Tutorial

2
Integration
What is Calculus?
The relation of very
Differential calculus small changes of
Differentiation different quantities

微分 y
f ( x + Dx )
Calculus dy f ( x + Dx ) - f ( x )
= lim Dy

微積分 dx Dx®0 Dx f ( x)
Dx

x x + Dx x

Integral calculus Adding a large amount of

Integration small quantities to find the sum
積分
&N )
y= ∫ ()
f x dx =lim (( ∑ f (xi )(xi+1 − xi ) ++
N →∞ ' i=0 *
Why we need these?
 Antiderivatives, Indefinite
Integrals and Slope Fields

斧山
 Differential Equations (微分方程)

A differential equation is an equation to solve for an unknown

function which involves derivatives of the function

Differential equations play a prominent role in physics and

many other disciplines

Example: Find y as a function of x which satisfies

y¢ = 2 x
Solution:
y = x2 y = x2 - 3 y = x2 + 2
General solution: y = x2 + C
where C is an arbitrary constant
 If we have some more information we can find C

Example:
Given y ¢ = 2 x and y = -2 when x = 1, find y as a function of x

y = x2 + C
-2 = 12 + C This is called an initial value problem
We need the initial condition to find C
C = -3
y = x2 - 3

A differential equation becomes an initial value problem

when you are given the initial condition and asked to find
the solution
Are we sure that this family of functions already includes all
the solutions to the differential equation?
Yes, it does include all solutions when the right hand side
depends on x only (but not y)
Proof:
dy
For differential equation of the form = f ( x)
dx
where f is an arbitrary function

we consider any two functions F(x) and G(x), both being

the solution of the differential equation:
d d
F ( x) = f ( x) G ( x) = f ( x)
dx dx
Construct the function H ( x) = F ( x) - G ( x)
d d d
then H ( x) = F ( x) - G ( x) º 0
dx dx dx

Therefore H ( x) = C
Any two solutions of the equation differ at most by a constant
Q.E.D.
 Antiderivative
For differential equations of the form:
y¢ = f ( x )
the slope depends on x only
The equation asks for a solution y such that
dy
= f ( x)
dx
y is called the antiderivative of f(x)
 Indefinite Integral

Another name for antiderivative is indefinite integral

The notation of antiderivative and indefinite integral is

ò f ( x ) dx
dy
y = ò f ( x ) dx Û = f ( x)
dx
 Indefinite Integral

It is called “indefinite” integral because we the answer is

not unique:
ò = +C
2
2xdx x

f ( x ) dx
Integration
Symbol
An elongated “S” ò
integrand
Examples:
d
dx
x =1 Þ ò dx = x + C
d x2 x2
dx 2
=x Þ ò xdx = 2 + C
d x3 x 3
= x2 Þ ò dx = 3 + C
2
x
dx 3
d æ 1ö 1 1 1
ç- ÷ = 2
dx è x ø x
Þ ò x2 dx = -
x
+C

d xn xn
= x n -1 ò x dx = n + C
n -1
Þ Integer n ¹ 0
dx n
d
dx
sin x = cos x Þ ò cos xdx = sin x + C
d
( - cos x ) = sin x Þ ò sin xdx = - cos x + C
dx
 Integration
Rules

立法會大樓
Integration Rules

• Because indefinite integration is just the inverse

operation of differentiation, each differentiation rule
has correspondingly an integration rule:

Differentiation Integration

Constant-multiple rule Constant-multiple rule

Sum-and-difference rule Sum-and-difference rule

Chain rule Method of substitution

Product rule Integration by parts

Constant-Multiple Rule

For arbitrary constant k,

ò kf ( x ) dx = k ò f ( x ) dx
Proof: Constant-multiple rule
of differentiation

d é ù = k d f ( x ) dx
( )
dx ë ò dx ò
k f x dx
û
= kf ( x )
Û k ò f ( x ) dx = ò kf ( x ) dx
Definition of indefinite
integral
Sum-and-Difference Rule

ò éë f ( x ) ± g ( x )ùû dx = ò f ( x ) dx ± ò g ( x ) dx
Sum-and-difference rule
of differentiation
Proof:

d é ù = d f ( x ) dx ± d g ( x ) dx
( ) ( )
dx ë ò ò û dx ò dx ò
f x dx ± g x dx

= f ( x) ± g ( x)
Û ò éë f ( x ) ± g ( x ) ùû dx = ò f ( x ) dx ± ò g ( x ) dx

Definition of indefinite
integral
Method of Substitution

Suppose you want to find the indefinite integral of an

integrand f(x)

y = ò f ( x ) dx
which means
dy
= f ( x)
dx

Unfortunately f(x) is not a recognizable form that you can

find its antiderivative in the integration table
Method of Substitution

Try to see if there exists a new variable u (which is a

function of x) such that f(x) can be written as
du
f ( x ) = h (u )
dx
and the antiderivative of h(u)

ò h (u ) du
is known

Then the answer is

du
ò f ( x ) dx = ò h ( u ) dx = ò h ( u ) du
dx
Proof:

If H ( u ) = ò h ( u ) du
dH
Then = h (u )
du

dH dH du du
By chain-rule = = h (u ) = f ( x)
dx du dx dx

Therefore ∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫ h (u) du
It helps you remember the rule if you treat
the derivative du/dx as if it were a fraction,
and part of the integration symbol dx as if it
were a number multiplied to du/dx

du
ò f ( x ) dx ® ò h ( u ) dx ® ò h (u ) du
dx
Example:

ò ( x + 2)
5
dx Let u = x + 2

du
ò u dx dx
5
Usually skipped

du
=1
dx
ò du
5
u

1 6
u +C Don’t forget to substitute the value
6 for u back into the problem!
( x + 2)
6

+C
6
Example:

ò 4 x -1 dx Let u = 4 x - 1

1 1/ 2 du
4 ò u × 4dx
dx
=4

1 1/ 2 du
4 ò u × dx
dx 1 3/ 2
u +C
6
1 1/ 2
4 ò u du
1
( ) +C
3/ 2
4 x - 1
1 2 3/ 2 6
× u +C
4 3
Example:

