SQL Data Definition

Session 3
 Course Sub Learning Outcomes
(Sub-CLO)

• Student are able to structure Query to Definition

Data in Database – (C4)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

• These slides have been

adapted from Connolly,
T., & Begg, C. (2015).
Database Systems: A
Practical Approach to
Design, Implementation,
and Management. 6th
edition. Pearson
Education. USA. ISBN:
978-1-292-06118-4,
Chapter 6&7
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• Objectives of SQL
• History of SQL
• Data types supported by SQL standard
• Purpose of Integrity enhancement feature
• Creating tables
• Altering tables
• Basic concept of View

vtraining-msuhandi.blogspot.com
Objectives of SQL
 Objectives of SQL

• Ideally, database language should allow user to:

• create the database and relation structures;
• perform insertion, modification, deletion of data from relations;
• perform simple and complex queries.
• Must perform these tasks with minimal user effort and
command structure/syntax must be easy to learn.
• It must be portable.
• SQL is a transform-oriented language with 2 major
components:
• A DDL for defining database structure.
• A DML for retrieving and updating data.
 Objectives of SQL

• Until SQL:1999, SQL did not contain flow of control commands.

These had to be implemented using a programming or job-
control language, or interactively by the decisions of user.

• SQL is relatively easy to learn:

• it is non-procedural - you specify what information you require, rather
than how to get it;
• it is essentially free-format.

• Can be used by range of users including DBAs, management,

application developers, and other types of end users.

• An ISO standard now exists for SQL, making it both the formal
and de facto standard language for relational databases.
 Objectives of SQL

• Consists of standard English words:

1) CREATE TABLE Staff(staffNo VARCHAR(5),

lName VARCHAR(15),
salary DECIMAL(7,2));
2) INSERT INTO Staff VALUES (‘SG16’, ‘Brown’, 8300);
3) SELECT staffNo, lName, salary
FROM Staff
WHERE salary > 10000;
History of SQL
 History of SQL

• In 1974, D. Chamberlin (IBM San Jose

Laboratory) defined language called
‘Structured English Query Language’ (SEQUEL).
• A revised version, SEQUEL/2, was defined in
1976 but name was subsequently changed to
SQL for legal reasons.
• Still pronounced ‘see-quel’, though official
pronunciation is ‘S-Q-L’.
• IBM subsequently produced a prototype
DBMS called System R, based on SEQUEL/2.
• Roots of SQL, however, are in SQUARE historyarthistory.gmu.edu
(Specifying Queries as Relational Expressions),
which predates System R project.
 History of SQL

• In late 70s, ORACLE appeared and was

probably first commercial RDBMS based on
SQL.
• In 1987, ANSI and ISO published an initial
standard for SQL.
• In 1989, ISO published an addendum that
defined an ‘Integrity Enhancement Feature’.
• In 1992, first major revision to ISO standard
occurred, referred to as SQL2 or SQL/92.
• In 1999, SQL:1999 was released with
kiossoftware.com support for object-oriented data
management.
• In late 2003, SQL:2003 was released.
• In summer 2008, SQL:2008 was released.
• In late 2011, SQL:2011 was released.
 Importance of SQL

• SQL has become part of application architectures such as

IBM’s Systems Application Architecture.
• It is strategic choice of many large and influential
organizations (e.g. X/OPEN).
• SQL is Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) to
which conformance is required for all sales of databases to
American Government.
• SQL is used in other standards and even influences
development of other standards as a definitional tool.
Examples include:
• ISO’s Information Resource Directory System (IRDS) Standard
• Remote Data Access (RDA) Standard.
 Writing SQL Commands

• SQL statement consists of reserved words and user-defined

words.
– Reserved words are a fixed part of SQL and must be spelt
exactly as required and cannot be split across lines.
– User-defined words are made up by user and represent names
of various database objects such as relations, columns, views.
• Most components of an SQL statement are case insensitive,
except for literal character data (for example: lastName 'SMITH'
is different from 'Smith').
• More readable with indentation and lineation:
• Each clause should begin on a new line.
• Start of a clause should line up with start of other clauses.
• If clause has several parts, should each appear on a separate line and be
indented under start of clause to show the relationship.
 Writing SQL Commands

• Use extended form of BNF notation:

- Upper-case letters represent reserved words.
- Lower-case letters represent user-defined words.
- A vertical bar ( | ) indicates a choice among alternatives;
for example: a | b | c.
- Curly braces indicate a required element; for example: {a}.
- Square brackets indicate an optional element; for
example: [a].
- An ellipsis (…) indicates optional repetition (0 or more). For
example: {a|b}(,c...) means either a or b followed by zero
or more repetitions of c separated by commas.
 Literals

• Literals are constants used in SQL statements.

