated to do more than
absolutely necessary. Also, they may become accustomed to the parental guidance of an
autocratic leader and rely on it for motivation.

Democratic leaders, on the other hand, share the decision making process.
Members tend to be more satisfied and less frustrated when they play a part in the group's
functioning. Sometimes the designated leader will still make the final decision after
consulting the group members, but they feel more validated if their ideas are considered;
and they are usually more motivated to implement the decision. Usually groups take
longer than individuals to reach a decision, but often the morale payoff is worth the
additional time. Lippitt and White found that "in general authoritarian groups were
highest in quantity, while the democratic groups were highest in quality of product and in
morale" (Stogdill, 1974, p. 205).

Laissez-faire leaders exert little or no influence on the group. In essence, these

groups are a collection of equals. Depending on the definition of leader, some would
argue that these groups do not have leaders.

As mentioned earlier, perhaps laissez-faire leadership would better be defined as a

function of group process rather than as an activity one person performs. Since no one
dominates the group, the members rely on each other for direction. This can work if the

45
individuals are capable and driven; however, it can fail if the group is unmotivated or
immature in the task. Lewin, Lippitt, and White hailed democratic leadership as the best
of the three styles, but no one style is indicated all of the time. Democratic leadership
works well when non stressful, moderate conditions prevail, but autocratic leadership is
more suitable during a crisis or high stress situation. Even the laissez-faire style can work
well if the group is self-directed and motivated.

Transactional leadership Theories

Transactional theories65, also known as exchange theories of leadership, are
characterized by a transaction made between the leader and the followers. In fact, the
theory values a positive and mutually beneficial relationship. For the transactional
theories to be effective and as a result have motivational value, the leader must find a
means to align to adequately reward (or punish) his follower, for performing leader-
assigned task. In other words, transactional leaders are most efficient when they develop
a mutual reinforcing environment, for which the individual and the organizational goals
are in sync.

The transactional theorists state that humans in general are seeking to maximize
pleasurable experiences and to diminish un-pleasurable experiences. Thus, we are more
likely to associate ourselves with individuals that add to our strengths.

Transformational Leadership Theories

The Transformational Leadership theory states that this process is by which a
person interacts with others and is able to create a solid relationship that results in a high
percentage of trust, that will later result in an increase of motivation, both intrinsic and
extrinsic, in both leaders and followers. The essence of transformational theories is that
leaders transform their followers through their inspirational nature and charismatic
personalities. Rules and regulations are flexible, guided by group norms. These attributes
provide a sense of belonging for the followers as they can easily identify with the leader
and its purpose.

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1.2.5 Power Distance
Power Distance66 is a measure of the degree to which people believe that it is
proper that power in a society is unequally distributed. While a small power distance
society tends to maintain equality among its members, a large power distance society
endorses inequality.

Individuals67 who have strong power distance value tend to feel less inclined to
trust others, prefer a more autocratic management style, and are less likely to participate.
On the other hand, individuals who have weak power distance value prefer open and
cooperative communication.

Power Distance68 is the extent to which people believe that power and status are
distributed unequally and accept an unequal distribution of power as the proper way for
social systems to be organized. Power Distance affects the amount of formal hierarchy,
the degree of centralization, and the amount of participation in decision making in
organizations.

69
Power Distance Index (PDI) that is the extent to which the less powerful
members of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power
is distributed unequally. This represents inequality (more versus less), but defined from
below, not from above. It suggests that a society's level of inequality is endorsed by the
followers as much as by the leaders. Power and inequality, of course, are extremely
fundamental facts of any society and anybody with some international experience will be
aware that 'all societies are unequal, but some are more unequal than others'.

In a high power distance cultures70 the following may be observed:

 Those in authority openly demonstrate their rank.
 Subordinates are not given important work and expect clear guidance from above.
 Subordinates are expected to take the blame for things going wrong.
 The relationship between boss and subordinate is rarely close/personal.
 Politics is prone to totalitarianism.
 Class divisions within society are accepted.