ò cos ( 2x ) dx Let u = 2 x
du
=2
1 dx
2 ò cos u × 2dx

1
2 ò cos udu
1
sin u + C
2
1
sin ( 2 x ) + C
2
Exercise:

ò 1 + x 2 × 2 x dx

ò x 2
sin( )
x 3
dx

ò x × cos x dx
4
sin
Integration by Parts
The rule of substitution is a result of the chain rule of differentiation

Similarly, the product rule of differentiation leads to a rule in integration

called Integration by Parts

d dv du
uv = ∫ (uv) dx =
∫ u dx dx + ∫ v dx dx
dx
dv du
u
∫ dx dx = uv − ∫ dx dx
v

It is easier to be remembered when written in the following form

ò udv = uv - ò vdu
Proof of integration by parts:

d dv du
( uv ) = u + v
dx dx dx
d dv du
Þ ò ( uv ) dx = ò u dx + ò v dx
dx dx dx
dv du
Þ uv = ò u dx + ò v dx
dx dx
dv du
Þ ò u dx = uv - ò v dx
dx dx
Example: Find ò x cos xdx
Let u = x, v = sin x

dv
ò x cos xdx = ò u dx
dx

du
= uv - ò v dx
dx
dx
= x sin x - ò sin x dx
dx
= x sin x - ò sin xdx
= x sin x + cos x + C
Exercise:

ò x sin xdx
òx
2
cos xdx
Derivative of function d
(xn ) = nxn 1
dx
d
( x) = 1 d d
dx
sin x = cos x cot x = - csc2 x
dx dx
d du
( )
cu = c d d
dx dx cos x = - sin x sec x = sec x × tan x
dx dx
d du dv d d
(u ± v ) = ± dx
tan x = sec2 x
dx
csc x = - csc x × cot x
dx dx dx

d dv du
( uv ) = u + v dx
=
1
dx dx dx
dy dy / dx
du dv
v -u
d æuö dx dx dy dy du
ç ÷=
dx è v ø v 2 = ×
dx du dx
 Summary for integration

Z
Z n 1
x dx = xn+1 + C
1dx = x + C n+1
Z
ò kf ( x ) dx = k ò f ( x ) dx Z
cos xdx = sin x + C

ò éë f ( x ) ± g ( x )ùû dx = ò f ( x ) dx ± ò g ( x ) dx Z
sin xdx = cos x + C

du
ò f ( x ) dx = ò h ( u ) dx = ò h ( u ) du sec2 xdx = tan x + C
Z dx Z
dv du
u dx = uv v dx
dx dx
 Definite
Integrals
We can estimate the area under a curve by drawing
rectangles touching the curve at some points
Example: Area under y = x 2 + 5
inside the interval 0 < x < 4
Use rectangles with equal width that touch the curve at the
mid-point
Approximate area: 5.25 + 7.25 + 11.25 + 17.25 = 41
y
17.25
20

15 11.25

10 7.25
5.25
5

x
1 2 3 4
0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5
In this example there are four subintervals
As the number of subintervals increases, so does the
accuracy
This is how the ancient people calculated area of some
regions with curved boundaries
They stopped at certain stage when the approximation is
already good enough for practical purpose
Sometimes (but rarely) it is possible to deduce the exact
area when the number of rectangles tends to infinity
Is there a more systematic method to find these areas?
 Definition of Definite Integral

When we find the area

under a curve by adding
rectangles, the answer is
called a Riemann sum
Note: Subintervals do not all
have to be the same size

å
A set of points in the interval
f ( x ) Dx
 Definition of Definite Integral

The definite integral of f over

[a, b], where b > a, is the limit of the
Riemann sum when the number of
subintervals tends to infinity and
the length of each subinterval tends
to zero

Z b
æ ö
lim
Number of points®¥
ç å f ( x ) Dx ÷ ⌘ f (x)dx
Width of each subinterval®0 è A set of points in the interval ø a
 Notation of Definite Integral
Leibniz and Joseph Fourier introduced a simpler notation for
the definite integral:

upper limit of integration

It is called a
dummy variable
Integration b
f ( x ) dx
because the

ò
answer does not
Symbol
depend on the
An elongated “S” symbol chosen
a
integrand
variable of integration
lower limit of integration (dummy variable)
1. Reversing the limits changes the sign
a
ò f ( x ) dx
b
where a < b
a b
is defined by ò f ( x ) dx = -ò f ( x ) dx
b a

2. When the upper limit and the lower limit are the same,
the definite integral is zero
a
ò f ( x ) dx = 0
a

3. Intervals can be added y = f ( x)

b c c
ò f ( x ) dx + ò f ( x ) dx = ò f ( x ) dx
a b a

a b c
 Note

Although I have been using the word “area” to refer to definite

integrals, remember that the fundamental definition is a limit of
the Riemann sum:

æ ö
lim
Number of points®¥
ç å f ( x ) Dx ÷
Width of each subinterval®0 è A set of points in the interval ø
It is defined using algebra and does not rely on any geometric
interpretations
For example, obviously it does not represent “area” when
f(x) < 0
 Differentiation and Definite Integrals
In the 17th Century, Newton and Leibniz discovered the
fundamental theorem of calculus independently (?)