• All non-numeric literals must be enclosed in single quotes

(e.g. ‘London’).

• All numeric literals must not be enclosed in quotes (e.g.

650.00).
Data Types
 ISO SQL Data Types

• CHAR: fixed length character

• VARCHAR: varying length character
• NUMERIC[precision,[scale]]
• DECIMAL[precision,[scale]]
• The default scale is 0
• DECIMAL(6,2): can handle value up to 9,999.99
Integrity Enhancement Feature
 Integrity Enhancement Feature

• Consider five types of integrity constraints:

• required data (mandatory): attribute that must have a value
(NOT NULL)
• domain constraints: possible values for one/many attribute/s
• entity integrity: Primary Key can’t have NULL value (NOT NULL)
and must be unique
• referential integrity: Foreign key has two types of possible values
(1) NULL (if it is not mandatory) and (2) referred Primary Key
values
• general constraints: Enterprise Rules
comment
 Required Data

Required Data: Mandatory (the attribute must be filled with a value-

>NOT NULL)

CREATE TABLE STAFF

(
…
position VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL,
…
)
 Domain Constraints

Domain Constraints
(a) CHECK (Only used in one particular table)
• Column Level
CREATE TABLE STAFF (
…
sex CHAR NOT NULL
CHECK (sex IN (‘M’, ‘F’)),
…)
Or
CREATE TABLE STAFF (
…
sex CHAR NOT NULL
CONSTRAINT C1 CHECK (sex IN (‘M’, ‘F’)),
…)
 Domain Constraints

Domain Constraints
(a) CHECK (Only used in one particular table)
• Table Level
CREATE TABLE STAFF (
…
sex CHAR NOT NULL,
…
CHECK (sex IN (‘M’, ‘F’)),
…)
Or
CREATE TABLE STAFF (
…
sex CHAR NOT NULL,
…
CONSTRAINT C1 CHECK (sex IN (‘M’, ‘F’)),
…)
 Domain Constraints

(b) CREATE DOMAIN (can be used in more than one table)

CREATE DOMAIN DomainName [AS] dataType
[DEFAULT defaultOption]
[CHECK (searchCondition)]

For example:
CREATE DOMAIN SexType AS CHAR
CHECK (VALUE IN (‘M’, ‘F’));

CREATE TABLE STAFF (

…
sex SexType NOT NULL,
…)
 Domain Constraints

• searchCondition can involve a table lookup:

CREATE DOMAIN BranchNo AS CHAR(4)
CHECK (VALUE IN (SELECT branchNo
FROM Branch));

• Domains can be removed using DROP DOMAIN:

DROP DOMAIN DomainName
[RESTRICT | CASCADE]
 IEF - Entity Integrity

• Primary key of a table must contain a unique, non-null value for each
row.
• ISO standard supports PRIMARY KEY clause in CREATE and ALTER
TABLE statements:
CREATE TABLE STAFF (
…
staffNo VARCHAR(5) PRIMARY KEY,
…)
Or
CREATE TABLE STAFF (
staffNo VARCHAR(5) NOT NULL,
…
PRIMARY KEY(staffNo),
…)
 IEF - Entity Integrity

• ISO standard supports PRIMARY KEY clause in CREATE and ALTER

TABLE statements:
CREATE TABLE VIEWING (
clientNo VARCHAR(5) NOT NULL,
propertyNo VARCHAR(5) NOT NULL,
…
PRIMARY KEY(clientNo, propertyNo),
…)
• Can only have one PRIMARY KEY clause per table. Can still ensure
uniqueness for alternate keys using UNIQUE:
CREATE TABLE CLIENT (
…
UNIQUE(telNo),
…)
 IEF - Referential Integrity

• FK is column or set of columns that links each row in child table

containing foreign FK to row of parent table containing matching
PK.
• Referential integrity means that, if FK contains a value, that value
must refer to existing row in parent table.
• ISO standard supports definition of FKs with FOREIGN KEY clause in
CREATE and ALTER TABLE:
CREATE TABLE STAFF ( …
branchNo CHAR(4) REFERENCES Branch,
…)
Or
CREATE TABLE STAFF ( …
branchNo CHAR(4), …
FOREIGN KEY(branchNo) REFERENCES Branch
)
 IEF - Referential Integrity