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In a low power distance culture:
 Superiors treat subordinates with respect and do not pull rank.
 Subordinates are entrusted with important assignments.
 Blame is either shared or very often accepted by the superior due to it being their
responsibility to manage.
 Managers may often socialize with subordinates.
 Liberal democracies are the norm.
 Societies lean more towards egalitarianism.

Subordinates and superiors71 consider each other as or less equal even there is a
difference in education level. The hierarchical system can always change depending on
the circumstances. The hierarchies are flat with a decentralized organization and a small
number of supervisors who are expected to be accessible for their subordinates. Within a
company the degree for unequal treatment is reduced to a low level. There is
interdependence between employer and employee. The salary range is narrow between
the top and bottom in companies. Subordinates expect to be consulted within the
decision-making process.

Power is centralized72 as much as possible in a few hands. For instance, in an

organization, the employees who do not have this power, (the subordinates), are expected
to be told what to do. It is likely that subordinates will feel uncomfortable if their input is
asked for. Also, they might perceive this as a lack of ability and knowledge on the part of
the manager asking for input. In high power distance cultures; visible signs of status are
important, and also expected. They contribute to the authority of bosses, and they are
often essential in helping people figure out how to communicate with each other, verbally
or non-verbally (how low does one bow, how formal does my language need to be, what
salutations do I need to use, what shoes should I wear etc. – all of this can be determined
at a glance in presence of visible signs of status).In low power distance cultures, people
are considered as existentially equal. The inequality is just one in roles, and is not
existential. Merit, what you do with yourself, is more important than the family that you
were born in. In organizations, subordinates most often expect their managers to ask for
their input. Privileges and status symbols tend to be frowned upon.

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 Power distance73 is a way to explain the handling of differences between groups
existing in a system of inequality. It reflects a culture’s attitude towards human inequality
which defines itself inside organizations through a manager subordinate relationship.
Where low power distance is present, managers and subordinates have egalitarian
relationships with access to near equal levels of power. High power distance thrives
inside hierarchical organizations where importance is placed on social status of
employees.

1.2.6 Uncertainty Avoidance

Uncertainty Avoidance74 is the extent to which individuals in a society tend to
avoid uncertain and ambiguous situations. People in strong uncertainty avoidance society
feel nervous in unstructured, unclear, or unpredictable situations, and may attempt to
create security and avoid risks; people in weak uncertainty avoidance societies feel
relatively secure, and will take risk rather easily.

Individuals75 who have high uncertainty avoidance value prefer to stick to

routines and are reluctant to absorb new ideas; individuals who have low uncertainty
avoidance value tend to accept changes and get more easily engaged in new situations.

Uncertainty Avoidance76 is the extent to which people are threatened by

uncertainty, unknown, or unstructured situations. Uncertainty Avoidance is manifested by
the clarity of plans, policies, procedures, and system in organizations. In high Uncertainty
Avoidance cultures, managers as well as employees rely on clear procedures, wee-known
strategies, and well-understood rules that help them reduce uncertainty and cope with
their discomfort with unknown situations.

The Managers77 perceive uncertainty as a crisis, respond more extremely, and try
to find solutions which involve a structuring that would reduce uncertainty. The effect of
Uncertainty avoidance in an organization is to make it more hierarchical and more rule-
oriented.

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Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI) deals with a society's tolerance for
uncertainty and ambiguity; it ultimately refers to man's search for Truth. It indicates to

49
what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable
in unstructured situations. Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising, and
different from usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such
situations by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the philosophical
and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth; 'there can only be one Truth and we have
it'. People in uncertainty avoiding countries are also more emotional, and motivated by
inner nervous energy. The opposite type, uncertainty accepting cultures, are more tolerant
of opinions different from what they are used to; they try to have as few rules as possible,
and on the philosophical and religious level they are relativist and allow many currents to
flow side by side. People within these cultures are more phlegmatic and contemplative,
and not expected by their environment to express emotions.