The theorem connects integration and differentiation

Through this connection, differentiation can be exploited to
calculate definite integrals and hence allows one to solve a
much broader class of problems

Finding derivatives is comparatively much easier than

calculating the Riemann sum, especially when supplied
with a lot of rules that we learned, making it unnecessary to
start from the first principle every time
 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Let x
Sa ( x ) = ò f (t ) dt Refer to the supp. notes
a

Then

d Sa ( x + Dx ) - Sa ( x )
Sa ( x ) = lim
dx Dx ®0 Dx y = f(t)

DS
= lim a = f ( x )
Dx ®0 Dx

DSa

d x t
ò f (t ) dt = f ( x )
dx a a x x+Dx
 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
d x
ò f (t ) dt = f ( x )
dx a

x
The above result means ò f (t ) dt
a
is an antiderivative
of f(x)
Suppose we know a particular antiderivative F(x), then
x
ò f (t ) dt = F ( x ) + C
a

To determine the integration constant, notice that

a
ò f (t ) dt = F ( a ) + C = 0 Þ C = - F ( a )
a

x
ò f (t ) dt = F ( x ) - F ( a )
a
 2
Example: Evaluate ò
1
cos t dt

d x
dx ò1
cos t dt = cos x
x
ò cost dt = ò cos xdx = sin x + C
1
1
ò cost dt = sin1 + C = 0 Þ C = - sin1
1
x
ò cost dt = sin x - sin1
1
2
ò cost dt = sin 2 - sin1
1
Note about notation:
x
ò f (t ) dt = F ( x ) - F ( a )
a

If x = b
b
ò f (t ) dt = F ( b ) - F ( a )
a

Dummy variable doesn’t matter, replace t by x

b
ò f ( x ) dx = F ( b ) - F ( a )
a

This is what you usually see in textbooks

Exercise:
1 1
ò 2 x 2
dx

Z ⇡
cos2 xdx
0
 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1

If f is continuous on [ a, b] , then the function

x
Sa ( x ) = ò f (t ) dt
a

has a derivative at every point in [ a, b] , and

d d x
Sa ( x ) = ò f (t ) dt = f ( x )
dx dx a
 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2

If f is continuous at every point of [ a, b], and if

F is any antiderivative of f on [ a, b ] , then

b
Sa ( b ) = ò f ( x ) dx = F ( b ) - F ( a )
a

(Also called the Integral Evaluation Theorem)

To evaluate a definite integral, take the anti-derivatives and

subtract
Example: The method of substitution is a
p little different for definite integrals
ò0
4
tan x sec2 x dx

new limit
1
Let u = tan x
ò u du
0 du = sec x dx
2 We can find
new limits,
new limit
and then we
1 2
1 u ( 0 ) = tan 0 = 0 don’t have
u to substitute
2 0 æp ö p
u ç ÷ = tan = 1 back
è4ø 4
1
2 We could have substituted back and
used the original limits
Example:
p
Using the original limits:

ò0
4
tan x sec2 x dx
Let u = tan x
p

ò 0
4
u du du = sec2 x dx
Leave the

ò u du limits out until

you substitute Wrong!
1æ pö 1
2

= ç tan ÷ - ( tan 0 )
2
back.
The
2 è limits
4 ødon’t
2 match!
1 2
= u This is
2 usually
p
1 2 1 2 1 better than
1 2 4 = ×1 - × 0 =
= ( tan x ) 2 2 2 finding new
2 0 limits
Example:
The upper limit of integration does
d x 2
not match the derivative, but we
ò
dx 0
cost dt could use the chain rule

d 2
( )
cos x × x
dx
2

cos ( x ) × 2x
2

2 x cos x2 ( )
Example:
The lower limit of integration is not
d 5 a constant, but the upper limit is
ò
dx x
3t sin t dt
We can change the sign of the
integral and reverse the limits
d x
- ò 3t sin t dt
dx 5

-3 x sin x
Exercise:

d x2 1
dx ò2 x
1 -t 2
dt
 Supplementary Notes

DSa
To prove lim = f ( x)
Dx ®0 Dx

x
Sa ( x ) = ò f (t ) dt y = f(t)
a

DSa = Sa ( x + Dx ) - S a ( x )
x +Dx x
=ò f (t ) dt - ò f (t ) dt
a a DSa
x +Dx
=ò f (t ) dt t
x
a x x+Dx
 x +Dx
DSa = ò f (t ) dt = lim å f (t ) Dt
x Dt ®0

lim å f (t ) Dt £ f max Dx
Dt ®0
Dt

f min Dx £ lim å f (t ) Dt
Dt ®0

f min f max f min Dx £ DSa £ f max Dx

DSa
x x + Dx f min £ £ f max
Dx Dx
 DSa
f min £ £ f max
Dx

As Dx gets smaller, fmin and fmax get closer together

Dt

lim f min = lim f max = f ( x )

Dx ®0 Dx ®0

By Squeeze-Sandwich Theorem: f min f max

DSa
lim = f ( x) x x + Dx
Dx ®0 Dx
Dx
Example: Find the area of bounded by the curve y = x3,
the x-axis, and the two vertical lines x = 1 and x = 2

4 2
2 x 24 14 15
ò x dx = = - =
3
1 4 1
4 4 4
y

y = x3

x
Example: Find the area of bounded by the curve y = sin x
and the x-axis, from x = 0 to x = p/2

p /2 p /2 æ pö
ò sin xdx = [ - cos x ] 0 = ç - cos ÷ - ( - cos 0 ) = 1
0
è 2ø
y

y = sin x

p/2 x
Example: Find the area of bounded by the curve y = sin x
and the x-axis, from x = 0 to x = p

p p
ò sin xdx = [ - cos x ] 0 = ( - cos p ) - ( - cos 0 ) = 2
0

y = sin x

p x
Definite Integral and Area
Definite integral defined by the Riemann sum

æ ö
lim
Number of points®¥
ç å f ( x ) Dx ÷
Width of each subinterval®0 è A set of points in the interval ø
has the geometrical meaning of area under the curve y = f(x) when f ( x ) ³ 0

When f(x) < 0, the Riemann sum yields the negative value of the area
bounded by the curve y = f(x) and the x-axis

In general, the geometrical meaning of

b
ò f ( x ) dx
a

is the algebraic sum of the positive and negative areas bounded by the curve
and the x-axis
Example: Find the “area” of bounded by the curve y = sin x
and the x-axis, from x = 0 to x = 2p

2p 2p
ò sin xdx = [ - cos x ] 0 = ( - cos 2p ) - ( - cos 0 ) = 0
0

Positive area y = sin x

p 2p x

Negative area
Integration by Parts of Definite Integrals
Recall: Integration by parts of indefinite integrals

dv du
ò u dx dx = uv - ò v dx dx
For definite integrals,

Z b Z b
dv du
u dx = [u(x)v(x)]ba vdx
a dx a dx
Z b
du
= u(b)v(b) u(a)v(a) vdx
a dx
Example:

Z ⇡ Z ⇡
x sin xdx = xd cos x
0 0
Z ⇡
= [x cos x]⇡0 + cos xdx
0
= ⇡ + [sin x]⇡0
=⇡
 Applications in
Physics

香港海洋公園速降機
Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration

Recall: s

v
v is the slope of the s-t graph
t
d
v (t ) = s (t )
dt
v
a

a is the slope of the v-t graph

t
d
a (t ) = v (t )
dt
Velocity as Antiderivative of Acceleration

Given velocity as a function of time v = v (t )

we can find the acceleration by differentiation a ( t ) =

d
v (t )
dt
This implies v(t) is an antiderivative of a(t)

By the fundamental theorem of calculus, we know that for

arbitrary t0, t
ò a (t ) dt
t0

is also an antiderivative of a(t)

t
Hence v ( t ) = ò a (t ) dt + C
t0
Velocity as Antiderivative of Acceleration

To fix C, notice that when t = t0,

t0
v ( t0 ) = ò a (t ) dt + C = C
t0

Hence
a
t
v ( t ) = v ( t0 ) + ò a (t ) dt
t0
t

v(t) - v(t0) is the “area” under v

the a-t graph from t0 to t
Example:
An object attached to a spring is initially (t = 0) displaced by
a distance A = 0.5 m from the equilibrium position and at rest
Its acceleration is given by
a ( t ) = -2cos ( 2t )
Find its velocity at time t.

t
v ( t ) = v ( 0 ) + ò -2cos ( 2t ) dt
0
t
Initial condition: v(0) = 0 à v ( t ) =
ò -2cos ( 2t ) dt
0

Method of substitution à v ( t ) = éë - sin ( 2t ) ùû = - sin ( 2t )

t

-A A
O
Displacement as Antiderivative of Velocity

Given displacement as a function of time s = s (t )

d
we can find the velocity by differentiation v (t ) = s (t )
dt
This implies s(t) is an antiderivative of v(t)

By the fundamental theorem of calculus, we know that for

arbitrary t0, t
ò v (t ) dt
t0

is also an antiderivative of v(t)

t
Hence s ( t ) = ò v (t ) dt + C
t0
Displacement as Antiderivative of Velocity

To fix C, notice that when t = t0,

t0
s ( t0 ) = ò v (t ) dt + C = C
t0

Hence
v
t s
s ( t ) = s ( t0 ) + ò v (t ) dt
t0
t
s(t) - s(t0) is the “area” under
the v-t graph from t0 to t
Example:
An object attached to a spring is initially (t = 0) displaced by
a distance A = 0.5 m from the equilibrium position and at rest
Its acceleration is given by
a ( t ) = -2cos ( 2t )
Find its displacement at time t.

v ( t ) = - sin ( 2t )
t
s ( t ) = s ( 0 ) + ò - sin ( 2t ) dt
0
t
Initial condition: s(0) = 1/2 à s ( t ) = 1/ 2 + ò - sin ( 2t ) dt
0

Method of substitution à s ( t ) = 1/ 2 + éëcos ( 2t ) / 2 ùû 0 = cos ( 2t ) / 2

t

-A A
O
 Summary
Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration

derivative of

Displacement Velocity

antiderivative of

derivative of

Velocity Acceleration

antiderivative of
 Motions under Constant Acceleration
When the object is under a constant acceleration
d 2s
2
=a
dt
one can solve the motion in two steps:
First, solve for velocity v:
t
v ( t ) = v ( t0 ) + ò adt
t0

v ( t ) = v0 + a ( t - t0 )

where v0 = v(t0) is the initial velocity

In particular, if t0 = 0 v ( t ) = v0 + at
Then one can find s by integrating v

t
s ( t ) = s ( t0 ) + ò éëv0 + a (t - t0 )ùû dt
t0

1
s ( t ) = s0 + v0 ( t - t0 ) + a ( t - t0 )
2

2
where s0 = s(t0) is the initial displacement

In particular, if t0 is taken to be zero, at the initial position of

the object is set as the origin, then

1 2
s ( t ) = v0t + at
2
One can eliminate t using the two equations
v = v0 + a ( t - t0 )
1
s = s0 + v0 ( t - t0 ) + a ( t - t0 )
2

2
v - v0
From the 1st eq.: ( t - t0 ) =
a
2
Sub. into the 2nd eq.: v - v0 1 æ v - v0 ö
s - s0 = v0 + aç
a 2 è a ÷ø
v - v0 v + v0 v 2 - v02
= =
a 2 2a

v2 - v02 = 2a ( s - s0 )

In particular, if s0 = 0: v 2 - v02 = 2as

Equations of Constant Acceleration Motions

General equations t0 = s 0 = 0

v = v0 + a ( t - t0 ) v = v0 + at

1 1 2
s = s0 + v0 ( t - t0 ) + a ( t - t0 )
2
s = v0t + at
2 2

v2 - v02 = 2a ( s - s0 ) v 2 - v02 = 2as

Example – Projectile motion

We consider the motion of a particle with constant acceleration

𝒂 = 𝑎$ 𝚤̂ + 𝑎( 𝚥̂ = −𝑔𝚥̂

/
𝒗 = 𝒗- + . 𝒂 𝑑𝑡
-

= 𝑣-$ 𝚤̂ + 𝑣-( − 𝑔𝑡 𝚥̂
= 𝑣- cos 𝛼- 𝚤̂ + 𝑣- sin 𝛼- − 𝑔𝑡 𝚥̂
Example – Projectile motion
/
𝒓 = 𝒓- + . 𝒗𝑑𝑡
-
/
= . 𝑣- cos 𝛼- 𝚤̂ + 𝑣- sin 𝛼- − 𝑔𝑡 𝚥̂ 𝑑𝑡
-
1 <
= 𝑣- cos 𝛼- 𝑡𝚤̂ + 𝑣- sin 𝛼- 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 𝚥̂
2
Example – Projectile motion

?
Trajectory: 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑣- cos 𝛼- 𝑡, 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑣- sin 𝛼- 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 <
<

