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PUDUCHERRY TECHNOLOGICAL UNVERSITY

CRYOGENICS & ITS

JAYAPRASATH G | SEMINAR REPORT | August 30, 2021

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude towards our professor Dr. KUMARA RAJA L for

giving me the nice opportunity to express my views on CRYOGENICS AND ITS

APPLICATIONS. From this, I earned lot of things such as Confidence, Communication skills,

report developing skills etc.

Next, I would like to thank my College and Head of Department Dr. ALAGUMURTHI N

for having this kind of subject for the students.

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ABSTRACT
In this seminar, we are going to discuss about cryogenics and also its applications.

Nowadays without cryogenics we can’t do anything in the field of engineering especially

Mechanical engineering. Basically, Cryogenics is the study of production of low

temperatures and also, we study the behavior of Materials at low temperatures.

The 13th IIR International Congress of Refrigeration endorsed a universal definition

of “Cryogenics” by accepting threshold of 120K to distinguish this term from the

conventional Refrigeration. Production of low temperatures one of the essential process

in cryogenics and e ill also discuss about methods in subsequent presentation.

One of the Main applications of Cryogenics is Cryogenic Rocket Engine. These

highly efficient engines ere on US-Atlas-Centaur. All Cryogenic rocket engines are by

definition ether liquid-propellant rocket engines or hybrid rocket engines. Rocket engines

burning cryogenic propellants remain in use today on high performance upper stages and

boosters. Rocket Engines need high mass flow rates of both oxidizer and fuel generate

useful thrust.

Cryogenics not only plays a vital role in rocket engines but also it has more

applications in the area of Medicine, and in the field of Manufacturing process and in

Electric field and n the area of Food Industry.

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CONTENTS

1. Introduction…………………………………………..

2. Production of low temperatures…………….

3. Cryogenic Rocket Engine……………………….

4. Applications of Cryogenics…………………….

5. Conclusion……………………………………………..

6.References………………………………………………

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Introduction
Cryogenics is the word which is originated from KYROS means cold or freezing

and GENES which means born or produced. It is not well defined at what point on the

temperature scale refrigeration ends and cryogenics begins. Cryogenics typically involves

deep freezing process and we can also define it is study of the production and behavior of

materials at very low temperatures around 123K. Low temperature environment is termed

as cryogenic environment, when the temperature is below the point at which the

permanent gas starts to liquefy. Permanent gases are the gases which can be in liquid

state only at very low temperatures. These gases at very low temperature are known as

Cryogenic fluids or Cryogens. For instance, Liquid nitrogen is one of the most

commonly used element in cryogenics.

Production of low temperatures

Higher temperature body to a lower

temperature body. This phenomenon is

known as conduction. Conduction can

occur between any and all forms of matter.

Whether gas, liquid, or solid and is

essential for the production of cryogenic

environments and temperatures. For example, from the figure, we say that the samples

may be cooled to cryogenic temperatures by immersing them directly in a cryogenic

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liquid or by placing them in an atmosphere cooled by cryogenic refrigeration. In either

case, the sample cools by conduction of heat to its colder surroundings

Evaporative Cooling: It is also one of the Method for production of low

temperatures. Evaporative cooling occurs because atoms or

molecules have less energy when they are in the liquid state

than when they are in the vapor, or gaseous state. When a

liquid evaporates, atoms or molecules at the surface acquire

enough energy from the surrounding liquid to enter the

gaseous state. The remaining liquid has relatively less

energy, so its temperature drops.

Thus, the temperature of a liquid can be lowered by encouraging the process of

evaporation. The process is used in cryogenics to reduce the temperature of liquids by

continuously pumping away the molecules as they leave the liquid, allowing the

evaporation process to cool the remaining liquid to the desired temperatures. Figure

depicts the Cryogenic evaporator which runs on the principle of above-mentioned

information. It has fins through which it can release the heat.

Once the desired temperature is reached, pumping continues at a reduced level in

order to maintain the lower temperature. This method can be used to reduce the

temperature of any liquid.

