BIOMATERIALS (BM-313)

LAB MANUAL

Name

Roll No.

Year

Batch

Department

Department of Biomedical Engineering

N.E.D. University of Engineering & Technology,
LEJ Campus Karachi – 75270, Pakistan

Biomaterials (BM-313)
Third Year Biomedical Engineering
 Index

Lab Date Objectives Page Signature

No. No.
 LAB #1

• Discussion and Lab Tasks:

1. Differentiate between grafting & scaffolding approach:

ANSWER:
Grafting approach involves the transport of bones/tissues from a donor site to another location
from the same patient or different patient Whereas in scaffolding approach, scaffolds (3D
porous. fibrous or permeable biomaterials) are used to repair or restore damaged tissues.
Biomaterials are used to fabricate these scaffolds.

2. Discuss how biomaterials can be fabricated and limitations associated with

these techniques.

ANSWER:
Biomaterials can be fabricated by the following techniques. These techniques also have some
limitations based on the factors that can't be controlled. These are as follows:

 Gas Foaming:

High pressure gas is used to produce pores within me scaffold

Limitations: pore size, porosity.

 Solvent Casting and Particulate Leaching (SCPL):

Polymer is dissolved in organic solvent, then porogens are added in solution that upon
evaporation of solvent creates pores

 3D Printing (Rapid Prototyping):

The 3D virtual object is created first using CAD software, then that virtual object is further
printed through a 3D Printer

Limitations: Pore size, Costly

 Electro Spinning:

High voltage electric force is used to draw charged threads of polymer solution on the collector
plate
3. Describe applications of each type of scaffold structure in terms of tissue
engineering as discussed in preceding lecture slides.

ANSWER:
Following an: the applications of each type of scaffold structure in tissue engineering:

 Hydrogels: They are applied as space filling agents and as delivery vehicles for bioactive
molecules. and as 3dimensional structures that organize cells and present stimuli to direct
the formation of a desired tissue.
 3D printed scaffolds: 3D printing provides tissue engineers with a way to design
scaffolds capable of mimicking the complex structures of the ECM and thereby providing
a microenvironment for cell attachment, proliferation. distribution and differentiation
with the potential to form functional tissue.
 Microparticles: They have therapeutic applications in a diverse range of clinical and
regenerative medical settings. They can be used as cell culture scaffolds; their innate
structure reduces the degradation of encapsulated biologically active molecules and also
allows their exploitation as a localized injectable delivery system.

4. Discuss about lab safety in general and secondly specifically for

biomaterials lab.

ANSWER:

 Lab Safety Rules (in general):

1. Always tie back hair that is chin length or longer
2. Never wear sandals or other open -toed shoes in the lab. Footwear should always cover the
foot completely
3. Always wear lab coat during experiments.
4. Avoid use of contact lenses within the lab
5. Avoid distracting or startling persons working in the laboratory
6. Never leave an ongoing experiment unattended
7. Use equipment only for designated purpose
8. Avoid skin and eye contact with any chemicals
 LAB #2

• Objective: “To Fabricate Poly Methyl Methacrylate scaffold”

• Abstract:
The goal for this experiment is to quantify the setting time of the synthetic PMMA which is
shaped by the polymerization of Methyl methacrylate (MMA) powder after the powder is
combined as one with a monomer (Acrylic Resin) and permitted to rest. The noted time was
discovered to be 11.5 minutes from the arrangement of the shape to the time it took for the
polymer to totally solidify.

• Keywords:
PPMA, Polymer, Acrylic Resin, MMA Powder, Poly Methyl Methacrylate

• Introduction:
PMMA is a biocompatible material, otherwise called "bone cement", which has been of
extraordinary interest to specialists in the field of biomaterials and dentistry because of its great
properties, like minimal expense, it doesn't contain possible unsafe subunits, is not difficult to
create, has a low thickness and other actual properties which likewise incorporate its setting time
[ 1]. The setting time for PMMA alludes to the adjustment of its actual state from a fluid state to
strong state once the polymerization of MMA has finished [2]. Figuring out the setting season of
PMMA is significant on the grounds that it assists the specialists with improving comprehension
of its material insight thus in the wake of manufacturing the PMMA platform we figured out its
setting time and contrasted it and other distributed outcomes.

• Materials & Methods:

1
1. Physical, mechanical, thermal, and dynamic characterization of carbon nanotubes incorporated poly (methyl methacrylate)-based denture
implant. J Compos Mater 2017; 51: 3931–3940.

2
2. Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine. Encyclopedia of Biomedical Engineering, 2019: 462-482
For the purpose of this experiment, we used Acrylic Resin and MMA (Methyl Methacrylate) in a
ratio of 1:2, i.e.: 1 part Acrylic Resin and 2 parts of MMA Powder (33.3% wt resin and 66.6%
MMA powder). MMA powder and Acrylic resin were used for the PMMA fabrication. Both the
materials were weighed separately in glass beakers and mixed in a petri dish using a stirrer. A
separate petri dish was used to form a thin layer or to mold the mixture, a safety pin was used to
check if the polymer has set and lastly a stopwatch was used to note the setting time.

• Results:
The setting time was noted to be 11 minutes 50 seconds.

• Discussion:
The manufactured PMMA takes some setting time of about 11 minutes and was additionally
warm on touch which shows an exothermic response has occurred. This is a characteristic
conduct or behavior of the PMMA in light of the fact that it is a polymeric material which ought
to have an exothermic response during its polymerization interaction [3]3. The setting time found
for the PMMA in the process is 11 minutes 50 seconds which can measure up to the all-around
existing distributed outcomes to discover what kind of MMA powder was utilized and
surprisingly the width for the dabs utilized as it is realized that B-Palacos 50 makes some setting
memories of 12mins which is normal for dots with a 50 micrometer breadth [4] [5]. The setting
times for various bone concretes can be somewhere in the range of 5-13mins relying upon their
organizations and the development cycle 4[4] [5]. There might have been a human mistake in
taking note of down the time on the grounds that the activity of jabbing or poking the polymer

3
3. Thermal and mechanical properties of hydroxyapatite impregnated acrylic bone cements. Polym Test 2004; 23(2): 145-155.

4
4. Biological and mechanical properties of PMMA-based bioactive bone cements. Biomaterials 2000; 21: 2137-2146.
should have been rehashed with no fixed stretches. 5 The prominent time might have conceivably
been not as much as what was recorded.

Conclusion:
Using 0.66g of resin and 1.20g of MMA powder fabricates a Polymethylmethacrylate scaffold
with a setting time of 11 minutes 50 seconds and possibly the diameter of the MMA beads is an
average 50 micrometers.

