PLANT PATHOLOGY

Father of modern plant pathology: Anton de Bary

In 1863, he studied the epidemics of late blight of potato and renamed as casual organism as
phytophthora infestans.
Plant pathology or phytopathology:
Logus-
knowledge
Pathos-
ailments
Phyton-
plant

❖ The scientific study of diseases in plants caused by pathogens (infectious organisms) and
environmental conditions.
❖ Organisms that cause infectious disease include fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, viruses, viroids, virus like
organisms, phytoplasmas, protozoa, nematodes and parasitic plants.
Disease
➢ Plant disease as abnormal changes in physiological processes which disturb the normal activity of
plant organs.
➢ Plant disease is the interaction of host, pathogen and weather. It is a physiological process that
affects some or all plant functions.
➢ For eg:
▪ Infection of roots may cause roots to rot and make them unable to absorb water and
nutrients from the soil;
▪ Infection of xylem vessels interferes with the translocation of water and minerals to the
crown of the plant;
▪ Infection of the foliage, (leaf spots, blights, rusts, mildews etc.), interferes with
photosynthesis.
➢ Disease may also reduce yield and quality of harvested product.
➢ Primary inoculum found in the seed (virus disease of potato, loose smut of wheat, ergot of bajra).
❖ Pathogen: A pathogen is an agent that incites (ailment,suffering) disease.
❖ Symptoms: Any detectable change in color, shape and/or functions of the plant in response to a
pathogen or disease-causing agent is a symptom.
❖ Signs: These are physical evidence of the pathogen, for example, fungal fruiting bodies, bacterial
ooze, or nematode cysts. Signs can also help with plant disease identification.
❖ Disease cycle: The chain of events in disease development is known as the disease cycle.
 Classification of plant diseases

Based on type of
Based on Type of crop: Cereal
symptoms: Blights, diseases,
Rusts, Smuts, Rots, Vegetable
wilts etc. diseases, Fruit
disease.

Based on causal
Based on type of agents:
organ affected: Nonparasitic
Fruit diseases, diseases, parasitic
Root diseases. diseases, viral
diseases.

Disease Surveillance:

Qualitative survey: To detect the pathogen

Quantitative survey: To count numbers or

intensity of the pathogen

Methodology:
➢ Fixed plot survey
➢ Rowing survey (walking across the field, starting from south west corner to north east corner)

Forecasting is an applied Epidemiology

Short term
forecasting

Long term forecasting

Computerized system
of disease forecasting
 ❖ Short term forecasting: During the crop season or just before the crop season
❖ Long term forecasting: Prediction of the disease is done many year in advance (Ex. for
soil borne disease in monoculture system)
❖ Computerized system of disease forecasting: Blitecast - It is a computer system of late
blight of potato disease forecasting

Crop health surveillance: To assess periodic or regular activities of the pest & pathogen. It is for
decision making for proper timing of spray

➢ Epidemiology: Study of outbreak and spread of disease in a population.

➢ Sporadic: Pathogen affects only a few plants in the field.
➢ Epidemic: Pathogen affects a large population in the field and cover large area.
➢ Endemic: The incidence is localized.

Steps of disease spread:

Secondary
Initial Spore spore Primary Sporulation
spread /
inoculum germination germination infection on the host
inoculum

Pathogen entry into plant system: Lenticels of potato are site of infection for bacterial soft rots
Formaldehyde is used to disinfect storage boxes and packing house
Gamma rays penetrate fruits and vegetables and destroy pathogens
Low temperature delay ripening of fruits (it directly inhibits growth of the pathogens)
Symptoms of plant disease:
➢ Withering and wilting: withering of the whole plant or some part of it. Wilting, where a whole
plant dries up more or less suddenly from fungus attack.
➢ Etiolation: Excessive elongation of cells
➢ Hypertrophy: Abnormal cell enlargement (curling). This condition also results in the
overdevelopment in size of plants or plant organs due to enlargement of component cells.
➢ Hyperplasia: Excessive cell division (galls,tumours, tumefaction, proliferation, fasciation). It is
the enlargement of a plant tissue due to excessive increase in the number of plant cells
produced. Hyperplasia results in overdevelopment in size of plants or plant organs.
➢ Curling: It is the bending of the shoot or the rolling of the leaf and is a result of over-growth on
one side of an organ. Often viral diseases cause such leaf distortions due to irregular growth of
the lamina. Extreme reduction of the leaf lamina brings about the symptom known as the Shoe-
string effect.
➢ Galls: These are a kind of swelling growth on the external tissues of plants or animals. Plant galls
are abnormal outgrowths of plant tissues.
➢ Phyllody: It is the abnormal development of floral parts into leafy structures. It is generally
caused by phytoplasma or virus infections.
➢ Gummosis: It is the formation of patches of a gummy substance on the surface of certain plants,
particularly fruit trees.
➢ Necrosis: Death of plant tissues.
➢ Blast: Sudden death of unopened buds or inflorescence.
➢ Dieback: It is the extensive necrosis of a shoot from its tip downwards.
➢ Spot: A spot refers to a well-defined area of gray or brown necrotic tissue. Spots are very
common on leaves and fruits.
➢ Shot hole: Sometimes the necrotic tissue within a leaf spot may crack and fall off from the
surrounding green tissue leaving an empty space. Such a symptom is known as a shot hole.
➢ Epinasty: Downward growth of petioles.
➢ Hypernasty: Upward growth of petioles.
➢ Damping- off: sudden collapse of seedlings.
➢ Scab: cracking of the outer layers of fruit or tubers.
 Galls of Kalanchoe plant Phyllody

Gummosis Leaf Spot of Rose

Disease assessment & Grading:

% of leaf affected Grade

0 0
1 1
10 3
25 5
50 7
> 50 9
 Effect of weather on disease:

❖ Macro climate: General weather condition over the field

❖ Micro climate: Weather condition on limited environmental unit
❖ Crop climate: Weather prevailed on crop canopy
❖ Low temperature favours late blight of potato (Phytophthora infestans) in temperate region
❖ High temperature favours bacterial wilt and brown rot of potato in tropics and sub tropics
❖ Warm temperature (30 to 35o C) favours rots in many crops (charcoal rot of potato)
❖ In high temperature, the disease spread is also very rapid
❖ Root knot nematodes, powdery mildew is high in high temperature
❖ Rain drops disperse fungal spores and bacterial cells, nematodes
❖ Wet area favours later blight of potato, rusts of cereals, downey mildew of grapes
❖ Dry soil favours potato scab (Streptomyces scabies) & rice blast
❖ Sandy soil favours Fusarium wilt of banana, cotton, peas than loamy clay soils
❖ A humid period is necessary for sporulation and dry period is desirable for dissemination and wet period
is necessary for germination and penetration
❖ Fungi prefer acidic soils
➢ Potato scab is common in alkaline soil (because potato is cultivated in acid soil)
➢ Cotton wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) is common in acidic soil (because cotton is tolerant to
alkaline soil)
➢ Club root of cabbage is common in acidic soil
➢ Trichoderma viride and Penicillium spp grow rapidly in acidic soil
❖ Viral disease are more conspicuous during winter than in summer
❖ Banana followed by rice control Banama wilt of banana caused by Fusarium oxysporium.
❖ Early sowing reduce sugary disease of cumbu and sorghum shoot fly.
❖ Wider spacing of groundnut reduces bud necrosis.
❖ Overcrowding of seedling of tobacco and water logging increase damping off disease.
❖ Red rot of sugarcane & downey mildew of cumbu occurs in water logged condition.
❖ Blast is sever in winter months (like samba season).
❖ High soil temperature favours dry root rot in summer months (sorghum, pulses).

Diseases of major crops:

❖ Most prevalent disease in India: Citrus canker caused by bacteria.
❖ Latent infection: Host is infected but does not show any symptoms.
❖ Rosette: Short and bunchy habit of plant growth caused by virus.
❖ Wilt: Loss of rigidity and drooping of plant parts generally caused by insufficient water in the plants
(caused by Fusarium sp).
❖ Vascular wilt: It disturb translocation of water and starch.
❖ Xylem wilt: Blocking of xylem bundles (caused by Verticillium sp - fungi).
❖ Phloem wilt: Caused by virus & mycoplasma.
❖ Seedling blight: It is a secondary syndrome associated with foot and root rot diseases.
❖ Downey mildew: Attack under surface of leaves.
❖ Powdry mildew: Attack on entire leaf surface and other organs covered by white powdery coating.
❖ Aflotaxin: Organic compounds produced by the fungus, are toxic and carcinogenic to mammal.
❖ Phyllody: In sesame, caused by virus (transmitted by leaf hopper) controlled by Neem oil 1 %.
❖ Foot rot, root rot and collar rot of grapes are caused by Rhizoctonia sp.
❖ Stem rot and collar rot & damping off are caused by Phythium aphanidermatum
❖ Damping off disease occurs on seedlings
❖ TMV was first reported by Mayer

Rice
❖ Blast: Pyricularia oryzae
➢ Blast was first reported in India from Thanjavur district (Tamilnadu)
Symptoms:
➢ The fungus attacks the crop at all stages of crop growth.
➢ Symptoms appear on leaves, nodes, rachis, and glumes.
➢ Susceptible variety: Kanchi, Karikalan, IR 50
Favourable conditions:
The night temperature of 20o C with day temperature of 30o C 14 hours of light with 10 hrs of darkness
RH of 90% and above encourage the disease
Management:
➢ Remove and destroy the weed hosts in the field bunds and channels.
➢ Treat the seeds with Captan or Thiram or Carbendazim or Tricyclazole at 2 g/kg
or Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 10g/kg of seed.
➢ Spray the nursery with carbendazim 500mg/L or tricyclazole 300mg/L.
➢ Spray the main field with Edifenphos 500 ml or Carbendazim 500 g or Tricyclazole 500 g
or Iprobenphos (IBP) 500 ml /ha.

❖ Brown leaf spot: Helminthosporium oryzae

➢ Bengal famine (1943) incidence was caused by brown leaf spot
Symptoms:
➢ The fungus attacks the crop from seedling to milky stage in main field.
➢ Symptoms appear as minute spots on the coleoptile, leaf blade, leaf sheath, and glume, being
most prominent on the leaf blade and glumes.
➢ Resistant variety: CO 20
Favourable Conditions:
➢ Temperature of 25-30˚C with relative humidity above 80 per cent are highly favourable.
➢ Excess of nitrogen aggravates the disease severity.
Management:
➢ Field sanitation-removal of collateral hosts and infected debris from the field.
➢ Use of slow release nitrogenous fertilizers is advisable.
➢ Grow tolerant varieties viz., Co44 and Bhavani.
➢ Use disease free seeds.
➢ Treat the seeds with Thiram or Captan at 4 g/kg. Spray the nursery with Edifenphos 40 ml
or Mancozeb 80 g for 20 cent nursery.
 ➢ Spray the crop in the main field with Edifenphos 500 ml or Mancozeb 2 kg/ha when grade
reaches 3. If needed repeat after 15 days.

Blast of Rice

Brown Leaf Spot of Rice

❖ Foot rot (Bakane disease): Fusarium moniliforme

Symptoms:
➢ Abnormal elongation of affected seedlings.
➢ In the main field, the affected plants have tall lanky tillers with longer internodes and aerial
adventitious roots from the nodes above ground level.
➢ The plants are killed before earhead formation or they produce only sterile spikelets.
➢ When the culm is split open white mycelial growth can be seen.
Management:
➢ The fungus is externally seed-borne.
➢ Treat the seeds with Thiram or Captan or Carbendazim at 2 g/kg.

❖ False smut: Ustilaginoidea virens

Symptoms:
➢ The fungus transforms individual ovaries / grains into greenish spore balls of velvetty
appearance.
➢ Only a few spikelets in a panicle are affected.
➢ Few grains in ear head are double the size of normal grain.
➢ First report from Tirunelveli district if Tamilnadu
 Favorable conditions:
➢ Rainfall and cloudy weather during flowering and maturity
➢ Grain discoloration: Helminthosporium sp, Curvularia sp

❖ Bacterial leaf blight: Xanthomonas campestris

Symptoms:
➢ The disease is usually noticed at the time of heading but it can occur earlier also.
➢ Seedlings in the nursery show circular, yellow spots in the margin that enlarge, coalesce leading
to drying of foliage. “Kresek” symptom is seen in seedlings, 1-2 weeks after transplanting.
➢ The bacteria enter through the cut wounds in the leaf tips, become systemic and cause death of
entire seedling.
Management:
➢ Burn the stubbles.
➢ Use optimum dose of fertilizers.
➢ Avoid clipping of tip of seedling at the time of transplanting.
➢ Avoid flooded conditions. Remove weed hosts.
➢ Grow resistant cultivars IR 20 and TKM 6.
➢ Spray Streptomycin sulphate and tetracycline combination 300g + Copper oxychloride 1.25
Kg/ha.

