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1 Materials
Nanoscale
Science at the

C.N.R. Rao
Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research,
Bangalore, India

A.K. Cheetham
University of California, Santa Barbara, California

CONTENTS

1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Nanoworld Is Uniquely Different
1.3 Synthesis and Characterization
1.4 Experimental Methods
1.5 Computer Simulation and Modeling
1.6 Applications
1.7 Outlook
References

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Nanoscience and nanotechnology primarily deal with the synthesis, characterization, exploration,
and exploitation of nanostructured materials. These materials are characterized by at least one
dimension in the nanometer (1 nm ⫽ 10−9 m) range. Nanostructures constitute a bridge between
molecules and infinite bulk systems. Individual nanostructures include clusters, quantum dots,
nanocrystals, nanowires, and nanotubes, while collections of nanostructures involve arrays, assem-
blies, and superlattices of the individual nanostructures [1,2]. Table 1.1 lists typical dimensions of
nanomaterials. The physical and chemical properties of nanomaterials can differ significantly from
those of the atomic-molecular or the bulk materials of the same composition. The uniqueness of
the structural characteristics, energetics, response, dynamics, and chemistry of nanostructures con-
stitutes the basis of nanoscience. Suitable control of the properties and response of nanostructures
can lead to new devices and technologies. The themes underlying nanoscience and nanotechnol-
ogy are twofold: one is the bottom-up approach, that is, the miniaturization of the components, as
articulated by Feynman, who stated in the 1959 lecture that “there is plenty of room at the bottom”
[3]; and the other is the approach of the self-assembly of molecular components, where each nano-
structured component becomes part of a suprastructure. The latter approach is akin to that of Jean-
Marie Lehn [4].

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2 Nanomaterials Handbook

TABLE 1.1
Nanostructures and Their Assemblies
Nanostructure Size Material
Clusters, nanocrystals Quantum dots Radius, 1–10 nm Insulators, semiconductors, metals, magnetic
materials
Other nanoparticles Radius, 1–100 nm Ceramic oxides
Nanobiomaterials, Photosynthetic Radius, 5–10 nm Membrane protein
reaction center
Nanowires Diameter, 1–100 nm Metals, semiconductors, oxides, sulfides, nitrides
Nanotubes Diameter, 1–100 nm Carbon, layered Chalcogenides, BN, GaN
Nanobiorods Diameter, 5 nm DNA
Two-dimensional arrays of nanoparticles Area, several nm2–µm2 Metals, semiconductors, magnetic materials
Surfaces and thin films Thickness, 1–100 nm Insulators, semiconductors, metals, DNA
Three-dimensional superlattices of Several nm in three Metals, semiconductors, magnetic materials
nanoparticles dimensions

Some of the important concerns of materials scientists in the nanoscience area are:

● Nanoparticles or nanocrystals of metals and semiconductors, nanotubes, nanowires, and

nanobiological systems.
● Assemblies of nanostructures (e.g., nanocrystals and nanowires) and the use of biologi-
cal systems, such as DNA as molecular nanowires and templates for metallic or semi-
conducting nanostructures.
● Theoretical and computational investigations that provide the conceptual framework for
structure, dynamics, response, and transport in nanostructures.
● Applications of nanomaterials in biology, medicine, electronics, chemical processes,
high-strength materials, etc.