5
New aspects of the effect of size and size distribution on the setting parameters and mechanical properties of acrylic bone cements. Biomaterials
1996; 17: 509-516.
 LAB #3

• Objective: “FTIR Analysis of PMMA Polymer”

• Abstract: Poly methyl methacrylate PMMA is a generally utilized as a polymer with

different applications. Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy is utilized in the current
examination to notice the major groups of PMMA as far as conveyance and ingestion in the
spectral scope of 400-4x103 cm-1. We have obtained some infrared range to assess measure
of light the PMMA has retained or transmitted at every wavelength.

• Keywords: FTIR, PMMA, Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, Poly Methyl

Methacrylate, Analysis

• Introduction: Poly methyl methacrylate (PMMA) is monetarily the main individual from
a scope of acrylic polymers. It has brilliant optical properties, light weight, great mechanical
and substance properties and climate capacity. Because of the equilibrium of these
remarkable properties with cost productivity, poly methyl methacrylates are generally
utilized in design, medication, hardware, horticulture, paints, airplane, and auto businesses. [6]
In this reasonable FTIR will be utilized, which chips away at the wonders of Michelson
interferometer. This phenomenon works concerning the zero-path distinction and optical way
contrasts that cause the valuable and dangerous impedance between the light emission. The
objective is to quantify how much light an example retains at every frequency. Fourier
change infrared spectroscopy – constricted complete reflectance (FTIR–ATR) gives data
identified with the presence or nonattendance of explicit practical gatherings, just as the
substance design of polymer materials. Changes in the recurrence of retention groups and
changes in relative band forces demonstrate changes in the compound design or changes in
the climate around the example. [7] Along these lines, FTIR–ATR spectroscopy can be
utilized to decide the resultant surface science particularly following incited synthetic or
actual adjustments.

6
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/atr-ftir-spectroscopy
7
https://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_etd/send_file/send?accession=case1586535156011492&disposition=inline
• Materials & Methods:

1. FTIR spectrometer
Main Components of FTIR Spectrometer are:
• IR source.
• Beam Splitter.
• Stationary & Moving Mirrors.
• Sample Chamber.
• Detectors.
2. PMMA Polymer
3. Lab solution IR software.

Methodology:

1. Turn on the FTIR device. (Green light turns on)

2. Open the ATR quest in device and loosen the screw present in the quest.
3. Loosen the screw present in the quest.
4. With the assistance of your index finger and center finger take out the container from
the chamber.
5. A PC is associated with your gadget that will work the lab solution IR software.
6. On the screen a dark part is noticeable snap the range choice and a window will show
up.
7. Click instrument in the drop-down menu click initialize, yes then pause.
8. Some more alternatives will be empowered that implies your instatement has been
effective.
9. On the left corner you will discover three choices click on foundation examining and
calibration will happen.
10. As there is no material present inside the mission the calibration will happen as a result
of the presence of air.
11. Again, utilizing the center finger and index finger place the container inside the
chamber and screw it.
12. From the red lens eliminate dust particles utilizing a brush tool.
13. Place your PMMA material over the focal point, the sparkling surface ought to look
down and harsh surface ought to look up. The more slender and thinner the material
the better outcomes will be acquired.
14. After setting your material fix the screw barely sufficient that it comes in contact with
it.
15. On the product window you will discover empowered alternative that says sample scan.
16. Click sample scan to run estimation for your example.
 17. A chart will be obtained as for absorbance.
18. Right click to enable diagram of conveyance.
• Results:

Fig 1: Graph obtained between Transmittance and the wavelength

Fig 2: Graph obtained between absorbance and wavelength

• Discussion:
The Graph 1 is taken from the connection of first research paper. From chart 1 we notice a
fundamentally same pattern as example that we have gotten in the transmittance and wavelength
chart for PMMA polymer. The distinction between the portrayal of our outcome chart is that the
frequency is set apart at time frames cm-1. The reach resembles 4000, 3800, 3600, 3400 up to
500 cm-1. Chart 1 has timespans, 3500, 3000 up to 500 cm-1, first at 4000 cm-1 wavelengths both
the charts have a comparable example that is high however it plunges towards 3500 cm-1. After
3500 the pinnacles of the two diagrams again rise upwards yet chart 1 has a speeding up defeat at
3000 cm-1 that isn't found in our chart results. [8] After 3000 cm-1 the two diagrams have a
comparative conduct and they stay high until 1750cm-1. Chart 1 again has a sped-up destruction
at 1750 cm-1 and afterward it has ceaseless diversions in its waveform until 500 cm-1. While
result chart begins avoiding from around 1500 cm-1. The thing that matters is that our chart decay
at around 500 cm-1. While Graph 1 has ceaselessly expanding redirections at around 500 cm-1.

The Graph 2 is acquired from the connection of second research paper. Contrasting diagram
results and Graph 2. We see that they have high tops at 4000 cm-1. Then, at that point there is a
distinction in ruin of the two diagrams. Our outcomes have a slight dip after 3600 cm-1 while in
Graph 2 the defeat seems, by all accounts, to be after 3000 cm-1. [9] After 2500 cm-1 both the
diagram have comparable conduct until 1800 cm-1. After that chart 2 has an unexpected decay
and again ascend between 1800-1600 cm-1. While our outcomes depict that after 1700 cm-1 the
diagram begins avoiding between its high qualities and diminishes gradually after1000 cm-1.
Notwithstanding, diagram 2 shows gigantic avoidances between 1500-1000 cm-1.

• Conclusion:
In this experiment we have obtained the graphs representing the relation between the absorbance
and transmittance of atoms of PMMA across different wavelengths that shows the amount of infra-
red light absorbed or transmitted across a pure sheet (or block) of Polymethylmethacrylate
polymer.

8
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267380624_FT-IR_and_FT-
Raman_Spectra_and_Normal_Coordinate_Analysis_of_Poly_methyl_methacrylate

9
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/FT-IR-spectrum-of-PMMA-and-PAMMAm_fig8_275174558
 LAB #4

• Objective: “Fabrication of Porous Scaffold via Wax and Salt”

• Abstract: Porous Scaffolds can be characterized as a biomaterial with much porosity

and an enormous interconnected pore network, additionally mainstream in tissue designing and
can be utilized for bone recovery, development of host tissue and organ vascularization.
permeable framework shaped exclusively by warming wax and for permeable platform salt is
continuously added to the wax when it gets liquid fluid after some time both the platform gets
formed and turns out to be hard grip, relocation, tissue polymer framework utilized in
numerous applications for tissue designing like bone, ligament, tendon, skin, vascular tissues
and so forth.