❖ Rice Tungro Virus: Stunted growth of plants

❖ Rice yellow dwarf: Caused by mycoplasma transmitted by GLH

Wheat

❖ Loose smut: Ustilago nuda

Symptoms:
➢ The flag leaf turn yellow and starts drying from the tip which later becomes brownish in colour.
➢ The spikelets are affected and black powder is produced in place of wheat grains.
Management:
➢ Solar heat treatment or hot water treatment to seed.
➢ Grow resistant varieties.
➢ Rogue out diseased earheads and destroy them by burning.

❖ Leaf rust: Puccinia recondite

Symptoms:
➢ The postules are circular or slightly elliptical, smaller than those of stem rust, usually do not
coalesce, and contain masses of orange to orange-brown Urediospores.
➢ Infection sites primarily are found on the upper surfaces of leaves and leaf sheaths and
occasionally on the neck and awns.
➢ Survival: Both survive on stubbles and volunteer crops.
 ➢ Alternate host: Thalictrum sp.
➢ Spread: Uredospores from hills
Management:
➢ Mixed cropping with suitable crops.
➢ Avoid excess dose of nitrogenous fertilizers.
➢ Spray Zineb at 2.5 kg/ha or Propioconazole @ 0.1 %.
➢ Grow resistant varieties like PBW 343, PBW 550, PBW 17

❖ Stem Rust: Puccinia graminis tritici

Symptoms:
➢ Pustules (containing masses of urediospores) are dark reddish brown - occur on both sides of the
leaves, on the stems, and on the spikes
➢ Pustules are usually separate and scattered, heavy infections –coalesce
➢ Prior to pustule formation, "flecks" may appear. Before the spore masses break through the
epidermis, the infection sites feel rough to the touch
➢ As the spore masses break through, the surface tissues take on a ragged and torn appearance
➢ Survival: Both survive on stubbles and volunteer crops
➢ Alternate host: Berberis spp.
➢ Spread: uredospores from hills
Management:
➢ Mixed cropping and crop rotation
➢ Avoid excess nitrogen
➢ Sulphur dusting @ 35-40 kg/ha
➢ Mancozeb @ 2g/lit
➢ Resistant varieties: Lerma Rojo, Safed Lerma, Sonalika and Chotil

❖ Stripe rust: Puccinia striiformis

Symptoms:
➢ The pustules of stripe rust, which, contain yellow to orange-yellow urediospores, usually form
narrow stripes on the leaves
➢ Pustules also can be found on leaf sheaths, necks, and glumes.
➢ Survival: Both survive on stubbles and volunteer crops
➢ Alternate host: unknown
➢ Spread: uredospores from hill
Management:
➢ Mixed cropping and crop rotation
➢ Avoid excess “N”
➢ Sulphur dusting @ 35-40 kg/ha
➢ Mancozeb @ 2g/lit
➢ Resistant varieties: Lerma Rojo, Safed Lerma, Sonalika and Chotil

Sorghum:
 ❖ Ergot: Claviceps fusiformis
Symptoms:
➢ Cream to pink mucilaginous droplets of "honeydew" ooze out of infected florets on pearl millet
panicles.
➢ Within 10 to 15 days, the droplets dry and harden, and dark brown to black sclerotia develop in
place of seeds on the panicle.
➢ Sclerotia are larger than seed and irregularly shaped, and generally get mixed with the grain
during threshing
➢ Conditions favoring the disease are relative humidity greater than 80%, and 20 to 30 0C
temperatures during flowering.
Management:
➢ Spray any one of the fungicides like Carbendazim 500g or Mancozeb 1000g /ha when 5 - 10%
flowers have opened and again at 50% flowering stage
❖ Striga (Phanerogamic parasite)
➢ When it is below the soil, it fully depends on the plant
➢ Once it emerges out, its dependence is partial.
➢ Absorption of nutrients by Haustorium

❖ Cumbu:
➢ Sugary disease or Ergot : Claviceps fusiformis
➢ Favourable condition of Sorghum & Cumbu sugary or ergot disease high rainfall, high RH,
flowering in Sep-Oct

Maize, Sesame, Potato

➢ Charcoal rot : Macrophomina phaseolina

Groundnut
➢ Early leaf spot or Tikka: Cercospora personata orC.arachidicola
Dark spot surrounded by yellow halo
➢ Ring mosaic or Bud blight or Bud necrosis: Ring mosaic virus transmitted by thrips
➢ Rosette: Virus disease transmitted by aphids (small leaves forming a rossettee)

Sesame
Phyllody or Little leaf: Caused by mycoplasma transmitted by leaf hopper (Jassid)
The floral parts are altered into green leaf like structures
Plant exhibit cluster of leaves at the axil and also at the terminal portion.
The green flowers are called phylloid flowers

Sunflower
❖ Head rot: Rhizopus sp
Symptoms:
 ➢ Initial symptom appears as brown irregular water soaked spots on the back of ripening head
usually adjacent to flower stalk.
➢ Spots gradually enlarge and become soft and pulpy and get covered with superficial white
mycelium which later becomes black.
➢ Some seeds of the rotted heads shed and those which remain in the head taste bitter.
➢ Injury before flowering or during the early stage of head development is unlikely to favour
infection even though the inoculum may be present.
➢ Maximum rotting is noticed at the soft dough stage.
➢ Seed development is severely impaired depending on the stage of maturation at the time
of Rhizopus infection and rot development.
Management:
➢ To have effective control of the disease, simultaneous application of compatible insecticide and
fungicide beginning with the completion of flowering stage is suggested.
➢ Injury to the head should be avoided as far as practicable.
➢ Spray Mancozeb @ 2g/lit in case of intermittent rainfall at the head stage.