Nanoscience and nanotechnology have grown explosively in the last decade, because of the
increasing availability of methods of synthesis of nanomaterials as well as tools of characterization
and manipulation (Table 1.2). Several innovative methods of synthesizing nanoparticles and nano-
tubes and their assemblies are now available. The size-dependent electrical, optical, and magnetic
properties of individual nanostructures of semiconductors, metals, and other materials are better
understood. Besides the established techniques of electron microscopy, crystallography, and spec-
troscopy, scanning probe microscopies have provided powerful tools for the study of nanostruc-
tures. Novel methods of fabricating patterned nanostructures as well as new device concepts are
being constantly discovered. Nanostructures also offer opportunities for meaningful computer sim-
ulation and modeling since their size is sufficiently small to permit considerable rigor in treatment.
In computations on nanomaterials, one deals with a spatial scaling from 1 Å to 1 µm and temporal
scaling from 1 fs to 1 s, the limit of accuracy going beyond 1 kcal/mol. There are many examples
to demonstrate current achievements in this area: familiar ones are STM images of quantum dots
(e.g., germanium pyramid on a silicon surface) and the quantum corral of 48 Fe atoms placed in a
circle of 7.3-nm radius. Ordered arrays or superlattices of nanocrystals of metals and semiconduc-
tors have been prepared by several workers. Nanostructured polymers formed by the ordered self-
assembly of triblock copolymers and nanostructured high-strength materials (e.g., Cu/Cr
nanolayers) are other examples. Prototype circuits involving nanoparticles and nanotubes for nano-
electronic devices have been fabricated.
Remember that some of the established technologies, such as catalysis and photography,
already employ nanoscale processes. The capability to synthesize, organize, and tailor-make

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Materials Science at the Nanoscale 3

TABLE 1.2
Synthesis and Methods of Characterization of Nanomaterials
Scale (approx.) Synthetic Methods Structural Tools Theory and Simulation
0.1–10 nm Covalent synthesis Vibrational, spectroscopy, Electronic structure, molecular
NMR, diffraction methods, dynamics, transport
scanning probe microscopies
(SPM)
⬍1–100 nm Self-assembly techniques SEM, TEM, SPM Molecular dynamics and mechanics
100 nm–1 µm Processing SEM, TEM Coarse-grained models for electronic
interactions, vibronic effects,
transport.

materials at the nanoscale is, however, of recent origin. The present goals of the science and tech-
nology of nanomaterials are to master the synthesis of nanostructures (nano-building units) and
their assemblies of desired properties; to explore and establish nanodevice concepts; to generate
new classes of high-performance nanomaterials, including biology-inspired systems; and to
improve techniques for the investigation of nanostructures [5–7]. One potential applications of
nanotechnology is the production of novel materials and devices in nanoelectronics, computer
technology, medicine, and health care.

1.2 THE NANOWORLD IS UNIQUELY DIFFERENT

The physical and chemical properties of nanostructures are distinctly different from those of a sin-
gle atom (molecule) and bulk matter with the same chemical composition. These differences
between nanomaterials and the molecular and condensed-phase materials pertain to the spatial
structures and shapes, phase changes, energetics, electronic structure, chemical reactivity, and cat-
alytic properties of large, finite systems, and their assemblies. Some of the important issues in
nanoscience relate to size effects, shape phenomena, quantum confinement, and response to exter-
nal electric and optical excitations of individual and coupled finite systems.
Size effects are an essential aspect of nanomaterials. The effects determined by size pertain to
the evolution of structural, thermodynamic, electronic, spectroscopic, and chemical features of
these finite systems with increasing size. Size effects are of two types: one is concerned with spe-
cific size effects (e.g., magic numbers of atoms in metal clusters, quantum mechanical effects at
small sizes) and the other with size-scaling applicable to relatively larger nanostructures. The for-
mer includes the appearance of new features in the electronic structure. In Figure 1.1, we show how
the electronic structures of metal and semiconductor nanocrystals differ from those of bulk materi-
als and isolated atoms. In Figure 1.2, we show the size dependence of the average energy level spac-
ing of sodium in terms of the Kubo gap (EF /N) in Kelvin. In this figure, we also show the effective
percentage of surface atoms as a function of particle diameter. Note that at small sizes, we have a
high percentage of surface atoms.
The structure of nanoparticles of CdS, CdSe, and such materials is affected by size. Melting
point, electronic absorption spectra, and other properties show marked size effects. In Figure 1.3
and Figure 1.4, we show some of the size effects graphically. It should be noted that metals show
nonmetallic band gaps when the diameter of the nanocrystals is in the 1 to 2 nm range. Hg clusters
show a nonmetallic band gap that decreases with increase in cluster size. Approximately 300 atoms
appear to be necessary to close the gap. Metal nanoparticles of 1 to 2 nm diameter exhibit unex-
pected catalytic activity, as exemplified by nanocatalysis by gold particles.