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Cooling by rapid Expansion (Joule Thomson Effect):

It is considered as one of the essential process for producing such cryogenic

temperatures. The Joule Thomson effect describes the temperature change of a real gas or

liquid when it is forced through a valve or porous plug while keeping it insulates so that

no heat is exchanged with the environment. This procedure is also called a Throttling or

Joule Thomson effect. This effect was crucial to the successful liquefaction of hydrogen

and helium.

A valve with a small orifice (which is called a Joule-Thomson valve) is often to

produce the effect. High pressure gas

on one side of the valve drops very

suddenly, to a much lower pressure

and temperatures, as it passes through

the orifice. In practice, the Joule-Thompson effect is used in conjunction with the process

of heat conduction.

First, a gas is pressurized and cooled to an intermediate temperature by contact

with a colder gas or liquid. Then, the gas is expanded, and its temperature drops still

further. Ordinary household refrigerators and air conditioners work on this principle,

using Freon, which has a relatively high boiling point. Cryogenic refrigerators work on

the same principle but use cryogenic gases such as helium and repeat the process in

stages, each stage having a successively colder gas until the desired temperature is

reached.

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APPLICATIONS OF CRYOGENICS

A Cryogenic rocket engine uses both cryogenic fuel and oxidizer as their

propellant. Its fuel and oxidizer are gases liquefied and stored at very low temperatures.

Now the cryogenics plays a vital role in liquefying those gases. The liquid oxygen (Lox)

used as oxidizer and liquid hydrogen (LH2) used as cryogenic fuel combination is one of

the most widely used because it offers the highest energy efficiency for rocket engine.

Oxygen remains at liquid only at temperature below -183 Celsius and hydrogen below ---

-253 Celsius.

They generating thrust by accelerating an impulse at high speed and the kinetic

energy is converted into kinetic energy by burning into the thrust chamber and

subsequent expansion in the nozzle.

PRINCIPLE BEHIND THE CRYOGENIC ROCKET ENGINE

❖ Newton’s Third law of motion.

❖ Law of conservation of momentum

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COMPONENTS OF CRYOGENIC ROCKET ENGINE

• Gas generator: A small proportion of liquid propellants are burned and its high

combustible exhaust gases are used to run the turbo pump unit. It is also called as

“small combustion chamber”. This type of machines is cost effective and it also

increases efficiency of the cryogenic rocket engine.

• Turbo pumps: It is the combination of turbine and pumps. It is used very

effectively for the purpose of expanding of hydrogen. They rotate at a speed of

14000rpm. There are to types of turbopumps are there 1. Centrifugal pump where

the pumping is done by throwing fluid outward at high speed. 2.Axial-flow pump,

where alternating rotating and static blades progressively raise the pressure of a

fluid.

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• Injector: It Pumps out the fuel from turbo to combustion chamber. It is very

important because it ensures the stability of the chamber. It is the most

challenging part of the cryogenic engine.

• Combustion Chamber: It is the most important stage of the cryogenic rocket

engine here the fuel and oxidizer combination take place. Fuel droplets (liq

hydrogen) enter the thrust chamber at high velocity and oxidizer too. Due to this,

increase of pressure up to 25000Kpa with release of thrust 15000lb done.

Combustion gases move towards the nozzle here the velocity is inversely

proportional to Area of the Nozzle.

Due to this enormous release of gases, Temperature of gases will be very

high. It goes around 3000-4000 Celsius. Achieving of more thrust is possible

due to release of combustion gases.

• Nozzle: In this Cryogenic rocket engine, Convergent-Divergent nozzle is

present. The nozzle is constructed in such a way that propellants are burned and

combustion gases are produced. Gases which exit the nozzle at supersonic

velocities. Pressure which are generated in combustion chamber during the

process of combustion used to increase the thrust which is very important for

propels the rocket towards the orbit.

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WORKING OF CRYOGENIC ROCKET ENGINE

• Cryogenic Engines are the engines which designed mainly for storing the fuel that

are in liquid state at very low temperatures, otherwise they would be gas at

normal temperatures.

• Rocket engines has to burn high combustible fuel to get the definite amount of

thrust. This can be achieved by using different valves and components.

• Pumps are the ones proved to increase the pressure and temperature of Liquid

hydrogen and Liquid Oxygen.