Uncertainty avoidance79 deals with a society’s tolerance for uncertainty and

ambiguity; it ultimately refers to man’s search for Truth. It indicates to what extent a
culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured
situations. Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising, and different from
usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such situations by
strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the philosophical and religious
level by a belief in absolute Truth; ‘there can only be one Truth and we have it’.

Uncertainty80 expresses the deficit that people tolerate ambiguous situations and
need formal rules. Uncertainty is “the extent to which the members of a culture fell
threatened by uncertain or unknown situations. One of the dimensions of national
cultures is to accomplish that they will create formal rules and believe in their
correctness. They will avoid anything that doesn’t go along with the rules and regulations
they were creating. Because of the fact that people don’t know what will happen on the
next day, the future is expressed as uncertain and this uncertainty causes anxiety. Anxiety
is “a diffuse state of being uneasy or worried about what may happen.”Anxiety is closely
correlated with stress and nervousness. People get into stress when they feel pressured by
time and/or uncertainty to accomplish a target or to solve a problem. That is the situation
when people become nervous as close the dead line comes. But anxiety doesn’t have
anything to do with fear which has an object and anxiety doesn’t have. The more cultures

50
feel anxious the more they express their emotions by using their mimic and gestures. To
show emotions might be better in the way for health because aggressions and all stored
emotions can be released. This can protect from heart diseases and helps to avoid typical
stress symptoms.

1.2.7 Safety Climate

The factors outlined by Zohar (1980)81 were related to strong management
commitment to safety and were indicated by:
1. Esteemed status or rank of company safety officers
2. Commitment to timely and appropriate safety training
3. Open communication between workers and management concerning safety
4. General environmental control and good housekeeping
5. A stable workforce with low turnover and seasoned workers.

Wiegmann et al. (2004)82 identified the following commonalities:

1. Safety climate is a psychological phenomenon that is usually defined as the
perceptions of the state of safety at a particular time.
2. Safety climate is closely concerned with intangible issues such as situational and
environmental factors.
3. Safety climate is a temporal phenomenon, a „snapshot of safety culture,
relatively unstable and subject to change.

Carder and Ragan (2003)83 found that statistically significant changes were
indicated by their survey, administered before and after specific actions were taken to
address shortcomings associated with safety climate.

Glendon and Litherland (2001)84 proposed that safety climate could be conceptualized as
operating on three levels:
 Operational – accessing factors impacting most directly upon work
performance and dealing exclusively with perceptions (e.g., Glendon &
Stanton, 2000; Wilson, 1998).

51
  Intermediate – comprising perception-oriented measures but with some
attitudinal items, reflecting generic factors, such as ‘management
commitment’ and ‘safety system’ (e.g., Clarke, 2000; Flin et al, 2000;
Williamson et al, 1997).
 Highest – using purely attitudinal measures (e.g., Donald & Canter, 1993;
Niskanen, 1994), which could tap into some aspects of safety culture.

Source: Christopher M. Holzner (2010), “Effect of Management awareness of safety

climate concept on organizational safety climate”, Louisiana State University
and Agricultural and Mechanical College, Unpublished thesis

Safety climate appears to be closer to operations, and is characterized by day-to-

day perceptions towards the working environment, working practices, organizational
policies, and management. Safety climate is a leading performance indicator that can
provide insight into safety performance before accidents have occurred. Managerial
variables have emerged as a primary determinant of safety climate in empirical research.
In order to investigate the mechanisms of that influence a theoretical model was
developed to test the relationship between management commitment and workers risk-
taking.

Safety climate to be important correlates to both the adoption and maintenance of

safety work practices. However, safety climate measures rarely address or evaluate actual
worker injury. The main differences in the definitions are that whereas safety culture is
characterized by shared underlying beliefs, values, and attitudes towards work and the

52
organization in general, safety climate appears to be closer to operations, and is
characterized by day-to-day perceptions towards the working environment, working
practices, organizational policies, and management. As many of the definitions of safety
culture and safety climate have common elements, safety climate may reflect the
underlying culture of the work-group or organization, although its focus is actually much
narrower than safety culture.

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