❖ Root rot or charcoal rot: Rhizoctonia bataticola

❖ White rust: Albugo tragopogonis

Red gram
Wilt: Fusarium oxysporium
Symptoms:
➢ Leaves initially pale, loose their turgidity, droop down and finally results in large scale
withering.
➢ Gradual or sudden wilting from bottom to top is observed.
➢ Entire plant wilts or dies within a few days.
➢ The disease incidence occurs in patches in the field.
➢ Dark streaks are seen when the bark of stem below the soil level and tap root are removed.
➢ The affected stem exhibit vascular browning indicating xylem plugging with mycelia.
➢ The disease is soil borne.
Management:
➢ Seed treatment with talc formulation of T. viride @ 4g or P. fluorescens @
10 g/kg Carbendazim or Thiram @ 2 g/kg
➢ Basal soil application of neem cake @ 150 Kg/ ha
➢ Soil application of P. fluorescens or T. viride@ 2.5 Kg / ha + 50 Kg of well decomposed FYM or
sand at 30 days after sowing.
➢ Spot drenching with Carbendazim @ 1 gm/ litre

Blackgram & green gram

Powdery mildew: Erysipha polygoni
Leaf curl disease: The virus transmitted by thrips
 Sugarcane
❖ Red rot:
Collectrotrichum falcatum
Symptoms:
➢ The affected canes exhibit leaf colour change, from green to orange and then to yellow in the
third or fourth leaf. Then the leaves start drying from bottom to top.
➢ If the fungal spores enter the leaf sheath through the leaf midrib, then reddish spots can be seen
on the back side of the leaf midrib also.
➢ The external symptoms appear only after16 - 21 days after infection and drying of entire cane
takes another 10 days’ time.
➢ When the affected cane is split opened, the inner region is reddish in colour with intermittent
white tinges across the cane length.
➢ Sometimes, the pith inside the cane is filled with blackish brown liquid and exhibited alchohol
odour.
Management:

Cultural method

Physical method

Chemical method

Cultural method:
➢ The best way to control red rot is to select setts for planting from healthy plants in a disease-
free area.
➢ The red rot affected field must be rotated with rice for one season and other crops for two
seasons.
➢ Growing of recommended resistant and moderately resistant varieties viz., Co 86032, Co 86249,
CoSi 95071, CoG 93076, CoC 22, CoSi 6 and CoG 5
Physical method:
➢ Removal of the affected clumps at an early stage and soil drenching with Carbendazim 50 WP (1
gm in 1 litre of water)
➢ The cut ends and entire setts should be dipped in a fungicide solution, such as one per cent
Bordeaux mixture.
➢ If the disease is noticed in the field, the leaves and canes should be collected and destroyed by
burning.
Chemical method:
➢ Adopt sett treatment with Carbendazim before planting (Carbendazim 50 WP (0.5 gm in 1 litre
of water) or Carbendazim 25 DS (1gm in 1 litre of water) along with 2.5 kg of Urea in 250 litre of
water
 ➢ Use fungitoxic chemicals like Bavistan, Benomyl, Topsin and Aretan at 0.1 per cent for 18 min. at
52ºC for dipping setts which gave almost complete elimination of rot infection.
❖ Grassy shoot:
Caused by mycoplasma transmitted by aphis Aphis maidis
Symptoms:
➢ Initial symptom appears in the young crop of 3 – 4 months age as thin papery white young
leaves at the top of the cane.
➢ Later, white or yellow tillers appear in large number below these leaves (profuse tillering).
➢ The cane becomes stunted with reduced internodal length with axillary bud sprouting.
➢ This disease appears in isolated clumps.
Management:

Cultural method

Physical method

Chemical method

Cultural method:
➢ Growing resistant varieties viz., Co 86249, CoG 93076 and CoC 22
➢ Avoid ratooning if Grassy Shoot Disease incidence is more than 15 % in the plant crop
➢ If disease symptoms are visible within two weeks after planting, such plants can be replaced by
healthy plants.
➢ Uprooted infected plants need to disposed of by burning them.
Physical method:
➢ Rogue out infected plants in the secondary and commercial seed nursery.
➢ Treat the setts with aerated steam at 50°C for 1 hour to control primary infection.
➢ Treating them with hot air at 540C for 8 hours and spraying twice a month with aphidicides.
Chemical method
➢ Spray dimethoate @ 1ml in 1 litre of water to control insect vector
➢ Apply pesticide methyl-demeton @ 2ml/lit of water for controlling aphids.

❖ Wilt: Fusarium sacchari

Symptoms:
➢ The first symptoms of the disease become apparent only when the plant has grown for about 4-
5 months.
➢ Then gradual yellowing and drying of foliage, shrinkage/withering of canes.
➢ If the affected canes are cut and examined, the pith will be Light to dark purplish or brown
discolouration of ground tissue, pithiness and boat shaped cavities in the middle of the
internodes.
➢ A characteristic disagreeable odour is also associated with this disease.
 ➢ Often a cottony white mycelium is seen in the pith region.
Management:
Cultural method

Chemical method

Cultural method:
➢ Selection of healthy seed setts from disease-free area for planting
➢ Grow resistant varieties like Co 617 and B.P.17 are more resistant than other varieties
➢ Crop rotation, managing root borer, avoiding prolonged drought and water logging and hygienic
practices.
Chemical Method:
➢ Dipping the setts in 40 ppm of boron or manganese, or spraying the plants with either of these
minor elements reduces the disease intensity.
➢ sett treatment with fungicide like Bavistin, 0.1 per cent before planting
➢ Apply carbendazim @ 2gm/lit of water at the root zone area and same as follow at 15 days
interval

Cotton
❖ Wilt: Fusarium oxysporum
Symptoms:
➢ Initial symptoms on young seedlings are yellowing and browning of cotyledons, followed by
brown ring on the petiole.
➢ Finally wilting & drying of the seedling occurs. Symptom at later stages includes loss of turgidity,
yellowing, drooping and wilting starting from older leaves.
➢ Browning or blackening of vascular tissues occur on the stem and spreads upwards and
downwards. Infected plants appear stunted with fewer bolls
Management:
➢ Treat the acid-delinted seeds with Carboxin or Carbendazim at 4 g/kg.
➢ Remove and burn the infected plant debris in the soil after deep summer ploughing during June-
July.
➢ Apply increased doses of potash with a balanced dose of nitrogenous and phosphatic fertilizers.
➢ Apply heavy doses of farm yard manure or other organic manures at 100t/ha.
➢ Spot drench with 0.05 % Benomyl or 0.1 % Carbendazim.