• Keywords: Porous, Porogen, Scaffold, PMMA, Wax, Particulate leaching, Fabrication

• Introduction:
Porous Scaffolds with high porosity offer larger surface area for great cell attachment and
growth. In addition, a porous surface enhances a mechanical interlock between the scaffold
and host tissue.

• Materials & Methods:

The overall mass of the system is 3 grams. So, for non- porous scaffold, heat the 3 grams solid
wax in crucible until it starts to come in molten state. Then transfer it carefully into a mould.
Let it dry. For the preparation of porous scaffold:

3 ∗ 20
= 0.75 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
80

Now heat the 2.25 gm of solid wax until it starts to form a molten state. Particulate leaching
will occur now as salt starts to dissolve in water, which will make water impure so change the
water daily for best results. Because changing water daily will give a good chance for salt to
dissolve completely and we will obtain a good porous scaffold.

• Results: In the end, a 3 grams non-porous scaffold and a 3 grams porous scaffold with 20%
porosity is obtained
 Image 1: Left one is Nonporous and right onw is porous( fabricated material)
Image 2: Porous Material after 1 week of submerging in dihydrogen monoxide (water)

• Discussion: We have fabricated a 20% porous scaffold using molten wax as polymer
and salt as porogen. Over fabricated material is highly porous. One another experiment is
conducted in March 1997, in which a particulate-leaching method was developed to prepare
highly porous biodegradable polymer membranes. It involves the casting of polymer/salt
composite membranes followed by the dissolution of the salt. Poly (L-lactic acid) porous
membranes of controlled porosity, surface/volume ratio, and crystallinity were prepared with
sodium chloride, sodium tartrate or sodium citrate sieved particles. So, we can say that
solvent casting and particulate leaching can be used if you want to fabricate a material with
some desired pore size and geometry
•
• Conclusion: porosity can be controlled by porogen geometry, size, and
concentration, and this is an important advantage of this method.
 LAB # 5
• Objective:
“To study behavior of fabricated scaffold under compressive load.”
• Abstract:
A number of different processing techniques have been developed to design and fabricate three-
dimensional (3D) scaffolds for tissue-engineering applications. In this research mechanical
properties of scaffold fabricated by solvent casting and particular leaching technique were tested
by using Universal Test Machine (UTS). For this purpose, Porous and Non-porous scaffold were
tested. Smart test software used for graphical analysis. For the mechanical properties measured
test was performed in comparing means from all three independent sample groups. Excel statistics
software was used for statistical analysis. Statistical analysis of the results was used to compare
the stiffness and compressive yield strength. Statistical analysis confirmed that the non-porous
scaffolds had considerably greater stiffness and 1Pa yield strengths under compression loading
than those with a porous scaffold under testing condition.

• Keywords:
Compressive Load Biomaterial, PMMA, Scaffold, UTS, Porous material, Non-Porous Material

• Introduction:
Tissue-engineering techniques usually need the use of a porous, bioresorbable scaffold, which
serves as a 3D template for initial cell attachment and successive tissue formation there are many
techniques to fabricate a scaffold. A varied range of scaffold characteristics, like porosity and
pore size, have been reported with particular fabrication techniques. The scaffold structure should
protect the pore network when subjected to over loading and mechanical strength. This is
especially critical for load-bearing tissues such as bone and cartilage. By performing the
compressive strength test we can determine that how much load a particular material can bear
which determine an area of its application. Porous scaffold enhanced mechanical interlock
between scaffold and host tissue.
Manufactured as a scaffold using solvent casting and particular leaching method, at porosities
30% and 10% had demonstrated significantly improved compressive strength. The mechanical
ability of a synthetic biomaterial is critical for load-bearing applications. Currently available
scaffolds form by using salt and wax are considered to be malleable and fracture easily, making
them unsuitable in load-bearing scenarios.

• Material and Methods:

Universal Testing Machine (UTS) used for metal and non-metal mechanical properties
test. To determine the effect of the porosity on the compressive properties of scaffolds,
scaffolds were tested under the following two conditions. Porous and Non-porous. The
scaffolds were compressed up to a strain level. Young’s modulus (MPa) was calculated
from the stress–strain curve as the slope of the initial linear portion of the curve, with
any non-linear portion due to the initial settling of the scaffold neglected. Compressive
strength at yield was defined as the intersection of the stress–strain curve with the
modulus slope at an offset of 10% strain. For the mechanical properties measured test
was performed in comparing means from all three independent sample groups. Excel
statistics software was used for statistical analysis.

• Results:
The scaffolds with 30% porosity had compressive stiffness and yield strength was 3.46 and 2Pa
respectively. In comparison, the scaffolds with 10% porosity had compressive stiffness and yield
strength was 1.37 and 1Pa respectively. The Non porous scaffold had 2 compressive strength and
1pa Yield strength. Statistical analysis confirmed that the non-porous scaffolds had significantly
higher stiffness and 1Pa yield strengths under compression loading than those with a porous
scaffold under testing condition

Figure 1

Figure2. Compressive modulus, yield strength, and yield strain for scaffolds with porosity (10% 30%)
and non-porous.
Figure 3: Stress-strain curve for 10% porosity. Figure 4: Stress-strain curve for 30% porosity.

Figure 5: Stress-strain curve for non-porous. Figure 6: Stress-strain curve for non-porous
 • Discussion:
The typical stress–strain curve for scaffold specimens tested in Porous (30% and 10% porosity)
and non-porous condition. The curve shows the typical behavior of scaffold undergoing
deformation. Statistical analysis of the results was used to compare the stiffness and compressive
yield strength. T test for independent variables was used to check for differences between results
obtained from the two porous (30% and 10% porosity) and non-porous scaffold.
• Conclusion:
The mechanical properties of scaffolds with contained pores decreased gradually scaffolds with
non-porous. Compressive strength plays significant role for selection of scaffold with particular
technique so it is very significant to test the mechanical properties of material.

• References:
Hutmacher, D. W., Schantz, T., Zein, I., Ng, K. W., Teoh, S. H., & Tan, K. C.
(2001). Mechanical properties and cell cultural response of polycaprolactone scaffolds designed
and fabricated via fused deposition modeling. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research, 55(2),
203–216. doi:10.1002/1097-4636(200105)55:2<203::aid-jbm1007>3.0.co;2-7
 LAB # 6

• Objective:
“To prepare beads of polymer from sodium alginate that can permanently contact with living
tissues.”

