GENERAL ARTICLE

Heisenberg’s Invention of Matrices

Pradeep Kumar

Richard Feynman once said: “nobody understands quantum

mechanics”. Still, those who devised it are perhaps the ones
closest to understanding their creation. It suggests that when-
ever the weirdness of quantum mechanics haunts you, it is
better to go back to its creators in terms of their original
publications. In the present article, the author has tried to
seek help from Heisenberg’s 1925 paper, in order to reduce
the weirdness of going from classical observables to quantum Pradeep Kumar works as
operators. Assistant Professor at the
Department of Chemistry,
It is well known that quantum mechanics was formulated in two Malaviya National Institute
different mathematical forms, one of which is known as ‘matrix of Technology, Jaipur. He is
working in the field of
mechanics’ and the other as ‘wave mechanics’. Initially, there
electronic structure
was a divided opinion about which of these formulations repre- calculation, quantum
sent a more appropriate approach for quantum mechanics. A fa- dynamics, and their
mous anecdote involving the tense debate between Schrödinger applications in atmospheric
science and spectroscopy.
and Heisenberg in Munich during Schrödinger’s talk illustrates
the differences between these two schools of thoughts (Box 1).
However, it was soon shown by none other than Schrödinger him- Keywords
self that these two formulations are mathematically equivalent. Matrix mechanics, wave mechan-
ics, Fourier expansion, hydrogen
atom, orbit.

Box 1. Schrödinger and Heisenberg – First Encounter

In 1926, Sommerfeld had invited Schrödinger to Munich to deliver two lectures on his wave mechanics.
Heisenberg also went there as audience, and the first ever encounter between Schrödinger and Heisenberg
took place. During the second lecture, Heisenberg attacked Schrödinger about how matter interacts with
radiation through quantum jump. But the audience was in favor of Schrödinger, and in fact the convener
(Wein) asked Heisenberg to sit down and be quiet. Later on, he told Heisenberg that his physics, and “with
it all such nonsense as quantum jumps” was finished.

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Box 2. Hidden Symmetry in Hydrogen Atom

Quantum mechanical state of hydrogen atom is characterized by four quantum numbers – principal (n),
azimuthal (l), magnetic (m), and spin (s). But energy depends on only n, and is independent of the other
three quantum numbers. This fact is usually explained by invoking the symmetry present in hydrogen
atom. The non-dependency of energy on m is attributed to the spherical symmetry of hydrogen atom, but
non-dependency on l is not an obvious symmetry. this non-obvious symmetry is known as ‘hidden’ or
‘dynamical’ symmetry.

Curiously, modern quantum mechanics books (especially related

to chemistry) do not provide detailed descriptions of matrix me-
chanics. This could be attributed to the fact that Schrödinger wave
equation is easier to visualize, while matrix mechanics is far more
abstract. Nevertheless, matrix mechanics method sometimes has
certain advantages over Schrödinger wave equation method. For
1 See K S Mallesh etal., Sym- example, the hidden or dynamical symmetry1 of hydrogen atom
metries and Conservation Laws is not at all obvious using Schrödinger wave equation, whereas
in Classical and Quantum Me-
without invoking it one cannot solve the hydrogen atom problem
chanics, Vol.16, No.3, pp 254–
273,2011. using matrix mechanics method (Box 2).
In the present work, the author does not intend to compare the
merits and demerits of these two methods. Instead, the aim is to
emphasize certain advantages of matrix mechanics in understand-
ing few basic concepts of quantum mechanics, for example, intro-
duction of quantum operators. By going through matrix mechan-
ics formulation, it becomes apparent that position and momen-
tum should be thought of as mathematical concepts, rather than
actual existing observables, like in classical mechanics. Author’s
Hidden or dynamical personal experience is, by introducing certain basic formulations
symmetry of hydrogen of matrix mechanics in early classes, students find quantum me-
atom is not at all obvious chanics less weird. Most of these strange but basic concepts can
using Schrödinger wave
equation. be understood from Heisenberg’s famous 1925 paper, which is
considered as the birth of modern quantum mechanics.