❖ Root root: Rhizoctonia bataticola

Symptoms:
➢ Germinating seedling shows black lesions on hypocotyls, girdling of stem and death of seedlings.
➢ Affected basal stem becomes dark with bark shredding and scloretial bodies in the shredded
bark.
➢ The entire root system gets rotted, plants dried & can be easily pulled out.
 Management:
➢ Treat the seeds with Trichoderma viride @ 4g/kg or Pseudomonas fluorescence
@ 10g/kg of seed.
➢ Treat the seeds with Carboxin or Thiram at 5 g or Carbendazim at 2g/kg.
➢ Spot drench with 0.1% Carbendazim or 0.05% Benomyl.
➢ Apply farm yard manure at 10t/ha or neem cake at 2.5t/ha.
➢ Adjust the sowing time, early sowing (First week of April) or late sowing (Last week of June) so
that crop escapes the high soil temperature conditions.
➢ Adopt intercropping with sorghum or moth bean (Phaseolus aconitifolius) to lower the soil
temperature.
➢ Black arm or angular leaf spot or bacterial leaf spot: Xanthomonas campestris
Symptoms:
➢ Water soaked, circular or irregular lesions on cotyledons which spread to petiole and stem and
finally withering and death of seedling known as Seedling blight.
➢ Small, dark green, water soaked areas develop on lower surface of leaves, enlarge gradually and
become angular when restricted by veins and veinlets and spots are visible on both the surface
of leaves (Angular leaf spot).
➢ The infection of veins and veinlets shows blackening with crinkled and twisted leaves and
bacterial oozing (vein necrosis or vein blighting).
➢ Black lesions on stem and branches, premature drooping off of the leaves resulting in die back
known as Black armIt also affects the bolls causing boll rot.
Management:
➢ Delint the cotton seeds with concentrated sulphuric acid at 100ml/kg of seed.
➢ Treat the acid delinted seeds with Carboxin or Oxycarboxin at 2 g/kg or soak the seeds in 1000
ppm Streptomycin sulphate overnight.
➢ Remove and destroy the infected plant debris.
➢ Rogue out the volunteer cotton plants and weed hosts

Coconut
❖ Bud rot: Phytophthora palmivora
❖ Stem bleeding: Ceratocystis paradaxa
❖ Thanjavur wilt / basal stem rot / bole rot: Ganoderma lucidum
❖ Kerala wilt: Caused by mycoplasma

Tobacco
❖ Damping off: Pythium aphanidermatum (common in nursery, soil born fungus)
❖ Black shank: Phytophthora parasitica
Symptoms:
➢ Black shank occurs sporadically in every type of tobacco and causes more damage, to tobacco
grown under high rainfall or irrigated conditions in light soils of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and
Gujarat.
➢ It is caused by soils inhabiting fungus Phytophthora parasitica var. nicotianae and appears both
in nursery as well as in the field.
 ➢ In nursery the affected seedlings show blackening of roots and stem near soil. Under wet
weather conditions the conidial infection spreads to leaves, which show water soaked lesions
resulting in leaf blight and collapse.
➢ The leaf blight phase of the disease, though rare in occurrence spreads very rapidly during
cloudy and continuous cyclonic weather resulting in heavy damage.
➢ Under such conditions large circular, black or brown water-soaked lesions appear on the basal
leaves.
➢ In the field blackening starts at the collar region and spreads both downwards and upwards
causing rotting and necrosis of the whole stem including basal leaves.
➢ First sign of infection seen in the vigorously growing plants is yellowing of leaves, sudden wilting
and ultimately death of plants under warm weather.
➢ The disease appears in scattered patches in the field. The stems of such plants when split open
show brown to black dried pith in disc like plates characteristic of black shank.
Management:
➢ It can be checked in the nursery by rabbing the seedbeds or drenching the seedbeds with 0.4%
Bordeaux mixture 2 days before sowing to minimize the initial inoculum potential.
➢ Subsequent application of fungicides like 0.2% Copper oxychloride is essential for checking leaf
blight and seedling blight.
➢ At the time of transplanting, seedlings with blackened stem should be discarded to prevent
spread of disease to field.
➢ Sanitary measures like removal and destruction of the affected plants and disinfecting the spots
with 0.4% Bordeaux mixture drench will prevent spread of the disease in the main field.
➢ Leaf blight phase of the disease can be checked by spraying 0.2% Mancozeb.

❖ Frog eye spot: Cercospora nicotianae

❖ Rubber & Betelvine Powdery mildew: Oidium heveae

Banana
❖ Anthracnose: Colletotrichum or Gloeosporium
❖ Sigatoka leaf spot:
❖ Panama wilt: Fusarium oxysporium
➢ Resistand variety: Poovan
➢ Susceptible variety: Rasthali, Sirumalai. Monthan
➢ Neervazhai: Observed in Nendran and Poovan varieties

Mango
❖ Powdery mildew: Oidium mangiferae
❖ Perfect stage: Erysiphae polygoni
Symptoms:
➢ It attacks the leaves, flowers, stalks of panicle and fruits.
➢ Shedding of infected leaves occurs when the disease is severe.
➢ The affected fruits do not grow in size and may drop before attaining pea size.
➢ Survives as dormant mycelium in affected leaves.
 ➢ Secondary spread by air borne conidia
Management:
➢ Dusting the plants with fine sulphur (250-300 mesh) at the rate of 0.5 kg/tree.
➢ The first application may be soon after flowering, second 15 days later (or) spray with
Wettable sulphur (0.2%), (or) Carbendazim (0.1%),(or) Tridemorph ( 0.1%),(or) Karathane (0.1%).