• Any INSERT/UPDATE attempting to create FK value in child table

without matching CK value in parent is rejected.
• Action taken attempting to update/delete a CK value in parent
table with matching rows in child is dependent on referential
action specified using ON UPDATE and ON DELETE subclauses. For
example referential action using ON DELETE :
• CASCADE: Delete row from parent and delete matching rows in child, and so
on in cascading manner.
• SET NULL: Delete row from parent and set FK column(s) in child to NULL. Only
valid if FK columns are NOT NULL (not mandatory).
• SET DEFAULT: Delete row from parent and set each component of FK in child to
specified default. Only valid if DEFAULT specified for FK columns.
• NO ACTION: Reject delete from parent. Default.
 IEF - Referential Integrity

ON UPDATE CASCADE:
Branch Staff
branchNo: B001 All Staff records with branchNo: B001
is updated into B011 are also updated into B011

ON UPDATE SET NULL:

Branch Staff
branchNo : B001 All Staff records with branchNo: B001
is updated into B011 are set to NULL value

ON DELETE CASCADE:
Branch Staff
branchNo : B001 All Staff records with branchNo: B001
This record is deleted are also deleted

ON DELETE SET NULL:

Branch Staff
branchNo : B001 All Staff records with branchNo: B001
This record is deleted are set to NULL value
 IEF - Referential Integrity

FOREIGN KEY (branchNo) REFERENCES Branch

ON DELETE SET NULL ON UPDATE CASCADE
 IEF - General Constraints

• Could use CHECK/UNIQUE in CREATE and ALTER TABLE.

• Similar to the CHECK clause, also have:
CREATE ASSERTION AssertionName
CHECK (searchCondition)
 IEF - General Constraints

CREATE ASSERTION StaffNotHandlingTooMuch

CHECK (NOT EXISTS (SELECT staffNo
FROM PropertyForRent
GROUP BY staffNo
HAVING COUNT(*) > 100))
 Data Definition

• SQL DDL allows database objects such as schemas, domains, tables,

views, and indexes to be created and destroyed.
• Main SQL DDL statements are:
CREATE SCHEMA DROP SCHEMA
CREATE/ALTER DOMAIN DROP DOMAIN
CREATE/ALTER TABLE DROP TABLE
CREATE VIEW DROP VIEW
• Many DBMSs also provide:
CREATE INDEX DROP INDEX

CREATE INDEX Index_name ON Table_Name(Column1 [,column2,..])

Create and Altering Table
 Data Definition

• Relations and other database objects exist in an

environment.
• Each environment contains one or more catalogs, and each
catalog consists of set of schemas.
• Schema is named collection of related database objects.
• Objects in a schema can be tables, views, domains,
assertions, collations, translations, and character sets. All
have same owner.
 CREATE SCHEMA

CREATE SCHEMA [Name |

AUTHORIZATION CreatorId ]
DROP SCHEMA Name [RESTRICT | CASCADE ]

• With RESTRICT (default), schema must be empty or operation

fails.
• With CASCADE, operation cascades to drop all objects
associated with schema in order defined above. If any of these
operations fail, DROP SCHEMA fails.
 CREATE TABLE

CREATE TABLE TableName

{(colName dataType [NOT NULL] [UNIQUE]
[DEFAULT defaultOption]
[CHECK searchCondition] [,...]}
[PRIMARY KEY (listOfColumns),]
{[UNIQUE (listOfColumns),] […,]}
{[FOREIGN KEY (listOfFKColumns)
REFERENCES ParentTableName [(listOfCKColumns)],
[ON UPDATE referentialAction]
[ON DELETE referentialAction ]] [,…]}
{[CHECK (searchCondition)] [,…] })
 CREATE TABLE

• Creates a table with one or more columns of the specified

dataType.
• With NOT NULL, system rejects any attempt to insert a null
in the column.
• Can specify a DEFAULT value for the column.
• Primary keys should always be specified as NOT NULL.
• FOREIGN KEY clause specifies FK along with the referential
action.
 Example 7.1 - CREATE TABLE

CREATE DOMAIN OwnerNumber AS VARCHAR(5)

CHECK (VALUE IN (SELECT ownerNo FROM PrivateOwner));
CREATE DOMAIN StaffNumber AS VARCHAR(5)
CHECK (VALUE IN (SELECT staffNo FROM Staff));
CREATE DOMAIN BranchNumber AS CHAR(4)
CHECK (VALUE IN (SELECT branchNo FROM Branch));
CREATE DOMAIN PropertyNumber AS VARCHAR(5);
CREATE DOMAIN DStreet AS VARCHAR(25);
CREATE DOMAIN DCity AS VARCHAR(15);
CREATE DOMAIN DPostCode AS VARCHAR(8);
 Example 7.1 - CREATE TABLE