• Abstract:
In this work we are targeting the demand of high-water content polymer which would be
biocompatible as well. We are making Sodium Alginate polymer which have these qualities. It
will be used as hydrogels, dental impression materials and as absorbent material for surgical
dressing. We use 1% concentrated Sodium alginate solution which is 1 gm and dissolved it in 99
ml distilled water with the help of magnetic stirrer for proper combination of molecules and for
proper entanglement and better crosslinks. Magnetic stirrer contains steel road for maintaining the
temperature of the solution. Then we pour this solution in another solution which is the
combination of 0.5gm of Calcium chloride (𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2 ) in 100 ml Distilled water. Finally, take the
solution in syringe and pour it into a white A4 paper. So, beads of our polymer will be formed.

• Keywords:
Sodium Alginate, Magnetic stirrer, Calcium Chloride, Hydrogels, Image J, Software

• Introduction:
Sodium alginate is one of the best-known members of the hydrogel group. Hydrogels have become
very popular due to their unique properties such as high-water content, softness, flexibility and
biocompatibility. The hydrogel is a water-swollen, and cross-linked polymeric network produced
by the simple reaction of one or more monomer. The ability of hydrogels to absorb water arises
from hydrophilic functional groups attached to the polymeric backbone, while their resistance to
dissolution arises from cross-links between network chains. Sodium alginate is a naturally
occurring anionic polymer typically obtained from brown seaweed. Alginate is used in many foods
and biomedical applications, due to its biocompatibility, low toxicity, relatively low cost, and mild
gelation. In the food industry, alginate is used as a thickening agent, gelling agent, emulsifier,
stabilizer, texture-improver. Nowadays, alginate is added to numerous kinds of food, such as ice
cream, jelly, acid milk drinks, dressings, instant noodles, beer, etc. Alginic acid is used in
pharmaceutical applications, it is added into tablets as a carrier to accelerate tablet disintegration
for a faster release of the medicinal component, in cosmetics due to its functionality as a thickener
and moisture retainer. For example, alginate helps retain the color of lipstick on the lip surface by
forming a gel-network.
• Materials and Methods:
We use 1% concentration Sodium alginate powder (1gm) in China dish and 99 ml distilled water
in beaker and put that beaker on the hot plate of magnetic stirrer for best mixing of sodium alginate
in distilled water as sodium alginate makes layer if it doesn’t mix properly and continuously and
magnetic stirrer also contain steel road which is maintaining the temperature of solution and we
did it in the solution in this way that it will not touch the walls of beaker and not the bottom of
beaker. We set the revolution per minute (RPM) of magnetic stirrer according to the requirement
not much fast and not too slow we use moderate speed for better mixing and set the low
temperature of hot plate as we do not require high temperature OR temperature in this practical.
Then we pour sodium alginate gradually in the distilled water and do this step until all the powder
of sodium alginate will mix in the distilled water. Then put this solution into the calcium chloride
solution which is hygroscopic and we make it by dissolving 0.5 gm of Calcium chloride (CaCl2 )
in 100 ml distilled water. After dissolving sodium alginate in calcium chloride solution, we use
syringe to soak the solution and put it in petri dish. So, the beads of hydrogel are formed. We make
beads of two different sizes one is large other one is small. We put them in separate petri dishes
and pour 10 large beads in the white A4 sheet and arrange them in a way that all beads should be
separated properly and set the steel scale in a way that we capture a picture properly in which all
the beads and scale can be seen properly and repeat the same process with small beads as well and
use those pictures in Image J software for their diameter and for the graph of standard deviation.
We use that data which come from Image J and transfer that into excel and make a graph of
standard deviation.

• Result:
We make beads of polymer (Hydrogels) from sodium alginate powder and distilled water. We took
the picture of those beads and find the diameter of those beads and plot the chart graph with
standard deviation.
• Discussion:
The ability of hydrogels to absorb water arises from hydrophilic functional groups attached to the
polymeric backbone, while their resistance to dissolution arises from cross-links between network
chains. Sodium alginate is a naturally occurring anionic polymer typically obtained from brown
seaweed. Alginate is used in many foods and biomedical applications, due to its biocompatibility,
low toxicity, relatively low cost, and mild gelation.

• Conclusion:
The Sodium Alginate hydrogel is a water-swollen, and cross-linked polymeric network produced
by the simple reaction of one or more monomer. The ability of hydrogels to absorb water arises
from hydrophilic functional groups attached to the polymeric backbone, while their resistance to
dissolution arises from cross-links between network chains. Sodium alginate is a naturally
occurring anionic polymer typically obtained from brown seaweed. We made sodium alginate
beads and studies their properties with ImageJ software.

• References:
Bhatnagar, J. V. ( 4-7-2014). Alginate composites for bone tissue engineering: A. Accepted Manuscript,
65.
Catherine K. Kuo!, P. X. (2001). Ionically crosslinked alginate hydrogels as sca!olds for tissue. Part 1.
Structure, gelation rate and mechanical properties, 11.
Chengdong Ji, N. A. (2011). Acta Biomaterialia. Fabrication of porous chitosan scaffolds for soft tissue
engineering using dense, 12.
Enrica Caló, V. V. (2015). Biomedical applications of hydrogels: A review of patents. European Polymer
Journal, 16.
 LAB # 7
• Objective:
“To observe FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared) Spectroscopy analysis of Sodium
Alginate.”

• Abstract:
In this lab, FTIR spectroscopy is used to quickly and definitively detect compounds such
compounded polymers, resins, and other materials. In addition, the bonding of these
components in a Sodium Alginate must be checked. The goal is to determine how much
light each wavelength absorbs from a sample. On a laptop, we created a graph using Lab
IR solution software. Finally, we compare at least two peaks of previous paper results with
our own.
• Keywords: FTIR; IR radiation; Sodium Alginate;

• Introduction:
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy:
• The absorption approach is used in FTIR. It obtains an infrared spectrum of a solid, liquid,
or gas's absorption or emission.
• The infrared spectrum of transmission or absorption of a fuel sample is obtained using the
FTIR method. The presence of organic, inorganic, and polymeric components in the sample
is detected using FTIR. Using spectrum data in automated spectroscopy software, the
specific molecular groups prevailing in the sample will be determined based on the infrared
absorption frequency range 600–4000 cm1
• Changes in the characteristic pattern of absorption bands clearly indicate a change in the
material composition.