❖ Anthracnose or Die back: Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (on leaf, stem, fruit)

Symptoms:
➢ Produces leaf spots, blossom blight, wither tip, twigs blight and fruit rot.
➢ Small blister like spots develop on the leaves and twigs. Young leaves wither and dry Tender
twigs wither and die back symptom appears.
➢ Affected branches ultimately dry up. Black spots appear on fruits.
➢ The fruit pulp becomes hard, crack and decay at ripening. Infected fruits drop
➢ Exhibiting SHOT HOLE symptom on leaves
Management:
➢ Spray P. fluorescens (FP 7) at 3 weeks interval commencing from October at 5g/like on flower
branches.
➢ 5-7 sprays one to be given on flowers and bunches.
➢ Before storage, treat with hot water, (50-55°C) for 15 minutes or dip in Benomyl solution
(500ppm) or Thiobendazole (1000ppm) for 5 minutes

❖ Red rust: Cephaleuros virescens (It is a algal parasite)

Symptoms:
➢ Algae attacks foliage and young twigs.
➢ Rusty spots appear on leaves, initially as circular, slightly elevated, coalesce to form irregular
spots.
➢ The spores mature fall off and leave cream to white valvet texture on the surface of the leaves
Management:
➢ Bordeaux mixture (0.6%) or Copper oxychloride 0.25%

❖ Sooty mould: Capnodium mangiferae

Symptoms:
➢ The fungi produce mycelium which is superficial and dark. They row on sugary secretions of the
plant hoppers. Black encrustation is formed which affect the photosynthetic activity.
➢ The fungus grows on the leaf surface on the sugary substances secreted by jassids, aphids and
scale insects.
Management:
➢ Management should be done for insects and sooty moulds simultaneously.
➢ Controlling of insect by spraying systemic insecticides like Monocrotophos or methyl dematon
➢ After that spray starch solution (1kg Starch/Maida in 5 litres of water. Boiled and dilute to 20
liters)
➢ Starch dries and forms flake which are removed along with the fungus.

❖ Malformation: Fusarium moniliforme

 Symptoms:
➢ Three types of symptoms: bunchy top phase, floral malformation and vegetative malformation.
➢ In bunchy top phase in nursery bunching of thickened small shoots, bearing small rudimentally
leaves. Shoots remain short and stunted giving a bunchy top appearance.
➢ In vegetative malformation, excessive vegetative branches of limited growth in seedlings. They
are swollen with short internodes forming bunches of various size and the top of the seedlings
shows bunchy top appearance.
➢ In malformation of inflorescence, shows variation in the panicle. Malformed head dries up in
black mass and persist for long time.
➢ Secondary branches are transformed into number of small leaves giving a witches broome
appearance.
Management:
➢ Diseased plants should be destroyed
➢ Use of disease free planting material
➢ Incidence reduced by spraying 100-200ppm NAA during October.
➢ Pruning of diseased parts along the basal 15-20 cm apparently healthy portions.
➢ This is followed by the spraying of Carbendazim (0.1%) or Captafol (0.2%).

Grapevine
❖ Powdery mildew: Uncinula necator (fungus is oidium type)
❖ Downey mildew: Plasmopara viticola

Citrus
❖ Gummosis or leaf fall or foot rot or collar rot: Phytophthora palmivora
➢ Profuse gumming on the surface of attached bark
➢ Leaves exhibit water soaked lesions
➢ Both young and matured fruits are affected

❖ Sooty mould: Capnodium citri

➢ Infection is associated with attach of scales and aphids Citrus

❖ Canker: Xanthomonas campestris (Caused by bacteria)

Symptoms:
➢ Acid lime, lemon and grapefruit are affected. Rare on sweet oranges and mandarins.
➢ Affects leaf, twig and fruits. In canker, leaves are not distorted.
➢ Lesions are typically circular with yellow halo; appear on both sides of leaf, severe in acid lime
(difference from scab) when lesions are produced on twigs, they are girdled and die.
➢ On fruits, canker lesions reduce market value.
Management:
➢ Streptomycin sulphate 500-1000 ppm; or Phytomycin 2500 ppm or Copper oxychloride 0.2% at
fortnight intervals.
➢ Control leaf miner when young flush is produced.
➢ Prune badly infected twigs before the onset of monsoon
❖ Anthracnose or wither tip or die back: Colletotrichum gloeosporides
➢ Mostly occurs on July to Jan
➢ Rubbery wood: Caused by Mycoplasma
➢ Leathery leaf or leaf curl or yellow corky vein or mosaic or bud union: Virus disease

Papaya
❖ Leaf curl: Nicotiana virus 10
Symptoms:
➢ Curling, crinkling and distortion of leaves, reduction of leaf lamina, rolling of leaf margins inward
and downward, thickening of veins.
➢ Leaves become leathery, brittle and distorted.Plants stunted.Affected plants does not produce
flowers and fruits.
➢ Spread by whitefly Bemisia tabaci.
Management:
➢ Uproot affected plants.
➢ Avoid growing tomato, tobacco near papaya.
➢ Spraying with systemic insecticides to control the vector

❖ Foot rot: Pythium aphanidermatum

Symptoms:
➢ Water soaked spot in the stem at the ground level which enlarge and griddle the stem.
➢ The diseased area turns brown or black and rot.
➢ Terminal leaves turn yellow droop off.
➢ The entire plant topples over and dies.
➢ Forward by rain. R. solaniis favoured by dry and hit weather.Common in 2-3 year old trees.
Management:
➢ Seed treatment with Thiram or Captan 4 g/kg or Chlorothalonil.
➢ Drenching with Copper oxychloride 0.25 % or Bordeaux mixture 1% or Metalaxyl 0.1%.

Jack
❖ Pink disease: Botryobasidium salmoni colar

Ber
❖ Witches broom: Caused by mycoplasma transmitted by grafting

Tomato
❖ Damping off: Pythium aphanedermatum
Symptoms:
➢ Damping off of tomato occurs in two stages, i.e. the pre-emergence and the post-emergence
phase.
➢ In the pre-emergence the phase the seedlings are killed just before they reach the soil surface.
➢ The young radical and the plumule are killed and there is complete rotting of the seedlings.
 ➢ The post-emergence phase is characterized by the infection of the young, juvenile tissues of the
collar at the ground level.
➢ The infected tissues become soft and water soaked. The seedlings topple over or collapse
Management:
➢ Used raised seed bed
➢ Provide light, but frequent irrigation for better drainage.
➢ Drench with Copper oxychloride 0.2% or Bordeaux mixture 1%.
➢ Seed treatment with fungal culture Trichoderma viride (4 g/kg of seed) or Thiram (3 g/kg of
seed) is the only preventive measure to control the pre-emergence damping off.
➢ Spray 0.2% Metalaxyl when there is cloudy weather

❖ Wilt: Fusarium oxysporum

Symptoms:
➢ The first symptom of the disease is clearing of the veinlets and chlorosis of the leaves.
➢ The younger leaves may die in succession and the entire may wilt and die in a course of few
days. Soon the petiole and the leaves droop and wilt.
➢ In young plants, symptom consists of clearing of veinlet and dropping of petioles. In field,
yellowing of the lower leaves first and affected leaflets wilt and die.
➢ The symptoms continue in subsequent leaves. At later stage, browning of vascular system
occurs. Plants become stunted and die.
Management:
➢ The affected plants should be removed and destroyed.
➢ Spot drench with Carbendazim (0.1%)
➢ Crop rotation with a non-host crop such as cereals.