D <
Eliminate t ⟹ 𝑦 = tan 𝛼- 𝑥 − G 𝑥
<EF HIJG KF

i.e. 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑐𝑥 < a parabola 拋物線

Exercise: Hong Kong Physics Olympiad Exam 2007

A rocket is launched vertically upwards from ground and

moves at a constant acceleration of 19.6 ms-2. Due to an
accident, the engine stops 10 seconds after launch. To
escape, the astronauts must eject at least 3 seconds before
the rocket hits the ground. Neglect air resistance. How long
do the astronauts have before ejection?
 Physical Interpretation

Let us try to explain why

(1) s(t) - s(t0) is the “area” under (2) v(t) - v(t0) is the “area” under
the v-t graph from t0 to t the a-t graph from t0 to t

Here we shall discuss (1) in detail. The explanation for (2) is similar.
Consider an object moving at a constant velocity v
Consider the time interval ta < t < tb
For constant v:
Displacement = Velocity X Time
The change in position of the object from ta to tb is
s (t b ) - s (t a ) = v × (t b - t a )
which is the area under the velocity-time graph

velocity

time
ta tb
What if velocity varies with time?
We can cut the time interval into very small subintervals
Each time subinterval is so small that the velocity doesn’t
vary much and can be well approximated by a constant

t
t0 t
Constant v in each subinterval
à area of each rectangle ~ Ds during that Dt
When each Dt ® 0
à sum of areas of rectangles = the total change in s
t
s ( t ) - s ( t0 ) = ò v (t ) dt
t0
v

t
t0 t
 Area
Fig. 7.6

Example Calculate the area enclosed between the straight line y = 4x and the Fig. 7.6
parabola y = 2 + x 2 .
198 7 Applications of Integration
It is wise to sketch a graph of the two functions, as shown in Fig. 7.7. Example Calculate the area enclosed betwe
The required area is shown shaded. The curves cross each other at A and B, parabola y = 2 + x 2 .
corresponding to x = a and x = b, respectively. We need to calculate the values of It is wise to sketch a graph of the two func
a and b, our limits of integration. These are given by solving the equation

4x = 2 + x 2
This is a quadratic equation whose roots are x1 = a = 0.59, x2 = b = 3.41 to 2 d.p.
Since the straight line between A and B is above the parabola, we have

f2 (x) = 4x , f1 (x) = 2 + x 2
Hence the area is given by
! 3.41 " #3.41
1
A=
Fig. 7.7 (4x − 2 − x 2) dx = 2x 2 − 2x − x 3 = 3.77 square units
0.59 3 0.59

Let us suppose that the coordinates of a point P(x, y) on a closed curve (see Fig. 7.6)
are given in terms of a parameter t, such that t increases from t1 to t2 as we travel
round the curve once. The point travels from A to C, via B, and from C back to A, Fig. 7.7
via D. The equation for the area A of the closed curve becomes
! t
2 dx
 area ıA2 is xıy. The total area is A2 = x dy (7.2)
y1
! y
2
To evaluate it, we must knowAthe x dy relationship, i.e. x = g(y).
2 =functional (7.2)
y1
The area A2 is often referred to as the complementary area.
To evaluate it, we must know the functional relationship, i.e. x = g(y).
The area A2 is often referred to as the complementary area.
Area
7.1.1 Areas for Parametric Functions
7.1.1 Areas for Parametric Functions
Occasionally a curve is defined by parametric equation of the form
Occasionally a curve is defined by parametric equations of the form
Occasionally a curve
x =is fdefined
(t) andby parametric
y = g(t)equations of the 5,
(cf. Chap. form
Sect. 5.10)
= fareas
In this case,xthe (t) are y =by
andgiven g(t) (cf. Chap. 5,integrals:
the following Sect. 5.10)
In this case, the areas are given
! x by the following
! t integrals:!
2 2 dx t2 dx
A! = y dx
! t= y dt = g(t) dt (7.3)
x2 x 2 dx
t1 dt ! t2 tdx dt
A= y dx =
1
y dt = 1
g(t) dt (7.3)
x1 t1 dt t1 dt
The limits t1 and t2 are those values of t which correspond to x1 and x2 .
Similarly,
The limits t1 andthe complementary
t2 are those values ofarea:
t which correspond to x1 and x2 .
Similarly, the complementary
! area: ! t ! t
y2 2 dy 2 dy
A1 =
! y2 x dy t=
!
dy x ! dt
t = dy f (t) dt (7.4)
A1 = x 1dy =
y
2
x 1 dt =
t dt 2
f (t)1 dt
t dt (7.4)
y1 t1 dt t1 dt
Example The cycloid (Fig. 7.3) is given by the equations x = a(! − sin ! ),
Example
y = a(1The cycloid
− cos! (Fig. 7.3)theis area
). Calculate givenbetween
by the the
equations
x-axisxand = a(! sinof
one−arc !),the curve.
y = a(1 − cos!). Calculate the area between the x-axis and one arc of the curve.
The angle turned through is 2".
The angle turned through is 2".
Remember that the cycloid is a curve traced out by a point P on the circumfer-
Remember that the cycloid is a curve traced out by a point P on the circumfer-
ence
ence of of a circle
a circle which
which rollsrolls without
without slipping
slipping along
along the the x-axis.
x-axis. It hasbeen
It has already already been
introduced in Chap. 5 (cf. Fig. 5.38).
 0.59 3 0.59
Let ABCD be a closed curve (see Fig. 7.6) s
Let us suppose that the coordinates of a point P(x, y) on a closed curve (see Fig.parallel
7.6) to the y-axis at more than two point
are given in terms of a parameter t, such that t increases from t1 to t2 as we travel
and CC′ are tangents parallel to the y-axis an
round the curve once. The point travels from A to C, via B, and from C back to A,
via D. The equation for the area A of the closed curve becomes
The area A enclosed by the curve is
! b
A=
! t
2
y
dx
dt
Area A= BD′ dx −
t1 dt a

Example Suppose that the closed curve ABCD (Fig. 7.6) is an ellipse whose equa-where the points B and D move along ABC
tion is BD′ by f2 (x) and DD′ by f1 (x).
(x − h) 2 (y − k)2
+ = 1 (h, k, a and b are constants) The area is
a2 b2
! b ! b
What is the area of the ellipse?
Let x = h − a cost and y = k + b sin t. A= f2 (x) dx − f1 (x)
a a
Then, as t varies from 0 to 2!, a point P(x, y) goes round the curve in the direc-
tion ABCDA.
The area is
! 2! ! 2! ! 2!
(k + b sin t)a sin t dt = ka sint dt + ab sin2 t dt = !ab
0 0 0

2!
$
Note that the first integral = ka sin t dt = 0.
0

7.2 Lengths of Curves

In this section we will derive formulae for the length of a curve. (In fact, one of
these has already been used in Chap. 5, Sect. 5.8.3) Consider the curve defined by7.6
Fig.