Components:
Main Components of FTIR Spectrometer are:
I. IR source.
II. Beam Splitter.
III. Stationary & Moving Mirrors.
IV. Sample Chamber.
V. Detectors.
 Working:
FTIR works on the principle of Michelson Interferometer.
Which is using a beam splitter, a light source is split into two arms. Each of those light
beams is reflected back toward the beam splitter which then combines their amplitudes
using the superposition principle. The resulting interference pattern that is not directed
back toward the source is typically directed to some type of photoelectric detector or
camera. For different applications of the interferometer, the two light paths can be with
different lengths or incorporate optical elements or even materials under test.
Radiation from the sources reach the detector after it passes through the interferometer.
The signal is amplified and converted to a digital signal by the A/D convertor and
amplifier, after which the signal is transferred to the computer where the Fourier transform
is carried out.

Uses:
FTIR analysis is used to:
• Identify and characterize unknown materials (e.g., films, solids, powders, or liquids).
• Identify contamination on or in a material (e.g., particles, fibers, powders, or liquids).
• Identify oxidation, decomposition, or uncured monomers in failure analysis investigations.

• Materials and Methods:

In this fabrication material use are sodium alginate beads (hydrogels), the FTIR
spectrophotometer and Lab solution IR software.

• For FTIR analysis, thick material should be used.

• Carefully remove the ATR box (attenuated total reflectance).
• On your laptop, log on to the Lab IR solution.
• Select an instrument by clicking on it.
• Press the initialize button.
• A green button appears on the screen.
• Select BKG scan from the menu (background scan).
• The FTIR has now been calibrated.
• Carefully place the ATR box.
• Use a lens brush or wipes to clean the lens.
• Position Sodium alginate beads such that the even surface is in touch with the lens.
• Make a measurement by clicking on it.
• Select Sample Scan from the drop-down menu.
• A graph now shows.
• Select Transmittance from the context menu by right-clicking.
 Orange Beads with 2% conc.

Green Beads with 1% conc.

• Results:
The result is that there are 2 plots generated of 1% porosity of sodium alginate beads in which
one of absorbance and other one is of transmittance. The plots gives information about the
chemical bonding and breakage of bonding, as well as the type of bonding.

Chemical Bond Wavenumber cm-1

O-H 3200-3600

C=C 1500-1700
o Sodium alginate beads (with 2%):

Figure # 1 (FTIR Absorbance)

Figure # 2 (FTIR Transmittance)

o Sodium alginate beads (with 1%):

Figure # 3 (FTIR Absorbance)

Figure # 4 (FTIR Transmittance)

• Discussions:
Figure 1 shows that, there is a distinct absorbance band. The band from 1570 cm−1 to 1750
cm−1 shows some absorption. In both Absorbance graphs the peaks are the same at every
wavenumber. While sodium alginate beads with 2% concentration is finer than with 1%
concentration.
In figure 2, the bands from 2400cm-1 to 2440cm-1 shows transmittance at the specified
range of wave number. In both Transmittance graphs the peaks are the same at every
wavenumber. While sodium alginate beads with 2%concentration is finer than with 1%
concentration.

• Conclusion:
The first peak is at 3700, and the second peak is at 2400, both of which are identical to the
current result in both graphs of transmittance. The first peak is at 2380, and the second
peak is at 1700, both of which are identical to the current result in both graphs of
absorbance. This signifies that our Sodium alginate is tightly bound.

• Reference:
1. Nie, L., Liu, C., Wang, J., Shuai, Y., Cui, X. and Liu, L., 2015. Effects of surface
functionalized graphene oxide on the behavior of sodium alginate. Carbohydrate
polymers, 117, pp.616-623.
2. Wang, J., Liu, C., Shuai, Y., Cui, X. and Nie, L., 2014. Controlled release of anticancer
drug using graphene oxide as a drug-binding effector in konjac glucomannan/sodium
alginate hydrogels. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, 113, pp.223-229.
3. Thandapani Gomathi and 3*P. N. Sudha 1Department of Chemistry, Bharathiar University,
Coimbatore, Tamil nadu, India 2Department of Chemistry, SRM University (E&T),
Kattankulathur, Kancheepuram, Tamil nadu, India 3PG & Research Department of
Chemistry, DKM College for Women, Vellore, Tamilnadu, India.
4. Mitrevej, A., Sinchaipanid, N., Rungvejhavuttivittaya, Y. and Kositchaiyong, V., 2001.
Multiunit controlled-release diclofenac sodium capsules using complex of chitosan with
sodium alginate or pectin. Pharmaceutical development and technology, 6(3), pp.385-392.
5. Deepa, B., Abraham, E., Pothan, L.A., Cordeiro, N., Faria, M. and Thomas, S., 2016.
Biodegradable nanocomposite films based on sodium alginate and cellulose
nanofibrils. Materials, 9(1), p.50.
 LAB # 08
• Object:
“To observe FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared) Spectroscopy analysis of rock/table salt”

• Abstract: FTIR spectroscopy is used in this lab to detect chemicals such as compounded
polymers, resins, and other materials swiftly and unambiguously. The bonding of these
components in NaCl is also examined. The purpose is to figure out how much light a sample
absorbs at each wavelength. Using Lab IR solution software on a laptop, we constructed a
graph. Finally, we compare at least two peaks of previous published articles or research papers
results with our own graphs and interpret results.

• Keywords: NaCl, FTIR, spectroscopy, absorbance, transmittance.

• Introduction:
Salt is one of the first minerals that humans discovered and utilized. It has been used to sweeten
and conceal the lack of nourishment in older people. Salts are classified as lake, sea, rock, source,
or Himalayan salt depending on their creation. The emphasis of this lab is rock/table salt.
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy:

Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is a non-destructive and easy analytical technique
that only requires small amounts of sample to provide information about the sample and functional
groups of molecules based on the FTIR spectrum. The FT technique is the only method which is
rapid and can give the broadband absorption spectra of the sample simultaneously.

• Materials and Methods:

o Components:
Main Components of FTIR Spectrometer are: 1) IR source. 2) Beam Splitter. 3) Stationary &
Moving Mirrors. 4) Sample Chamber. 5) Detectors.
o Working:
The Michelson Interferometer is the basis for FTIR. A light source is split into two, using a beam
splitter. Each of the light beams is reflected back toward the beam splitter, which then uses the
superposition principle to combine their amplitudes. The part of the interference pattern that isn't
directed back at the source is usually directed to a photoelectric detector or camera. The two light
pathways in the interferometer might be of varying lengths or comprise optical devices or even
materials under test for each of the 15 applications. After passing through the interferometer,
radiation from the sources reaches the detector. The signal is amplified and converted to a digital
signal by the A/D convertor and amplifier, after which the signal is transferred to the computer
where the Fourier transform is carried out.
 o Uses:
FTIR analysis is used to:
 Identify and characterize unknown materials (e.g., films, solids, powders, or liquids).
 Identify contamination on or in a material (e.g., particles, fibers, powders, or liquids).
 Identify oxidation, decomposition, or uncured monomers in failure analysis investigations.

o Methodology:
We used IR Affinity – 1S FTIR SHIMADZU in our lab to perform this practical.