Chillies
❖ Damping off: Pythium aphanedermatum
❖ Katt disease: Caused by cardamom mosaic virus

Rose
❖ Powdery mildew: Sphaerotheca pannosa
❖ Cruciferous
❖ Club root of cabbage: Plasmodiophora brassicae
➢ Fungus is soil borne
➢ Severe in poorly drained soils and acid soils
Symptoms:
➢ Stunting and yellowing of plants
➢ Leaves become yellowish and wilt on hot days.
➢ Club like swelling of root and root lets
➢ Club root is particularly prevalent on soils with a pH below 7, whereas it has been observed that
the disease is often less serious on heavy soils and on soils containing little organic matter.
Management:
➢ Soil fumigation with Methly bromide 1kg/10m 2 followed by covering with plastic film.
 ➢ Seed treatment with Captan/Thiram 4g/kg, followed by T.viride 4g/kg.
➢ Application of lime 2.5 t/ha.
➢ Soil drenching with Copper oxychloride 0.25%.

❖ Black Leg: Phoma lingam

Symptoms:
➢ It is caused by Phoma lingam and occurs in most regions, especially in areas with rainfall during
the growing period.
➢ The fungus is carried by the seed and hence it may occur from the early stage.
➢ Stem of the affected plant when split vertically, shows severe black discoloration of sap stream.
Whole root system decays from bottom upwards.
➢ Frequently, the affected plants fall over in the field.
Management:
➢ Seed infection can be prevented by spraying the seed plants with copper oxychloride or with an
organo mercuric compound.
➢ Seed treatment with Captan or Thiram 4g/kg of seed, followed by seed treatment
with Trichoderma viride 4g/kg.
➢ Pusa Drumhead, a cabbage cultivar has been reported to be tolerant under field condition.

Potato
❖ Early blight: Aternaria solani
Symptoms:
➢ It is present in both hills & plains.
➢ Brown-black necrotic spot-angular, oval shape characterized by concentric rings.
➢ Several spot coalesce & spread all over the leaf.
➢ Shot holes on fruits.
Management:
➢ Disease free seed tubers should be used for planting.
➢ Removal and destruction of infected plant debris should be done because the spores lying in the
soil are the primary source of infection.
➢ Very early spraying with Zineb or captan 0.2% and repeating it for every 15 – 20 days gives
effective control.
➢ The variety Kufri Sindhuri possesses a fair degree of resistance.

❖ Late blight: Phytophthora infestans

Symptoms:
➢ It affects leaves, stems and tubers.
➢ Water soaked spots appear on leaves, increase in size, turn purple brown& finally black colour
➢ White growth develops on under surface of leaves.
➢ This spreads to petioles, rachis& stems.
➢ It frequently develops at nodes.
 ➢ Stem breaks at these points and the plant topples over. In tubers, purplish brown spots and
spread to the entire surface on cutting, the affected tuber show rusty brown necrosis spreading
from surface to the center.
Management:
➢ Protective spraying with mancozeb or zineb 0.2 % should be done to prevent infection of tubers.
➢ Tuber contamination is minimized if injuries are avoided at harvest time and storing of visibly
infected tubers before storage.
➢ The resistant varieties recommended for cultivation are Kufri Naveen, Kufri Jeevan, Kufri
Alenkar, Kufri Khasi Garo and Kufri Moti.
➢ Destruction of the foliage few days before harvest is beneficial and this is accomplished by
spraying with suitable herbicide.
➢ Resistant variety: Kufri naveen, Kufri jeevan

DISEASE OF STORAGE GRAINS

Market pathology: It deals problems encountered during picking, packing, transportation and storage
of produce.

❖ Aflatoxin is produced by Aspergillus fungi (if moisture content is more than 13 %) in groundnut and
rice. It is highly toxic to mammals
❖ Grain discoloration in sorghum: Fuarium moniliforme (grains become mouldy and discolored grains
shriveled).
❖ Green mould rot (Citrus): caused by Pencillium sp
❖ Blue mould rot (Apple): caused by Pencillium sp
❖ Black mould rot (Apple): caused by Aspergillus niger
❖ Crown rot (Banana): caused by Colletrotrichum sp, Fusarium sp, Verticillium sp
❖ Mango Anthracnose: caused by Gloeosporium mangiferae
❖ Nonpathogenic disease
➢ When apples and potatoes are stored in poor ventilated rooms, the level of CO 2 is high and O2 is
low, when they are cut open central portion appears black known as Black heart.
➢ This is caused by lack of oxygen.
❖ Angiospermic (flowering plants) parasites
➢ Parasites establish relationship with their host through Haustoria to derive nutrition from
vascular system of host plants.
➢ But parasites has chlorophyll.
❖ Striga (Partial root parasite): It attacks roots of sorghum, maize, sugarcane
➢ Control measures: Flood irrigation, 2, 4 D application & raising trap crop like Sudan grass
❖ Orabanche (Total root parasite): It attacks roots of Solanaceous & Cruciferous plants Ex. Roots of
tobacco, brinjal, tomato, cauliflower
❖ Control measures: Raising of trap crop (Chilies).
❖ Alkaloids present in this trap crops are reduce the germination of parasitic weeds.
❖ Loranthus (Partial stem parasite): It attacks fruit, avenue and forest trees.
❖ Cuscuta (Total stem parasite): It attacks all crop plants except cereals.

DISEASE MANAGEMENT

❖ Prophylactic measures: Prevention of disease before occurrence.