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4 Nanomaterials Handbook

Bulk Nanocrystal Isolated

atom

Unoccupied

Energy
Metals EF

Occupied

Density of states

Semiconductors Unoccupied
Energy

EF

Occupied

Density of states

FIGURE 1.1 Density of states for metal and semiconductor nanocrystals compared to those of the bulk and
of isolated atoms. (Reproduced from Rao, C.N.R. et al., Chem-Eur. J., 8, 29, 2002.)

108
Microscopic Mesoscopic Macroscopic 100
106
Percentage of atoms on surface Ps (%)

10
104
Kubo gap
(K)

1
102

1 0.1

10−2
0.01

10−4
0.001
−6
10
2 3 4
1 10 10 10 10
Particle diameter D (Å)

FIGURE 1.2 A plot of the average electronic level spacing (Kubo gap, δ ) of sodium as a function of
nanoparticle diameter. Also shown as the percentage of atoms at the surface. (Reproduced from Edwards, P.P.,
et al., in Metal Clusters in Chemistry, Braunstein, P., et al., Ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, p. 1454, 1999.)

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Materials Science at the Nanoscale 5

(a) 1800
Bulk
1600

1400

Melting temperature (K)

1200

1000

800

600

400
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Radius (Å)

(b) 5.0

4.8

4.6
Transition pressure (GPa)

4.4

4.2

4.0

3.8

3.6

3.4
10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Radius (Å)

FIGURE 1.3 Size dependence of the (a) melting temperature of CdS nanocrystals and (b) the pressure
induced transformation of the wurtzite-rock salt transformation in CdSe nanocrystals. (Reproduced from
Alivisatos, A.P., J. Phys. Chem., 100, 13226, 1996.)

Shapes of nanoparticles also play a role in determining properties, such as reactivity and elec-
tronic spectra. For example, the position of the plasmon band of metal nanorods is sensitive to the
aspect ratio.

1.3 SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION

The growth of nanoscience and nanotechnology in the last decade has been possible because of the
success in the synthesis of nanomaterials in conjunction with the advent of tools for characteriza-
tion and manipulation. The synthesis of nanomaterials spans inorganic, organic, and biological sys-
tems on manipulation (Table 1.2). The subsequent assembling of the individual nanostructures into

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6 Nanomaterials Handbook

Wavelength (nm)
250 350 450 550
8
I II
6000
7
4000
 (M−1cm−1)
h 2000
6

Absorption coefficient  (M−1cm−1)

0
g
Absorbance (arbitrary units)

5 h

f g
4
e f
3 e
d d
2

c c
1

b
0 b

−1 a a

1000 1500 2000 2500 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5

Wavelength (nm) Photon energy (eV)

FIGURE 1.4 Electronic absorption spectra of (I) PbSe, (II) CdS nanocrystals. I, a.3, b.3.5, c.4.5, d.5, e.5.5,
f.7, g.8, h.9 nm II, a.64, b.0.72, c.0.8, d.0.93, e.1.94, f.2.8, g.4.8 nm. (Reproduced from Vossmeyer, T., et al., J.
Phys. Chem., 98, 7665, 1994 and Murray, R.W., et al., IBM J. Res. Dev., 45, 47, 2001.)

ordered arrays is often imperative. Notable examples of the synthesis of novel nanobuilding units
are:

● Nanocrystals of metals, semiconductors and magnetic materials, employing colloid

chemistry methods
● The use of physical and chemical methods for the synthesis of nanoparticles of ceramic
materials
● Surface deposition of clusters and nanocrystals on graphite and other metallic or semi-
conducting surfaces to obtain novel three- or two-dimensional nanosystems
● Single- and multi-walled carbon nanotubes as well as nanotubes of inorganic materials,
such as metal oxides, chalcogenides, and nitrides
● Nanowires of metals, semiconductors, oxides, nitrides, sulfides, and other materials
● New polymeric structures involving dendrimers and block copolymers
● Nanobiological structures (e.g., bacterial and plant photosynthetic reaction centers and
segments of DNA). Mutagenesis of the protein structure as well as chemical modifica-
tions of the DNA double strand, enable the control of the response of these systems