Example Calculate the area enclosed betwe

Fig. 7.8 7.2 Lengths of Curves

Fig. 7.8
the equation y = f (x), shown in Fig.
close to each other.
Arc Length
7.8, and a small portion BC, B and C being

the equation
Let ıs = length of the arc BC, BD = ıx and y= CDf (x),
= ıy,shown in Fig. by
as shown 7.8,the
andsmall
a small portion BC, B and C being
triangle BCD. close to each other.
Then the arc BC is nearly equal to the ıs = length
Let chord BC, soofwe
themay
arc BC,
writeBD = ıx and CD = ıy, as shown by the small
triangle BCD.
2 Then2the
(ıs) ≈ (chord BC) arc BC
= (ıx) 2 is nearly
+ (ıy)2 equal to the chord BC, so we may write
Therefore (ıs)2 ≈ (chord BC)2 = (ıx)2 + (ıy)2
! "2 !" Therefore ! "2 ! "2
ıs ıy 2 ıs ıx
≈ 1+ or ! "2≈ ! + "1
ıy 2
! "2 ! "2
ıx ıx ıyıs ıy
≈ 1+ or
ıs
≈
ıx
+1
# ! "2 ıx # ıx
! " ıy ıy
# 2 #
ıs ıy ıs ! ıx "2 ! "2
≈ 1+ or ıs≈ 1 + ıy ıs ıx
ıx ıx ıy ≈ 1 + ıy or ≈ 1+
ıx ıx ıy ıy
Hence, as ıx → 0, ıs/ıx → ds/dx and ıy/ıx → dy/dx and Fig. 7.8
$ Hence,
$as$ ıx → 0, ıs/ıx → ds/dx and ıy/ıx → dy/dx and
ds/dx = 1 + (dy/dx)2 and ds/dy $
ds/dx = 1(dx/dy)
= +
1 2
+ (dy/dx)2 and ds/dy = 1 + (dx/dy)2

The total length s of the curve from The

A tototal
E, corresponding to x =
length s of the curve a and
from =corresponding
A toxE, b, the equation y = f
to x = a and x = b,
(x), shown in Fig. 7.8, and a s
respectively, is respectively, is close to each other.
% b
# ! "2 % b % b
# ! "2 % b Let ıs = length of the arc BC, BD = ıx and C
dy dy
s= 1+ dx = = y ′2 )1/2
(1s + 1 +dx
dx
=
dx (7.6) triangle (7.6)
(1 + y ′2 )1/2 dx BCD.
a dx a a a
Then the arc BC is nearly equal to the chord BC
The length is also given by
The length is also given by
% d
% d
′2 1/2
(ıs)2 ≈ (chord BC)2 = (ıx
s= (1 + x ) dy
s= (1 + x ′2 )1/2 dy c
c Therefore
Example Let us find the length of the circumference of a circle of radius R, which,
Example Let us find the length of the circumference
of course, of a circle
is well known to us. of radius R, which, ! "2 ! "2 ! "
of course, is well known to us. ıs ıy ıs
≈ 1+ or
ıx ıx ıy
 respectively, is
# ! "2
% b % b
dy
s= 1+ dx = (1 + y ′2 )1/2 dx (7.6)
a dx a

The length is also given by

% d Arc Length
s= (1 + x ′2 )1/2 dy
c

Example Let us find the length of the circumference of a circle of radius R, which,
of course, is well known to us.
200 7 Applications of Integration

The equation of a circle is

x 2 + y 2 = R2
Differentiating implicitly with respect to x gives
dy
2x + 2y = 0 or yy ′ = −x
dx
√
Hence y ′ = −x/y = −x/ R2 − x 2 and (1 + y ′2 ) = R2 /(R2 − x 2 )
The length of the circumference
! R
1 dx
L = 4 × length of circumference = 4R √
4 0 R2 − x 2
Note that to evaluate the integral we can substitute x = R sin !.
Then dx = R cos ! d!, so that
! !/2 ! !/2
R cos! d!
L = 4R = 4R d! = 2"R
0 R cos ! 0

Example Evaluate the length of a parabola from the origin to x = 2.

The equation of the parabola is y = 1/4 x 2 .

1 1
y = x2 , y′ = x
4 2
 7.3 Surface Area and Volume of a Solid of R

Consider the curve AB, defined by y =

Surface area and volume of a solid of revolution and x = b.