❖ Curative measures: Control measures after infestation.
❖ Rice blast is controlled by eradication of Panicum ripens (is an alternate host for the pathogen).
❖ Variety IR 50, TKM 9 are susceptible to rice blast
❖ Damping off: Severe in tobacco and chillies. Good drainage & raised nursery bed control the disease.
❖ Disease caused by Pythium sp.
❖ Sugary disease of sorghum and cumbu is severe during winter (control: adjust sowing time that
flowering should not coincide with winter period).
❖ Apply more potash to minimize the disease incidence.
❖ Mycoplasma is controlled by Vitavax.

❖ Crop resistance to disease may be:

➢ Disease escape: Early maturity of the crops.
➢ Disease endurance: Ability of the plant to withstand without showing heavy symptoms.
➢ Hypersensitive: Plant may be resistant to the disease if it shows hypersensitive reaction to
infection by the pathogens.
➢ Hereditary: Provided by the genes.
➢ Horizontal resistant: It is incomplete and permanent.

❖ Bio control agents

➢ Fungus (Trichoderma viride): effective for Pythium spp, Phytopthora sp, Rhizoctonia solani.
➢ Bacteria (Bacillus subtitis, Pseudomonas fluroscens): applied through seed treatment and foliar
spray.
➢ Virus: Bacteriophages (bacteria is killed by virus) are used to control disease.
➢ Bio control is very effective for soil born disease. Agents control disease through direct
parasitism or predation on the pathogen.
➢ Rapidly depleting nutrient and thereby causing starvation and death of pathogen

Integrate disease management

 FUNGICIDES

❖ Fungistat: The chemical inhibits the growth of a fungus, without killing it.
❖ Fungistasis: It is the phenomenon of growth inhibition
❖ Protectants: The chemicals to be applied prior to the fungal infection. It is a seed treating
chemicals.
❖ The majority of modern fungicides are used as protectants.
❖ Seed dressing chemical: Thiram, Captan @ 4 g per kg of seed or Carbendazim @ 2 g. They
interfere with DNA synthesis of fungal cell.
❖ Systemic fungicides: The chemicals are entering into the entire plant system
Ex. Bavistin, Carboxin (Vitavax), Oxycarboxin (Plant vax)
❖ Non systemic fungicides: Mancozeb (Dithane m 45).
❖ LD 50 VALUE: The dosage of fungicide that kills 50 % of the spore population.
❖ ED 50 VALUE: The dosage of fungicide that inactivates or inhibits 50 % of spore population
Bordeaux mixture.
❖ Oldest fungicide:
➢ Discovered by Millardet 1882 (Botany professor, University of Bordeaux, France).
➢ Found out in downey mildew of grapevine.
➢ Constituents: Lime 1 kg + Copper sulphate 1 kg + Water 100 lit (CuSo4 + CaCo3 + water) Add
copper sulphate solution into lime solution and not vice versa
➢ Lime acts as neutralizing agent.
➢ Use prepared mixture immediately.
➢ If you want to keep it for another 24 hrs add jaggery 1 g per lit of water BM is phytotoxic to
HYV of rice, maize and apple.
❖ Burgundy mixture: CuSo4 + Na2Co3 + Water (used for Cu sensitive crops).
❖ Bordeaux paste: As fungicide used for controlling stem bleeding of coconut
❖ Elemental sulphur:
➢ Used for controlling Powdery mildew, Downey mildew, Rust, Tikka disease, Potato scab
Sulphur fungicide is phytotoxic to cucurbits
❖ Dithane S 31: Used for controlling cereal rust.
❖ Karathane: Used for controlling Powdery mildew and Downey mildew.

Chemical name: Trade name

Copper oxy chloride:

Fytolan, Bitox-50

Carboxin:Vitavax

Oxycarboxin:Plantvax
 Antibiotics

➢ They are produced by microbes in small quantity.

➢ This antibiotics inhibits the growth of other microbes.
➢ Most of the antibiotics are developed from Actinomycetes (Streptomyces spp) and some from
fungi Anti-fungal antibiotic: Aureofungin
Ex. Citrus gummosis cuased by fungi Phytophthora sp. It if controlled by Aureofungin Anti-
bacterial antibiotic: Streptomycin sulphate
➢ Marketed as Agrimycin 100 (Streptomycin 15 % + Terramycin 75 %)
➢ Anti-mycoplasma antibiotic: Tetracyclines
➢ Produced from Streptomyces sp

PLANT QUARANTINE
➢ The consignment (plant materials, seeds) imported should be accompanied by a Phytosanitory
Certificate (PC).
➢ The following plant materials are restricted for import:

Sugarcane
Cotton seed
sett for
for boll
sugar
weevil.
weevil

Coffee seed Pepper,

for berry Cardamom,
borer Tamarind

❖ Madras Agricultural Pests and Diseases Act: The act was enacted in 1919 by the Madras Govt.
It was the first state to enact such act in this country
❖ In India, 16 quarantine stations are operating (8 sea port + 6 air port + 2 land frontier) throughout the
country: In Tamilnadu, Chennai and Tiruchirappally
❖ Exclusive quarantine: There is a complete restriction of movement of the plant material of a particular
crop from a specified region.
➢ Ex. Banana seed material import is completely restricted from Srilanka.
➢ India does not import rubber seed or plant from South America and West Indies.
❖ Regulatory quarantine: The plant material are allowed after inspection and certification (Phytosanitory
certificate) in India.
➢ Potato seed tubers are not allowed for sale from Nilgiri’s to prevent the Golden nematode
spread (H. rostochinensis).
➢ Domestic quarantine is operated for 2 insects: Fluted scale and Sanjose scale.
➢ Domestic quarantine for 3 diseases: Wart disease of Potato, Bunchy top of Banana & Mosaic
virus of Banana.
 Introduced diseases of India
Casual organism (Introduced) Country from which introduced
Disease
Bunchy top of banana --- Srilanka
Coffee leaf rust Hemeilia vastatrix Ceylon
Potato Late blight Phytophthora infestans Europe
Grapes Downey mildew Plasmopora viticola Europe
Maize Downey mildew Peronoselero spora Java
Potato Golden nematode --- Europe
Potato Wart disease --- Netherlands
Paddy Blast Pyricularia oryza South East Asia
Rubber Powdery mildew Oidium haveae Malaysia

❖ Embargo: Some of the plant materials have been totally banned for import into India (through
plant quarantine).