CREATE DOMAIN PropertyType AS CHAR(1)

CHECK(VALUE IN (‘B’,’C’,’D’,’E’,’F’,’M’,’S’));
CREATE DOMAIN PropertyRooms AS SMALLINT
CHECK(VALUE BETWEEN 1 AND 15);
CREATE DOMAIN PropertyRent AS DECIMAL(6,2)
CHECK(VALUE BETWEEN 0 AND 9999.99);
 Example 7.1 - CREATE TABLE

CREATE TABLE PropertyForRent (

propertyNo PropertyNumber NOT NULL,
street DStreet NOT NULL,
city DCity NOT NULL,
postcode DPostCode,
type PropertyType NOT NULL DEFAULT ‘F’,
rooms PropertyRooms NOT NULL DEFAULT 4,
rent PropertyRent NOT NULLDEFAULT
600,
ownerNo OwnerNumber NOT NULL,
...
 Example 7.1 - CREATE TABLE

…
staffNo StaffNumber
Constraint StaffNotHandlingTooMuch
CHECK (NOT EXISTS (SELECT staffNo
FROM PropertyForRent
GROUP BY staffNo
HAVING COUNT(*) > 100)),
branchNo BranchNumber NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (propertyNo),
FOREIGN KEY (staffNo) REFERENCES Staff
ON DELETE SET NULL ON UPDATE CASCADE,
FOREIGN KEY (ownerNo) REFERENCES PrivateOwner
ON DELETE NO ACTION ON UPDATE CASCADE,
FOREIGN KEY (branchNo) REFERENCES Branch
ON DELETE NO ACTION ON UPDATE CASCADE
);
 ALTER TABLE

• Add a new column to a table.

• Drop a column from a table.
• Add a new table constraint.
• Drop a table constraint.
• Set a default for a column.
• Drop a default for a column.

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 Example 7.2(a) - ALTER TABLE

Change Staff table by removing default of ‘Assistant’

for position column and setting default for sex
column to female (‘F’).

ALTER TABLE Staff

ALTER position DROP DEFAULT;

ALTER TABLE Staff

ALTER sex SET DEFAULT ‘F’;
 Example 7.2(b) - ALTER TABLE

Remove constraint from PropertyForRent that staff are not

allowed to handle more than 100 properties at a time.
ALTER TABLE PropertyForRent
DROP CONSTRAINT StaffNotHandlingTooMuch;

Add new column to Client table.

ALTER TABLE Client
ADD prefNoRooms PropertyRooms;
 DROP TABLE

DROP TABLE TableName [RESTRICT | CASCADE]

e.g. DROP TABLE PropertyForRent;

• Removes named table and all rows within it.

• With RESTRICT, if any other objects depend for their existence on
continued existence of this table, SQL does not allow request.
• With CASCADE, SQL drops all dependent objects (and objects
dependent on these objects).
Introduction of Views
 Views

View
Dynamic result of one or more relational operations operating on base
relations to produce another relation.

• Virtual relation that does not necessarily actually exist in the

database but is produced upon request, at time of request.
• Contents of a view are defined as a query on one or more base
relations.
• With view resolution, any operations on view are automatically
translated into operations on relations from which it is derived.
• With view materialization, the view is stored as a temporary
table, which is maintained as the underlying base tables are
updated.
 SQL - CREATE VIEW

CREATE VIEW ViewName [ (newColumnName [,...]) ]

AS subselect
[WITH [CASCADED | LOCAL] CHECK OPTION]

• Can assign a name to each column in view.

• If list of column names is specified, it must have same
number of items as number of columns produced by
subselect.
• If omitted, each column takes name of corresponding
column in subselect.
 SQL - CREATE VIEW

• List must be specified if there is any ambiguity in a column

name.
• The subselect is known as the defining query.
• WITH CHECK OPTION ensures that if a row fails to satisfy
WHERE clause of defining query, it is not added to
underlying base table.
• Need SELECT privilege on all tables referenced in subselect
and USAGE privilege on any domains used in referenced
columns.
 Advantages of Views

• Data independence
• Currency
• Improved security
• Reduced complexity
• Convenience
• Customization
• Data integrity
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 Disadvantages of Views

• Update restriction
• Structure restriction
• Performance

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