7.3 Surface Area and Volume of a Solid of Revolution 203

Fig. 7.11 the curve AB, defined by y = f (x), and shown in Fig. 7.11 between x = a
Consider
and x = b.
Let us revolve the curve AB about the x-axis. Two figures are generated: (a)
a surface and (b) a solid. If we consider a small strip of width ıx and height y, then
the small surface generated is given by ıA = 2!yıs, where ıs is the length of the
curve corresponding to ıx. The total surface will be the sum of all such elements,
i.e. surface ≈ Σ2!yıs. If ıx becomes smaller and smaller we have, in the limit,

! b ! b
" # $2 %1/2
dy
A= 2!y ds = 2! y 1+ dx (7.8)
a a dx

Furthermore, as the strip is rotated, it generates a thin circular slice whose volume
ıV is approximately
ıV = !y 2 ıx Fig. 7.11

For the whole curve, as ıx → 0, the volume of the solid generated is

! b
Let us revolve the curve AB abou
Fig. 7.11 V =! y 2 dx (7.9)
a a surface and (b) a solid. If we conside
the small surface generated is given by
Example The straight line y = mx is rotated about the x-axis, thus generating
Let us
a right revolve
circular the as
cone, curve
shownABinabout the x-axis.
Fig. 7.12. Two(a)figures
Calculate are generated:
its surface area and (b)(a)its curve corresponding to ıx. The total s
avolume.
surface and
(Of (b) a solid.
course, the Ifresults
we consider
are wella small
known.strip of width
They ıx andobtained
are usually height y, then
without i.e. surface ≈ Σ2!yıs. If ıx becomes
the small
using surface
integral generated is given by ıA = 2!yıs, where ıs is the length of the
calculus.)
 Surface area of a cone = 1/2× circumference of base × slant height.
Volume of a cone = 1/3×area of base × height (1/3 of the volume of a cylinder
having same base and height). 7.3 Surface Area and Volume of a Solid of Rev

Example: volume
Example Calculate and surface
(a) the surface area
area and (b) the ofofaa lune
volume sphere
of a sphere of
radius R and thickness h (see Fig. 7.13).
The
Fig. 7.13surface will be generated by rotating the arc AB and the volume by rotating
the area ABCD about the x-axis.

From the figure, we have

y 2 = R2 − x 2
Differentiating implicitly gives
yy ′ = −x
Thus
x2
′2 y 2 + x2
′2 R2
y = 2 and 1 + y = = 2
y y2 R − x2
(a) The surface area is
! b ! b
R
A = 2! 2
(R − x ) 2 1/2
dx = 2!R dx = 2!R(b − a) Fig. 7.13
a (R2 − x 2 )1/2 a

Hence A = 2!Rh
(b) The volume V is From the figure, we have
! b ! b "
x3
#b y2 = R
V =! y 2 dx = ! 2 2 2
(R − x ) dx = ! R x −
a a 3 a Differentiating implicitly gives
For the special case where b = R and a = 0, we have yy ′
2
V = !R3 Thus
3 x2
′2
This is the volume of a half sphere or hemisphere. Hence the volume of a sphere y = 2 and 1 + y
is V = 43 !R3 . y
(a) The surface area is
Example Small aluminium alloy pillars having a parabolic profile are manufac-
tured by turning down cylinders 125 mm in length and 50 mm in diameter. The di- ! b
R
ameter of the pillars at the thinner end is to be 30 mm. Calculate the amount of metal A = 2! (R2 − x 2 )1/2
removed. (The density of aluminium is 2 720 kg/m3 .) a (R2 − x
“Center” of an Object – center of mass

What are the “centers” of the following figures”?

+ + +

square rectangle circle

What about these?

?
?
?

right triangle

We need to define “center”!!

 7.4 Applications to Mechanics

Center of mass
Fig. 7.16

Fig. 7.16
If M is the total mass of the particles, the position of the center of mass G is given
by the following equations:
If M is the total mass of the particles, the position of the center of mass G is given
by the following equations:
1 n 1 n 1 n
M i∑ ∑nmi yi , z̄ = M ∑nmi zi
x̄ = mi xi , ȳ =
n M
1 =1 1i =1 1i =1
x̄ = n ∑ mi xi , ȳ = ∑ mi yi , z̄ = ∑ mi zi
where M = ∑ mi M i =1
M i =1
M i =1
i =1n
where M = ∑ mi
The product mass × distance i =1 is often referred to as the first moment.
When the particles form a solid body, the above summations become integrals.
If ım product
The massof×a distance
is the mass is ofteninreferred
typical particle the bodyto as
at the first moment.
distances x, y and z from theFig. 7.16
When the particles form a solid body, the
planes, then the center of mass of the body is given by above summations become integrals.
If ım is the mass of a typical particle in the body at distances x, y and z from the
! ! !
planes, then the center ofxmassdm of the body is given by z dm
y dm
x̄ = !! , ȳ = !! , z̄ = !! If M is the total mass of the particles, the position of the
dm dm dm
x dm y dm z dm by the following equations:
x̄ = ! , ȳ = ! , z̄ = !
between appropriate limits. dm dm dm
n n
1 1
∑ mi xi , ∑ mi y
"
between appropriate limits. x̄ = ȳ =
dm = M = total mass of the body M M
" i =1 i =1

A plane figure of area ABCD =M

dmmay be= total massasofa the
considered thinbody
lamina. Its center of masswhere
n
M = ∑ mi
is found by taking moments about the x- and y-axes (Fig. 7.17). i =1
A plane figure of area ABCD may be considered as a thin lamina. Its center of mass
Let it be a requirement to find the position of the center of mass, G, of the thin
is found by taking moments about the x- and y-axes (Fig. 7.17).
lamina ABCD of mass m per unit area shown in the figure. The small strip has The product mass × distance is often referred to as the fir
Let it be a requirement to find the position of the center of mass, G, of the thin
a mass myıx. Hence, by the above equations, if x̄ is the x-coordinate of the center When the particles form a solid body, the above sum
lamina ABCD of mass m per unit area shown in the figure. The small strip has
of mass, G If ım is the mass of a typical particle in the body at dist
a mass myıx. Hence, by the!aboveb equations,"ifbx̄ is the x-coordinate of the center
a xmy dx 1 planes, then the center of mass of the body is given by
 Example: Center of an isosceles triangle
y

By symmetry, xC = 0 h- y
h L( y) = b
h
L(y)
y
x

Z
1
mb ỹ = ydm
dm = mL(y)dy = (h y)dy M
h Z h
Z Z h 1 mb
mb bh = (h y)ydy
M = dm = (h y)dy = m M 0 h
0 h 2 1 mbh2 h
= =
M 6 3
 x̄ = !! = =
2mr! !
−! mr d!