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Box 3. Spectrum of Hydrogen Atom

First good quality spectra of hydrogen atom was recorded in 1853 by Anders Ångström. After 32 years, in
2
1885, Balmer recognized a pattern in the spectra and gave the Blamer formula: λ = B m2m−22 . Later, Rydberg
1 1 1 1
generalized this formula to: λ = R ( m2 − n2 ). First successful theoretical explanation of Rydberg formula
was given by Bohr–Sommerfeld model, which is now known as ‘old quantum mechanics’. Although,
the old quantum mechanics was able to explain a lot of facts regarding hydrogen atom spectra, including
splitting of spectral lines in presence of electric field (Stark effect), it was still not able to explain quite a
few experimental observations such as, splitting of spectral lines in presence of magnetic field (anomalous
Zemman effect), presence of hyperfine spectral lines structure and hydrogen atom in presence of crossed
electric and magnetic field, etc. Old quantum mechanics was also inadequate to answer why intensity of
spectral lines in atomic spectra are different!

Box 4. Hydrogen Atom in Classical Domain

According to classical electrodynamics, orbits of electrons are periodic with periodicity being related to
the harmonics of mechanical frequency, i.e., ω, 2ω, etc. As the electron emits electromagnetic radiation, it
looses energy. Consequently, radius of orbit becomes smaller, i.e., it exhibits a spiral motion. Although, if
the loss of energy is much lesser compared to that of electron’s energy, one can neglect the dissipation and
electronic motion can be assumed to be periodic.

Heisenberg was trying to understand the spectrum of the hydro-

gen atom (Box 3). Classically, with certain approximations, one
expects the spectrum for high energy hydrogen atom to be har-
monic (Box 4). This fact can be represented by Fourier expansion
of position as follows, By going through matrix
mechanics formulation,

∞ it becomes apparent that
x(t) = an (ω) exp (−inωt) . (1) the position and
n=0 momentum should be
thought of as
Here an can be related to the intensities of the corresponding har- mathematical concepts
monics. In the high quantum number limit, the hydrogen atom rather than actual
existing observables like
do exhibit a harmonic spectrum.
 For example, if we use Rydberg in classical mechanics.
formula: En1 −n2 = R ∗ n12 − n12 to calculate transition frequencies
1 2
from n1 = 500 to n2 = 499, 498, 497, 496, and if n500−499 = ω0

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 GENERAL ARTICLE

It is important to note then other transition frequencies in terms of ω0 are 2ω0 , 3ω0 , and
that quantum mechanics 4ω0 respectively.
only accounts the
observable quantities. Heisenberg started with this analogy. He asked the question that if
classically, the frequency and intensity of emitted radiations con-
tain information of underlying motion of electron, then why not
expect the same from quantum mechanics. Therefore, he thought
about the reverse problem and tried to form quantum mechani-
cal position (xqm (t)) and momentum from an (ω), and exp (−inωt).
Heisenberg started with two observables in case of hydrogen atom,

1. The transition frequency (n1 to n2 ).

2. The transition intensities.

It is important to note that quantum mechanics only accounts the

observable quantities. For example, as the orbit of the hydrogen
atom was not an observable quantity, Heisenberg did not put any
attempt to give any physical meaning to it. So, Heisenberg had
two pieces of information in his hand – the transition intensities
a (n1 , n2 ) and transition frequencies ω (n1 , n2 ). It is obvious that
these quantities are 2-index objects as compared to their classical
counterparts which are typically 1-index objects. Heisenberg re-
alized that the quantum mechanical position should be mathemat-
ically related to these 2-index objects, a(n1 , n2 ) exp (−inω(n1 , n2 )t).
So, he already had the idea that position in quantum mechanics
can have a very different meaning, and he was also able to define
xqm mathematically. Then he tried to discover the algebra of this
object by exploring the multiplication of two xqm . To discover
that he again turned to the classical counterpart x2 . Classically,
⎛∞ ⎞2
⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟
x(t) 2
= ⎜⎜⎜⎝ an (ω) exp (−inωt)⎟⎟⎟⎠
n=0

∞ 
∞
= an (ω)am (ω) exp {−i (n + m) ωt}
m=0 n=0
∞
= α p (ω) exp (−ipωt) , (2)
p=0

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where,

∞
α p (ω) = an (ω)a p−n . (3)
n=0

So classically, x(t)2 is again a Fourier series, whose coefficients

are given by (3). It seems logical at this point to expect that sim-
ilar to its classical counterpart, quantum mechanically, xqm (t)2

should also be a Fourier series, i.e., xqm (t)2 = ∞ m,n=0 αm,n
exp (−ipω(m, n)t). But the question is how, the new Fourier coef-
ficients (am,n ) and frequencies (ωm,n ) are related to the Fourier co-
efficients corresponding to the expansion of x(t)?2 To explore this 2 See how the classical-
relation, Heisenberg again looked towards another experimental quantum correspondence
plays very important role in
observation known as the Ritz combination principle which says,
the formulation of matrix
mechanics.
ω(m, n) = ω(m, n1 ) + ω(n1 , n). (4)

So, the multiplication of two 2-index objects should be in accord

with the Ritz principle. Hence the only way 2-index objects can
be multiplied should be as follows,

a(m, n1 ) exp (−inω(m, n1 )t) ∗ a(n1 , n) exp (−inω(n1 , n)t)

= a(m, n) exp (−inω(m, n)t) ,

and in general,

∞
a(m, n) exp (−inω(m, n)t) = a(m, n1 ) exp (−inω(m, n1 )t)
n1=1
× a(n1 , n) exp (−inω(n1 , n)t) .