Figure 8.1: Equipment (IR Affinity – 1S FTIR SHIMADZU)

1. Rotate knot and carefully remove the ATR box (attenuated total reflectance).
2. Remove protection paper that is used for the protection of lens.
3. On your laptop, log on to the Lab IR solution.
4. Click spectrum.
5. Select an instrument by clicking on it.
6. Press the initialize button. (For calibration)
7. A green button appears on the screen.
8. Select BKG scan (background scan) from the menu to remove previous data.
9. The FTIR has now been calibrated.
10. Carefully place the ATR box.
11. Use a lens brush or wipes to clean the lens.
12. Place the material (rock salt) on lens and even it with brush in a way that it hides the lens.
13. Make a measurement by clicking on it.
14. Select Sample Scan from the drop-down menu.
15. A graph now shows.
16. Select Transmittance from the context menu by right-clicking.
17. Now perform smoothing to remove noise and unwanted peaks in graph.
18. Do smoothing by a difference of 5 points.
19. You can also magnify a specific peak.
20. If the sample is not homogenous then results fluctuates.
• Result:
Graphs Plotted:

Figure 1: FTIR Spectrum of lake salt (a graph from article)

Figure 2: FTIR spectrum of rock salt (Absorbance graph)

Figure 3: FTIR spectrum of rock salt (Transmittance graph)

• Discussion:
FTIR studies of the salts help in the identification of minerals present in the salts. The coupled
vibrations are appreciable due to availability of various constituents. The peaks come from water
in structure of sample. In figure 8.2, we estimated that 2360 value comes from carbon dioxide in
air and it has been shown in all samples (lake salt, sea salt, Himalayan salt, etc) used in article.
While in figure 8.3, a peak is present between 2400 cm-1 and 2200 cm-1 which means that it is
the peak which represents CO2 in air.

• Conclusion:
FTIR analysis is a useful tool for determining the functional groups present in the substance
under investigation. Using this approach on rock salt, we were able to observe bonding at several
wavelengths.

• References:
1. Yalçin, Ş. and Mutlu, I.H., 2012. Structural characterization of some table salt samples by
XRD, ICP, FTIR and XRF techniques. Acta Physica Polonica-Series A General
Physics, 121(1), p.50.
2. Kaya, A.A. and Erturk, K., 2019. Structural, spectral and optical properties of rocksalt Al,
Mn-doped CdO: experimental and DFT studies. The European Physical Journal B, 92(6),
pp.1-6.
3. Jiang, D.D., Yao, Q., McKinney, M.A. and Wilkie, C.A., 1999. TGA/FTIR studies on the
thermal degradation of some polymeric sulfonic and phosphonic acids and their sodium
salts. Polymer degradation and stability, 63(3), pp.423-434.
4. Nickolov, Z.S. and Miller, J.D., 2005. Water structure in aqueous solutions of alkali halide
salts: FTIR spectroscopy of the OD stretching band. Journal of colloid and interface
science, 287(2), pp.572-580.
 LAB # 09
• Object:
“To observe FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared) Spectroscopy analysis of octamethylene glycol.”

• Abstract:
In this lab, the behavior of the Octamethylene glycol is analyzed by FTIR analysis using Lab IR
solution software. It works on the principle of Michelson interferometer. By analyzing it, we will
know about the material chemical bonding. IR software scan the sample and give the plots of
absorbance as well as transmittance of the sample. If the graphs show peak to peak intensity, it
means material is properly fabricated, if not then it means there is no or weak bonding between
material because the peaks and its intensity shows the chemical bonding. It also describes where
the chemical bonding occurs and which part there is breakage of bonding and also define which
type of bonding like hydrogen bonding etc. After performing the experiment, the results are
obtained in the form of transmittance and absorbance graphs. Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy (FTIR) uses the mathematical process (Fourier transform) to translate the raw data
(interferogram) into the actual spectrum.

• Keywords: FTIR, 1,8 octane-diol, spectroscopy, absorbance, transmittance.

• Introduction:
1,8-Octanediol, also known as octamethylene glycol, is a diol with the molecular formula
HO(CH2)8OH. 1,8-Octanediol is a white solid. It is produced by hydrogenation of esters of suberic
acid. It is typically used as a monomer in the synthesis of polymers like polyesters and
polyurethanes, along with a preservative due to its bacteriostatic and bactericidal properties.
Biodegradable films are also synthesized with 1,8-Octanediol.
Application:

1,8-Octanediol can undergo:

• Polycondensation with citric acid to form biodegradable poly(1,8-octanediol citrate) (POC)

crosslinked bio-elastomer which can be blended with various additives.
• Fischer esterification with dicarboxylic acids to form diol-based macromers.
• As with other fatty alcohols, octane-1,8-diol is used in cosmetics as
an emollient and humectant.
• Materials and Methods:
We used IR Affinity – 1S FTIR SHIMADZU in our lab to perform this practical.

Figure 1: Equipment (IR Affinity – 1S FTIR SHIMADZU)

1. Rotate knot and carefully remove the ATR box (attenuated total reflectance).
2. Remove protection paper that is used for the protection of lens.
3. On your laptop, log on to the Lab IR solution.
4. Click spectrum.
5. Select an instrument by clicking on it.
6. Press the initialize button. (for calibration)
7. A green button appears on the screen.
8. Select BKG scan (background scan) from the menu to remove previous data.
9. The FTIR has now been calibrated.
10. Carefully place the ATR box.
11. Use a lens brush or wipes to clean the lens.
12. Place the material (1,8 Octanediol) on lens and even it with brush in a way that it hides the
lens.
13. Make a measurement by clicking on it.
14. Select Sample Scan from the drop-down menu.
15. A graph now shows.
16. Select Transmittance from the context menu by right-clicking.
17. Now perform smoothing to remove noise and unwanted peaks in graph.
18. Do smoothing by a difference of 5 points.
19. You can also magnify a specific peak.
20. If the sample is not homogenous then results fluctuates.
• Result:
Graphs Plotted:

Figure 2: FT-IR spectra of ODL, SiO2, and the ODL/SiO2 composites with different mass percentage of ODL (50%,
60%, and 70%). (a graph from article)

Figure 3: FTIR spectra of 1,8 Octanediol (Absorbance Graph)

 Figure 4: FTIR spectra of 1,8 Octanediol (Transmittance Graph)

• Discussion:
In figure 9.2, The FT-IR spectroscopy can give useful information about the molecule structures
and disclosures the interaction between the matrix of SiO2 and ODL (Octanediol). For ODL, the
peaks at 3393 cm-1 and 3324 cm-1 were assigned to the stretching vibration of the O–H group.
The multiple absorption peaks at 2935, 2921, 2889, and 2851 cm-1 were attributed to the C–H
stretching vibration of –CH3 and –CH2, respectively. The –CH3 asymmetric and symmetric
vibration occurred at 1480–1437 cm-1 and and 1370-1350 cm-1, respectively. The –CH2 scissor
vibration occurred at 1490–1440 cm-1. After comparing our transmittance graph of figure 9.4 with
figure 9.2, we observed the same peaks and bondings at specific wavelengths mentioned above so
it means that our results are matched accurately.