The synthesis of nanomaterials includes control of size, shape, and structure. Assembling the
nanostructures into ordered arrays often becomes necessary for rendering them functional and oper-
ational. In the last decade, nanoparticle (powders) of ceramic materials have been produced in large
scales by employing both physical and chemical methods. There has been considerable progress in
the preparation of nanocrystals of metals, semiconductors, and magnetic materials by employing
colloid chemical methods [2]. Nanocrystals of materials with narrow size distributions have been

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Materials Science at the Nanoscale 7

50 nm
(a) (b) (c)

c -Axis

10 nm

FIGURE 1.5 TEM images of CdSe quantum rods (a, b) low-resolution images of quantum rods of different
aspect ratios; (c) three-dimensional orientation. High resolution images are also shown. (Reproduced from
Peng, X. et al., Nature, 404, 59, 2000.)

prepared by controlling the shape in some instances. To illustrate this aspect, we show transmission
electron microscope (TEM) images of CdSe nanorods in Figure 1.5.
Since the discovery of carbon nanotubes [11], there has been considerable progress in the syn-
thesis of multi- and single-walled nanotubes (MWNTs and SWNTs) and bundles of aligned nan-
otubes [12,13]. In Figure 1.6, we show electron microscope images of MWNTs and SWNTs.
Typical methods employed to synthesize SWNTs are an arc discharge with carbon electrodes con-
taining suitable catalysts, laser ablation, pyrolysis of precursors, and decomposition of CO. Carbon
nanotubes have been doped with nitrogen and boron. Especially noteworthy is the synthesis of
Y-junction carbon nanotubes, which could become vital components in nanoelectronics. Nanotubes
of inorganic materials, in particular those of layered metal chalcogenides (e.g., MoS2, WS2, MoSe2,
NbS2), have been synthesized by various methods [14,15].
The construction of ordered arrays of nanostructures by employing techniques of organic self-
assembly provides alternative strategies for nanodevices. Two- and three-dimensional arrays of
nanocrystals of semiconductors, metals, and magnetic materials have been assembled by using suit-
able organic reagents. Strain-directed assembly of nanoparticle arrays (e.g., of semiconductors) pro-
vides the means to introduce functionality into the substrate that is coupled to that on the surface.
We show TEM images of self-assembled Pd nanocrystals capped with alkanethiols in Figure 1.7.
Assembly of nanocrystals is carried out by various means. Besides the use of alkane thiols and such
reagents, DNA-directed assembly has been accomplished.
The area of nanoporous solids has witnessed many major advances. A constant quest for crys-
talline solids with giant pores has resulted in the recent synthesis of several novel materials [2]. The
pore size in zeolites and other nanoporous materials can be controlled and the shape-selective

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8 Nanomaterials Handbook

FIGURE 1.6 Transmission electron microscopic images of (a) multi- and (b) single-walled carbon nanotubes.

FIGURE 1.7 Two-dimensional arrays of Pd nanocrystals.

catalysis afforded by nanoporous solids continues to motivate much of the work in catalysis. Since
Mobil chemists discovered mesoporous MCM 41, a variety of mesoporous inorganic solids with
pore diameters in the 2 to 20 nm range have been prepared and characterized. Mesoporous fibers
and spheres of silica and other materials have also been prepared. A variety of inorganic, organic,

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Materials Science at the Nanoscale 9

and organic–inorganic hybrid open-framework materials with different pore architectures have been
synthesized in the last few years.
Typical examples of self-assembly are:

● Two- and three-dimensional structures of nanocrystals of semiconductors, metals, and

magnetic materials self-assembled using suitable organic solvents.
● Polymer-coated nanocrystals assembled to form giant nanoparticles.
● Self-assembled carbon nanotubes forming single crystals.
● Self-assembly of colloid nanostructures.
● Self-assembly induced by Lithography.
● Utilization of the unique features of recognition, assembly, and specific binding of
nucleobases in DNA duplexes for the construction of blocks or templates for the assem-
bly of other nanoelements.
● Decoration of viral particles with metal nanoparticles, with the aim of allowing the
viruses to assemble themselves into arrays to create networks of the nanoparticles.