If the strip is bent into a semicircle, ! = "/2 and

2r
x̄ = 204
"
Example: Center of a cone
Example Determine the center of mass G of the solid cone shown in Fig. 7.12.
The equation of the straight line is y = R
b
· x.
The mass of the thin slice obtained by rotating the element ıx about the x-axis
is m"y 2 ıx, where m is the mass per unit volume. The total mass of the cone is
" b " b
2 R2
M = m" y dx = m" 2 x 2 dx
0 b 0
1
= m"R2 b
3
The moment about the y-axis of the slice is
2 R
2
2 R 3
xdm = xm"y
m⇡xy 2 dx = m⇡ 3
ıx = m" 2 x ıx x dx Fig. 7.12
2 b b dm = m⇡y 2 dx
!
Hence the total moment = (m"R2 )/b 2 0b x 3 dx = 1/4 m"R2 b 2 (a) The surface area is
Hence, the center of mass located at
The position of G, which lies along the x-axis, is given by ! b
" #
A = 2! mx 1 + m2 dx =
Z b 1 2 b2Z ✓3 2
◆ 0
" "
1 4 m"R b
x̄ = 1 = b R 3 3 = ! mb 2 1 + m2 = !R b 2
x̃ = xdm = 1 2
3 m"R b
m⇡
4
2
x dx = b where R is the radius of the base of the cone
M 0 M 0 b 4 We can express the surface area of the cone a
A = !RL , where L = slan
7.4.3 The Theorems of Pappus (b) The volume is
! b ! b
V = !y 2 dx = ! m2 x 2 dx
Pappus’ First Theorem 0
# $b
0
1 3 1
= ! m2 x = ! m2 b 3 =
Let AB be an arc of length L measured between x = a and x = b (Fig. 7.19). 3 0 3
Work done along an arbitrary path
Line Integral
Work-Energy theorem

TG TG
1 1
𝑊/O/ = . 𝑭 Q 𝑑𝒍⃗ = . 𝑚𝑣𝑑𝑣 = <
𝑚𝑣< − 𝑚𝑣?<
TU TU 2 2

Question:
T
How do we evaluate the line integral ∫T G 𝑭 Q 𝑑𝒍⃗ along a specific path?
U
 Suppose we can parameterize the trajectory 𝑟⃗ 𝑡 = (𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑦 𝑡 , 𝑧(𝑡))
And the force is given by 𝐹⃗ 𝑟⃗ = 𝐹$ 𝑟⃗ , 𝐹( 𝑟⃗ , 𝐹^ 𝑟⃗
6.9 Line Integrals 183

Now we calculate the line integral:

! P
2
U= F (r(t)) · dr
P1
! t 182 6 I
2
= F (x(t), y(t), z(t)) · dr
t1
! t " #" #
2 dx dy dz
= Fx (r) · i + Fy (r) · j + Fz (r) · k dt · i + dt · j + dt · k
t1 dt dt dt
Hence the formula for the work U reads
! t " #
2 dx dy dz
U= Fx (r) dt + Fy (r) dt + Fz (r) dt
t1 dt dt dt

Example Let us consider the gravitational field near the Earth’s surface. It is ex-
pressed by
F = (0, 0, −mg)
Consider the fairground Ferris wheel in Fig. 6.28. We want to find the work done
during the ascent of the Ferris wheel (mass m). The path is the semicircle from P1
Fig. 6.27
to P2 . Its parametric form with parameter ! is
r = (0, R sin !, −R cos!)
dr = (0, R cos!, R sin !) d! The work ∆Ui corresponding to the i th segment is determined by th
! ! uct of the force F i and the vector pointing along the segment ∆r i .
 t1 dt dt

Example Let us consider the gravitational field near the

pressed by
F = (0, 0, −mg)
Consider the fairground Ferris wheel in Fig. 6.28. We wa
during the ascent of the Ferris wheel (mass m). The path
Example to P2 . Its parametric form with parameter ! is
Consider the fairground Ferris wheel. We want to find the work done during
r = (0, R sin !, −R cos!)
the ascent of the Ferris wheel (mass m). The path is the semicircle from P to
dr = (0, R cos!, R sin !)1d!
P 2. U=
! !
(0, 0, −mg)(0, R cos !,
"=0
! !
= (−mgR sin !) d! = [mgR cos!]!
0
"=0

F~ = (0, mg)
~r( ) = (R sin , R cos )
d~r = (R cos , R sin )d

Z P2
W = F~ · d~r
P1
Z ⇡
= mgR sin d = 2mgR
0

Fig. 6.28
The curve in Figure 1 runs from x = 1 to x = 3, so the integral is
Z 3 ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ 3
1 4 1 3 1 5 1 4 3 2
dx x x 3x + 9 = x x x + 9x
1 4 2 20 8 2 1
161
= .
10

~ = x2 x̂ + y z ŷ
Example: Evaluate the integral (30) for the vector field V y x ẑ, along the curve
(cos t, sin t, t) with 0  t  6⇡ (shown in Figure 3).
The infinitesimal displacement vector along the curve is

d~` = ( sin t x̂ + cos t ŷ + ẑ) dt

~ is
and the vector field V

~ = (cos t)2 x̂ + (sin t) t ŷ

V (sin t)(cos t) ẑ .

The integrand is

d~` · V
~ = sin t cos2 t + t sin t cos t sin t cos t dt .

The curve runs from t = 0 to t = 6⇡, so

Z 6⇡
3⇡
dt sin t cos2 t + t sin t cos t sin t cos t = . (33)
0 2

There are obviously a few steps missing in that last integral!

 F = (2, 6, 1) N
A body is moved along the line given by

r(t) = r 0 + ti
from point r(0) = r 0 to point r(2) = r 0 + 2i . Calculate the work done.
Exercise: 16. A force in a conservative field is given by

F = (x, y, z) N
A body moves from the origin of the coordinate system to the point

P = (5, 0, 0)
Calculate the work done.
17. Given the force $ &
x y
F = % ,%
x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2
Evaluate the line integral along a semicircle around the origin of the coordi-
nate system with radius R. Can you give the answer without computing?
18. Given a force F = (0, −z, y). calculate the line integral along the curve
" #
√ 2t
r(t) = 2 cos t, cos 2t,
!
from t = 0 to t = !
2.