• Conclusion:
FTIR analysis is an effective tool used to identify the functional groups present in the studied
material. So, by using this technique on a 1,8 octanediol we have observed the bonding at different
wavelengths.
• References:
1. Ji, Y., Wang, X. and Liang, K., 2014. Regulating the mechanical properties of poly (1, 8-
octanediol citrate) bioelastomer via loading of chitin nanocrystals. RSC advances, 4(78),
pp.41357-41363.
2. Zailani, M.Z., Ismail, A.F., Sheikh Abdul Kadir, S.H., Othman, M.H.D., Goh, P.S.,
Hasbullah, H., Abdullah, M.S., Ng, B.C. and Kamal, F., 2017. Hemocompatibility
evaluation of poly (1, 8‐octanediol citrate) blend polyethersulfone membranes. Journal of
Biomedical Materials Research Part A, 105(5), pp.1510-1520.
3. Wang, C., Cai, Z., Wang, T. and Chen, K., 2020. Preparation and thermal properties of
shape-stabilized 1, 8-octanediol/SiO2 composites via sol gel methods. Materials
Chemistry and Physics, 250, p.123041.
4. Ren, H.H., Zhao, H.Y., Cui, Y., Ao, X., Li, A.L., Zhang, Z.M. and Qiu, D., 2017. Poly (1,
8-octanediol citrate)/bioactive glass composite with improved mechanical performance
and bioactivity for bone regeneration. Chinese Chemical Letters, 28(11), pp.2116-2120.
 LAB #10

• Objective:
To study the behavior of polyethylene under tensile load.

• Abstract:
This study aims to determine the behavior of polyethylene under tensile load using universal
testing machine (UTM) and Smart test software. This study also provides an introductory
discussion of several points needed to interpret the stress-strain curves, and in doing so will provide
a preliminary overview of several aspects of a material’s mechanical properties. Several factors
can affect the tensile behavior of material such as thickness, processing technique, temperature,
and strain rate. On the application of tensile force, several phenomena like conversion of elastic to
plastic region, necking and breaking of material is observed. Results are obtained in tabular form
and visualized using bar charts.
Keywords: Universal testing machine, Smart test software, polyethylene, stress-strain curve,
tensile strength.

• Introduction:
Polyethylene has many advantages as a biomaterial for medical implants and has been extensively
applied to the fabrication of porous high-density polyethylene implant for facial and cranial
reconstruction. Specifically for cranio-maxillo facial and orthopaedic surgery, healthcare has seen
demonstrated benefits from the development of PE as a biomaterial [1]. Polyethylene is the
world’s most widely used polymer in volume. Compared to other polymers, polyethylene has
outstanding characteristics such as toughness, abrasion resistance, impact resistance, low (near
zero) water absorption, low cost, and recyclability. There are three major grades of polyethylene;
low density, medium density and high-density polyethylene (LDPE, MDPE, and HDPE),
depending on molecular density and crystallinity of the polyethylene structure. High Density
Polyethylene (HDPE) has high rigidity, strength, and better creep behavior [2]. Tensile strength of
polyethylene can be checked by interpreting stress-strain curve obtained under the application of
tensile load by measuring parameters such as yield point, elastic modulus and breaking point.

Materials and Methods:

Tensile strength test of polyethylene can be performed by applying tensile load using universal
testing machine (UTM) and Smart test software. Young’s modulus, yield point, and breaking point
can be obtained by interpreting the stress-strain curve got after application of tensile load on
polyethylene.
To perform the test place polyethylene between the plates (use for tensile testing) with the help of
hard board and set the plates using remote in such a way that both the plates attach with
polyethylene sample, then tighten the knobs. To operate the software following steps can be
followed:
 1. Select parameter to tensile strength test.
2. Calibrate all the readings (load, extension, time and displacement) to zero.
3. Set the speed to 1mm/sec and click ‘Start’. The universal testing machine (UTM) will start
applying tensile force to the sample.
4. When graph reaches the breaking point, click ‘Stop’.
5. Go to ‘Data’ and select the file.
6. Click ‘Print’. File with extension (.xps) file will get printed.

• Results:
The stress-strain curves obtained for polyethylene are:

Figure 1: Stress-strain curve of SecB_Group B (Polyethylene)

 Figure 2: Stress-strain curve of SecB_Group D (Polyethylene)

MATERIAL YOUNG’S MODULUS YIELD POINT ELONGATION

mm AT BREAK
mm
Polyethylene (Sec_B group 0.035 0.135 0.38
B)
Polyethylene (Sec_B group 0.229 0.175 0.67
D)

• Discussion:
The point where the behavior starts to be non-linear is called the proportional limit. The local
maximum in the stress-strain curve is called the yield point and indicates the permanent
deformation. The corresponding stress and elongation are called yield strength and elongation at
yield. Beyond the yield point the material stretches out considerably and this region is called the
plastic region. The stress-strain behavior of a polymeric material depends on various parameters
such as molecular characteristics, microstructure, strain-rate and temperature [3]. Fracture
behavior of a material is determined by three factors affecting the failure mechanism: loading rate,
local stress, and temperature. Polynomial relations for tensile properties, including elastic
modulus, yield strength, and ultimate tensile strength, were developed as functions of temperature
and strain rate. Such relations can be used to estimate tensile properties of polyethylene as a
function of temperature or strain rate for application in designing parts with this material [4].
• Conclusion:
 Application of polymeric materials like polyethylene and their composites have been
increasing rapidly in designing of biomaterials industries, due to their advantages such as
lighter weight and resistant to corrosive environments, as compared to metals.
 Components and structures made of polyethylene are subjected to a variety of loadings and
environments, therefore, the importance of the effects of strain rate and temperature
increases and we can measure tensile strength of polyethylene by the method discussed
above.
 Stress-strain curves are an extremely important graphical measure of a material’s
mechanical properties and helps in the fabrication of desired material.