Thus, from simply analyzing x(t)2 , Heisenberg discovered the al-

gebra of these new 2-index objects. Another very important thing
that Heisenberg observed was the non-commutability of differ-
ent quantum mechanical observables. If we take two observables Another very important
xqm (t), yqm (t), then contrary to classical mechanics, their product thing Heisenberg
observed was the
xqm (t)yqm (t) need not be always equal to yqm (t)xqm (t). Now, let us
non-commutability of
put this algebra in a more modern way so that it becomes familiar. different quantum
The expression xqm (t) can be arranged in the form of an array, mechanical observables.

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⎡ ⎤
⎢⎢⎢q11 , q12 , q13 , · · ·⎥⎥⎥
⎢⎢ ⎥⎥
xqm (t) = ⎢⎢⎢⎢⎢q21 , q22 , q23 , · · ·⎥⎥⎥⎥⎥ ,
⎢⎣ . .. .. . . ⎥⎦
.. . . .
where q(m, n) = a(m, n) exp (−inω(m, n)t).
Perhaps this rivalry and
Now, one can see that if this array is multiplied in Heisenberg’s
hatred towards
Schrödinger’s approach way, then this array is an example of matrix which can be found
to interpret quantum in any undergraduate mathematics book. It is obvious now that
mechanics, inspired these 2-index objects represent matrices. We know that matrices
Heisenberg to formulate do not commute always as Heisenberg noticed. Historical fact
his most precious
contribution to physics – is, Heisenberg did not know that he was replacing the classical
the ‘uncertainty numbers with matrices. It was Heisenberg’s mentor Born who
principle’. recognized that these were actually matrices, and within a few
months, with the help of his assistant Pascal Jordan and Heisen-
berg, he was able to present a more robust formalism of quantum
mechanics in terms of these new 2-index objects or matrices. This
formulation is known as the ‘matrix mechanics method’. The
importance of Heisenberg’s discovery lies in the replacement of
classical numbers by matrices. As a result, the classical observ-
ables should be replaced by quantum operators represented by
matrices. Another corollary was the translation and reinterpreta-
tion of all the classical concepts like position and momentum into
this new quantum world. Expectedly, the title of Heisenberg’s
paper was “A quantum-theoretical re-interpretation of kinematic
and mechanical relations”. Heisenberg was certain that this new
mechanics should be understood in terms of observables only,
and that any kind of visualization should have no place. When
Schrödinger formulated his wave-mechanics and offered a visu-
alization in terms of his wave-packets, Heisenberg was very up-
3 See S Lakshmibala, Heisen- set. He knew that although Schrödinger’s formulation was math-
berg, Matrix Mechanics, and ematically correct, still there was something wrong in his inter-
the Uncertainty Principle,
pretation. Perhaps this rivalry and hatred toward Schrödinger’s
Vol.9, No.8, pp.46–56, 2004.
approach to interpret quantum mechanics inspired Heisenberg to
formulate his most precious contribution to physics – the ‘uncer-
tainty principle’3 . In the next part of this article, the author will
explore the Heisenberg commutation relation in the light of his-

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torical Born and Jordan 1925 paper, along with the formulation
of uncertainty principle.

Summary

Whenever we proceed from the known into the unknown, we may

hope to understand, but we may have to learn at the same time a
new meaning of the word ‘understanding’.

W Heisenberg

Address for Correspondence

Pradeep Kumar
Suggested Reading
Department of Chemistry
[1] W Heisenberg, The Physical Principles Of the Quantum Theory, Dover Publica- MNIT Jaipur, Jaipur 302 017,
tions, New York, 1949. India.
[2] B L Van Der Waerden, Sources of Quantum Mechanics, Edited by Dover, New Email:
York, 1968. [email protected]
[3] G Gamow, Thirty Years That Shook Physics: The Story of Quantum Theory,
Dover Publications, New York, 1966.
[4] S Tomonaga, Quantum Mechanics, North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1962.

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