• Running of pumps achieved by adding turbine which operates on expanded

hydrogen. This expanded hydrogen was obtained by circulating the liquid

hydrogen around the Nozzle. So, the gases become very hot. Then, the hot gas is

sent to Combustion chamber. This process is known as EXPANDER CYCLE

• Limitations of this process are Liquid Hydrogen cannot be pumped at high speed

due to simple pump arrangement.

• Keeping those limitations into

consideration, Gas generator is

introduced. Here, as above

mentioned, small amount of

propellants (Fuel Oxidizer) burned

and these burned gases are used to

run the turbine at very high speed.

This cycle is known as GAS

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GENERATOR CYCLE. However, this cycle also has some disadvantages

because the exhaust gases which are coming from the gas generator totally lost to

the atmosphere. So, the greater efficiency is not possible in this cycle.

• This problem can be resolved by introducing new cycle known as STAGED

COMBUSTION CYCLE. In this cycle, Efficiency can be increased by diverting

exhaust from turbine to the Combustion Chamber.

• A small amount of oxygen

only for burning the remaining

hydrogen and these burning

`increase the pressure and

temperature and then mixture is

burned into combustion chamber.

• Above mentioned cycle

increases the thrust and specific

impulse. Specific Impulse is a

measure of how efficiently a

reaction mass engine creates

the rocket to create the thrust.

• To achieving greater efficiency, this cycle requires very expensive components

withstanding the high pressure and high temperature.

• High pressure gases come from combustion chamber are accelerated through the

convergent divergent nozzle.

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Above picture depicts the Staged Combustion cycle.

CHALLENGES IN MAKING CRYOGENIC ROCKET ENGINE:

• Thermal contraction

• Storage problems

• High density

• High reactive gases

• Overall Cost of propellants relatively high

• Diffusion of hydrogen in fuel tank

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Application of Cryogenics in Medical Field:

abnormal tissues

using extreme

cold

temperatures by

using liquid

nitrogen, carbon

di oxide or

argon.

➢ For Internal tumors, Liquid Nitrogen is circulated through a hollow instrument

called Cryoprobe. It produces a tip surface temperature of -70 Celsius.

Applications of Cryogenics in Manufacturing Field.

➢ Cryogenic Machining – It is the method of cooling the cutting tool and / or part

during the machining process and it replaces the oil-based CLF with Cryogenic

Cutting fluids to the local

Cutting region.

➢ Cryogenic treatment works

on Reamers, Tool bits, Tool

punches, carbide drills

reciprocating blades, Dies and cutting tools.

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➢ Cryogenic Hardening – In this treatment, the material is cooled to -185 Celsius

usually using Liquid Nitrogen

Applications of Cryogenics in Electric Field.

➢ Overhead Cables are difficult to transmit power, so underground cables are

used. But the underground cables are getting heated, that leads to wastage of

power.

➢ Superconductors could be used to increase power; throughput require

cryogenic liquids such as nitrogen or helium to cool special alloy containing

cables to increase power transmission

➢ SQUID are used in sensitive digital magnetometers and voltmeters.

➢ Super conducting electric motors are constructed approaching zero electric

loses.

Applications of Cryogenics in Food Industry

➢ Cryogenic freezing is used to freeze

the food at extreme high rate.

➢ The food is preserved by immersing

them into Liquid Nitrogen

➢ The liquid Nitrogen boils around the

food at a temperature of -196

Celsius and extracts a large amount

of heat

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Limitations of cryogenics

• Extra or additional controlling setup is required to monitor and regulat5e the

colling process.

• High initial as well as maintenance cost.

• Storage: Storage of cryogenic fuel is difficult as they expand when heated. So,

there is need for stronger tanks to handle such high pressures

• Production: Production of such cryogenic fuels is very expensive.

Conclusion:

There is no doubt that the Cryogenic had made a great impact on human life

and Societies. In each and every part of life, Cryogenics will be there. We have seen a lot

of application orientated from cryogenics like cryogenic rocket engines, cryogenic

hardening and also in the medical field. Though it has several advantages, it also has

some disadvantages like storing of cryogenic fuel is very difficult and also production of

such fuels is very expensive. But, In future there may be new improvement will come in

the field of cryogenics.

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REFERENCES:

• IRJET-V41808.pdf
• Aeron Classes
• Lesics
• Wikipedia.org
• isro.gov.in

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