1.4 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

While the standard methods of measurement and characterization are constantly employed for the
investigation of nanostructures, the use of scanning probe microscopies (spatial resolution, ~1 nm),
combined with high-resolution electron microscopy, has enabled direct images of the structures and
the study of properties. For example, scanning tunneling spectroscopy and conduction atomic force
microscopy provide information on the electronic structure and related properties. Scanning probe
microscopies are employed at low temperatures, under vacuum or in magnetic fields. Magnetic
force microscopy directly images magnetic domains, and magnetic resonance microscopes can
detect nuclear or electron spin resonance with submicron spatial resolution. Computer-controlled
scanning probe microscopy is useful in nanostructure manipulation in real time, and nanomanipu-
lators are being used with scanning and TEMs. Newer versions of nanomanipulators will have to be
developed by using technologies such as nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS).
Near-field scanning optical microscopy allows optical access to sub-wavelength scales (50 to
100 nm) by breaking the diffraction limit. Optical tweezers provide an elegant means to investigate
the mechanical properties and dynamics of particles and molecules. Thus, force measurement of
complementary DNA binding provides a sensitive sensor.
Nanomechanics performed using the atomic force microscope enables the study of single mol-
ecules, and is valuable in understanding folding and related problems in biological molecules.
Cantilever probes have been developed to enable high-speed nanometer scale imaging.
Microfabricated chips for DNA analysis and polymerase chain reactions have been developed.
It would be of great benefit if improved tools for three-dimensional imaging and microscopy, as
well as for chemical analysis of materials in nanometric dimensions, become available.

1.5 COMPUTER SIMULATION AND MODELING

Several computational techniques have been employed to simulate and model nanomaterials. Since
the relaxation times can vary anywhere from picoseconds to hours, it becomes necessary to employ
Langevin dynamics besides molecular dynamics in the calculations. Simulation of nanodevices
through the optimization of various components and functions provides challenging and useful task.
There are many examples where simulation and modeling have yielded impressive results, such as
nanoscale lubrication. Simulation of the molecular dynamics of DNA has been successful to some
extent. Quantum dots and nanotubes have been modeled satisfactorily. First principles calculations
of nanomaterials can be problematic if the clusters are too large to be treated by Hartree–Fock meth-
ods and too small for density functional theory.

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10 Nanomaterials Handbook

1.6 APPLICATIONS
By employing sol–gels and aerogels, inorganic oxide materials of high surface areas with improved
absorptive, catalytic, and other properties are being produced. Consolidated nanocomposites and
nanostructures enable production of ultrahigh strength, tough structural materials, strong ductile
cements, and novel magnets. Significant developments are occurring in the sintering of nanophase
ceramic materials and in textiles and plastics containing dispersed nanoparticles. Nanostructured
electrode materials could improve the capacity and performance of the Li-ion batteries. Shipway
et al. [16] have reviewed nanoparticle-based applications. Known and new types of nano-, meso-
and macroporous materials can be put to use for inorganic synthesis and in industrial catalysis. The
chemical industry may indeed get involved to a greater extent in the design of catalysts containing
different types of nanometric particles, since nanoscale catalysis could provide great selectivity.
Techniques of nanoimprint lithography and soft lithography are sufficiently developed and a
combination of self-assembly with tools of patterning can enable new nanolithographic patterns.
Thin-film electrets patterned with trapped charge provides another method of patterning that may
be useful in high-density charge-based data storage and high-resolution printing. Dip-pen lithogra-
phy [17] employing nanomaterials has made progress (Figure 1.8).
Potential applications of carbon nanotubes are many [12,18]. Carbon nanotubes are being used
as tips in scanning microscopes and also as efficient field emitters for possible use in display
devices. Since SWNTs can be metallic or semiconducting, we would expect many applications
exploiting the electronic structure of these materials [2]. Thus, the supercapacitance of the nano-
tubes can be used for applications in various ways, such as electrochemical actuators. Field-effect
transistors have been fabricated using nanotubes. We show typical I–V curves in an FET configura-
tion in Figure 1.9. Three- and four-terminal devices seem possible. The Y-junction nanotubes can
become useful chips for fabrication of novel circuits.