• References:
1. Paxton, N.C., Allenby, M.C., Lewis, P.M. and Woodruff, M.A., 2019. Biomedical
applications of polyethylene. European Polymer Journal, 118, pp.412-428.
2. Amjadi, M. and Fatemi, A., 2020. Tensile behavior of high-density polyethylene including
the effects of processing technique, thickness, temperature, and strain
rate. Polymers, 12(9), p.1857.
3. Murariu, A.C., Golubović, Z., Sedmak, A. and Kreculj, D., TENSILE BEHAVIOUR OF
POLYETHYLENE UNDER DIFFERENT LOADING RATES IN THE PRESENCE OF
IMPERFECTIONS ZATEZANJE POLIETILENA PRI RAZLIČITIM BRZINAMA
OPTEREĆENJA U PRISUSTVU GREŠAKA.
4. Smith, P. and Lemstra, P.J., 1981. Tensile strength of highly oriented
polyethylene. Journal of Polymer Science: Polymer Physics Edition, 19(6), pp.1007-1009.
 LAB #11

• Objective:
“To study behavior of Styrofoam under tensile load.”

• Abstract:
This study aimed to determine the behavior of Styrofoam under tensile strength. A variety of tensile tests
were performed using plate-type specimens made of rectangular plaques. Several factors can affect the
tensile behavior such as thickness, processing technique, temperature, and strain rate. Tensile properties,
including elastic modulus, yield strength, and ultimate tensile strength, were obtained for all conditions.
Tensile properties significantly reduced by increasing temperature while elastic modulus and ultimate
tensile strength linearly increased at higher strain rates. Square sheets of extrusion grade Styrofoam were
biaxially stretched using a laboratory biaxial stretcher. Stretching increased tensile strength and
elongation at break significantly, which indicated an improvement in the toughness of the oriented
Styrofoam sheets. The method is to perform the test place styrofoam polymer between the plates of
universal testing machine (UTM) and set the plates using remote in such a way that both the plates attach
with styrofoam sample. And observed the behavior of styrofoam on smart test software and obtaining the
stress-strain curve.

• Keywords:
Styrofoam, tensile load, tensile strength, polymeric tensile properties

• Introduction:
Application of polymeric materials have been increasing rapidly in different industries, such as the
automotive industry, due to their advantages such as lighter weight and resistant to corrosive
environments, as compared to metals. Polymer mechanical properties can be enhanced by uniaxial or
biaxial orientation. Orientation to moderate levels improves the ductility of polymers such as styrofoam,
polystyrene (PS) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET).[1]. For sufficiently low stresses and strains, the
polymeric material behaves as a linear elastic solid. The point where the behavior starts to be non-linear is
called the proportional limit. The local maximum in the stress-strain curve is called the yield point and
indicates the permanent deformation. The corresponding stress and elongation are called yield strength
and elongation at yield. Beyond the yield point the material stretches out considerably and this region is
called the plastic region. The stress-strain behavior of a polymeric material depends on various
parameters such as molecular characteristics, microstructure, strain-rate and temperature.[2]

• Materials and methods:

Tensile strength test of Styrofoam can be performed by applying tensile load using universal
testing machine (UTM) and Smart test software. Young’s modulus, yield point, and breaking point
can be obtained by interpreting the stress-strain curve got after application of tensile load on
Styrofoam.
To perform the test place Styrofoam between the plates (use for tensile testing) with the help of
hard board and set the plates using remote in such a way that both the plates attach with Styrofoam
sample, then tighten the knobs. To operate the software following steps can be followed:
1. Select parameter to tensile strength test.
2. Calibrate all the readings (load, extension, time and displacement) to zero.
3. Set the speed to 0.5 mm/sec and click ‘Start’. The universal testing machine (UTM) will
start applying tensile force to the sample.
4. When graph reaches the breaking point, click ‘Stop’.
5. Go to ‘Data’ and select the file.
6. Click ‘Print’. File with extension (.xps) file will get printed.

• Results:
The stress-strain curves obtained for Styrofoam are:

Figure 1: Stress-strain curve of SecB_Group A (Styroform)

 Figure 2: Stress-strain curve of SecB_Group C (Styroform)

MATERIAL YOUNG’S MODULUS YIELD POINT ELONGATION

mm AT BREAK
mm
Styrofoam (Sec_B group 0.375 0.15 0.0045
A)
Styrofoam (Sec_B group 0.45 0.33 0.01
C)

• Discussion:
An increasing trend of Young’s modulus with fiber loading was observed while tensile strength and
deformation at break were found to decrease. The high impact polystyrene (HIPS) led to an increasing
trend of stiffness with fiber content, while tensile strength and deformation at break were found to
decrease. All composites displayed ductile behavior under both quasi-static and impact loading conditions
[3]. The increase in tensile strength and elongation at break, it can be projected that stretching improved
significantly the toughness. The mechanical properties do not change much above a stretch ratio of 3,
even though higher orientation can be achieved at higher stretch ratio. Fracture behaviour of a material is
determined by three factors affecting the failure mechanism: loading rate, local stress, and temperature.[4]
 • Conclusion:
As conclusions, following remarks can be drawn:
 Styrofoam is the most employed aromatic thermoplastic polymer. PS finds a wide range of
application from food contact packaging to thermal insulator in buildings.
 Styrofoam is water resistant, light weight and easy to stack. It has a superior insulation which
protects produce from temperature changes and dimensional stability and recovery.
 Tensile tests are used to determine how materials will behave under tension load. In a simple
tensile test, a sample is typically pulled to its breaking point to determine the ultimate tensile
strength of the material.

• References:
1. El Fray, M., Prowans, P., Puskas, J.E. and Altstädt, V., 2006. Biocompatibility and fatigue
properties of Polystyrene− Polyisobutylene− Polystyrene, an emerging thermoplastic elastomeric
biomaterial. Biomacromolecules, 7(3), pp.844-850.
2. van Kooten, T.G., Spijker, H.T. and Busscher, H.J., 2004. Plasma-treated polystyrene surfaces:
model surfaces for studying cell–biomaterial interactions. Biomaterials, 25(10), pp.1735-1747.
3. Zhang, X. and Ajji, A., 2003. Biaxial orientation behavior of polystyrene: Orientation and
properties. Journal of applied polymer science, 89(2), pp.487-496.
4. Antich, P., Vázquez, A., Mondragon, I. and Bernal, C., 2006. Mechanical behavior of high impact
polystyrene reinforced with short sisal fibers. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing,
37(1), pp.139-150.