3.0 µm

3.0 µm

5.0 µm
9 µm

2.5 µm

FIGURE 1.8 Dip-pen lithography using Fe2O3 nanoparticles. (Reproduced from Gundiah, G. et al., Appl.
Phys. Lett., 84, 5341, 2004.)

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Materials Science at the Nanoscale 11

Gate voltage (V): −3 +1 +2 +4 +6

20 300 K

I (nA) 0

−6
10

G (Vbias = 0) (Ω )
−1
−9
10

−20 10
−12

−6 −3 0 3 6 9
Vgate (V)

−1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5

Vbias (V)

FIGURE 1.9 I–V characteristics of a single-walled nanotube at different gate voltages showing field-effect
transistor behavior. (Reproduced from Tans, S.J., Veresheuren, A.R.M., and Dekker, C., Nature, 393, 49, 1998.)

Chemical and biochemical sensors have been fabricated with nanotubes. Although carbon
nanotubes were expected to be good for hydrogen storage, recent measurements have negated
this possibility. Surface properties of carbon nanotubes are being explored for catalytic applica-
tions, specially after deposition of metal nanoparticles on the surface. While we limit ourselves
to carbon nanotubes here, remember that potential uses of inorganic nanotubes have not been
explored. Similarly, the use of inorganic nanowires for various applications has yet to be inves-
tigated fully.
Colloidal gold particles attached to DNA strands can be employed to assay specific comple-
mentary DNAs. There are many examples where semiconductor or metal nanocrystals or quantum
dots have been tagged for use as biological sensors. The technology of DNA microchip arrays,
involving lithographic patterning, is bound to see further improvement. Drug and gene delivery
will become increasingly more effective with the use of nanoparticles and nanocapsules.
Molecular motors, such as the protein F1-AT phase, are already known, but it may become practi-
cal to power an inorganic nanodevice with such a biological motor. Other areas of biology in
which nanomaterials can have an impact are the monitoring of the environment and living systems
by the use of nanosensors and the improvement of prosthetics used to repair or replace parts of the
human body.
The most significant applications of nanomaterials may be in nanodevices and nanoelectron-
ics [1,12,18]. There are already some important advances in these areas to justify such an expec-
tation. Typical of the advances made hitherto are the demonstration of single-electron memory.
Coulomb blockade and quantum effects, scanning probe tips in arrays, logic elements, and sen-
sors. Applications of semiconductors nanostructures, in particular those of the III–V nitrides (e.g.,
InGaN) as LEDs and laser diodes, have been impressive, and quantum dots and wires of these
materials will have many uses. Resonant tunneling devices in nanoelectronics deserve special
mention since they have already demonstrated success in multivalued logic and memory circuits.
Functional devices based on quantum confinement would be of use in photonic switching and opti-
cal communications.

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12 Nanomaterials Handbook

1.7 OUTLOOK
The preceding sections provide a glimpse of the present status of nanostructured materials. There
is great vitality in this area and immense opportunities. Nanoscience is a truly interdisciplinary area
covering physics, chemistry, biology, materials, and engineering. Interaction among scientists with
different backgrounds will undoubtedly create new materials and a new science with novel techno-
logical possibilities.
Nanoscience and nanotechnology are likely to benefit various industrial sectors, including
chemical and electronic industries, as well as manufacturing. Health care, medical practice, and
environmental protection will benefit from nanoscience. One of the difficult problems facing the
design of nanostructures-based systems is understanding how to interconnect and address them. The
success of nanoscience will depend on the development of new device and manufacturing tech-
nologies. There is every reason to believe that there will be much progress in the coming decade.

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