188 Linear and Quadratic Functions

2.3 Quadratic Functions

You may recall studying quadratic equations in Intermediate Algebra. In this section, we review
those equations in the context of our next family of functions: the quadratic functions.

Definition 2.5. A quadratic function is a function of the form

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c,

where a, b and c are real numbers with a 6= 0. The domain of a quadratic function is (−∞, ∞).

The most basic quadratic function is f (x) = x2 , whose graph appears below. Its shape should look
familiar from Intermediate Algebra – it is called a parabola. The point (0, 0) is called the vertex
of the parabola. In this case, the vertex is a relative minimum and is also the where the absolute
minimum value of f can be found.

(−2, 4) 4 (2, 4)
3

(−1, 1) 1 (1, 1)

−2 −1 (0, 0) 1 2 x

f (x) = x2

Much like many of the absolute value functions in Section 2.2, knowing the graph of f (x) = x2
enables us to graph an entire family of quadratic functions using transformations.

Example 2.3.1. Graph the following functions starting with the graph of f (x) = x2 and using
transformations. Find the vertex, state the range and find the x- and y-intercepts, if any exist.

1. g(x) = (x + 2)2 − 3 2. h(x) = −2(x − 3)2 + 1

Solution.

1. Since g(x) = (x + 2)2 − 3 = f (x + 2) − 3, Theorem 1.7 instructs us to first subtract 2 from

each of the x-values of the points on y = f (x). This shifts the graph of y = f (x) to the left
2 units and moves (−2, 4) to (−4, 4), (−1, 1) to (−3, 1), (0, 0) to (−2, 0), (1, 1) to (−1, 1) and
(2, 4) to (0, 4). Next, we subtract 3 from each of the y-values of these new points. This moves
the graph down 3 units and moves (−4, 4) to (−4, 1), (−3, 1) to (−3, −2), (−2, 0) to (−2, 3),
(−1, 1) to (−1, −2) and (0, 4) to (0, 1). We connect the dots in parabolic fashion to get
2.3 Quadratic Functions 189

y y

(−2, 4) 4 (2, 4) (−4, 1) 1 (0, 1)

3
−4 −3 −2 −1 x
2 −1

(−1, 1) 1 (1, 1) (−3, −2) (−1, −2)

−3
−2 −1 (0, 0) 1 2 x (−2, −3)
f (x) = x2 −−−−−−−−−−−−→ g(x) = f (x + 2) − 3 = (x + 2)2 − 3

From the graph, we see that the vertex has moved from (0, 0) on the graph of y = f (x)
to (−2, −3) on the graph of y = g(x). This sets [−3, ∞) as the range of g. We see that
the graph of y = g(x) crosses the x-axis twice, so we expect two x-intercepts. To find
these, we set y = g(x) = 0 and solve. Doing so yields √ (x + 2)2 − 3 = 0, or
the equation √
(x + 2)2 = √3. Extracting square roots gives
√ x + 2 = ± 3, or x = −2 ± 3. Our x-intercepts
are (−2 − 3, 0) ≈ (−3.73, 0) and (−2 + 3, 0) ≈ (−0.27, 0). The y-intercept of the graph,
(0, 1) was one of the points we originally plotted, so we are done.

2. Following Theorem 1.7 once more, to graph h(x) = −2(x − 3)2 + 1 = −2f (x − 3) + 1, we first
start by adding 3 to each of the x-values of the points on the graph of y = f (x). This effects
a horizontal shift right 3 units and moves (−2, 4) to (1, 4), (−1, 1) to (2, 1), (0, 0) to (3, 0),
(1, 1) to (4, 1) and (2, 4) to (5, 4). Next, we multiply each of our y-values first by −2 and then
add 1 to that result. Geometrically, this is a vertical stretch by a factor of 2, followed by a
reflection about the x-axis, followed by a vertical shift up 1 unit. This moves (1, 4) to (1, −7),
(2, 1) to (2, −1), (3, 0) to (3, 1), (4, 1) to (4, −1) and (5, 4) to (5, −7).

y
(3, 1)
1

1 2 3 4 5 x
−1 (2, −1) (4, −1)
−2
y
−3

(−2, 4) 4 (2, 4) −4

3 −5

2 −6

(−1, 1) 1 (1, 1) (1, −7) (5, −7)

−2 −1 (0, 0) 1 2 x
h(x) = −2f (x − 3) + 1
f (x) = x2 −−−−−−−−−−−−→ = −2(x − 3)2 + 1

The vertex is (3, 1) which makes the range of h (−∞, 1]. From our graph, we know that
there are two x-intercepts, so we set y = h(x) = 0 and solve. We get −2(x − 3)2 + 1 = 0
190 Linear and Quadratic Functions

√
1 2
which gives (x − 3)2 = Extracting square roots1 gives x − 3 =
2.  ±√2 , so
 that when we
√
2 6± 2 6− 2
add 3 to each side, we get x = 2 . Hence, our x-intercepts are 2 , 0 ≈ (2.29, 0) and
 √ 
6+ 2
2 , 0 ≈ (3.71, 0). Although our graph doesn’t show it, there is a y-intercept which can
be found by setting x = 0. With h(0) = −2(0 − 3)2 + 1 = −17, we have that our y-intercept
is (0, −17).

A few remarks about Example 2.3.1 are in order. First note that neither the formula given for
g(x) nor the one given for h(x) match the form given in Definition 2.5. We could, of course,
convert both g(x) and h(x) into that form by expanding and collecting like terms. Doing so, we
find g(x) = (x + 2)2 − 3 = x2 + 4x + 1 and h(x) = −2(x − 3)2 + 1 = −2x2 + 12x − 17. While
these ‘simplified’ formulas for g(x) and h(x) satisfy Definition 2.5, they do not lend themselves to
graphing easily. For that reason, the form of g and h presented in Example 2.3.2 is given a special
name, which we list below, along with the form presented in Definition 2.5.
Definition 2.6. Standard and General Form of Quadratic Functions: Suppose f is a
quadratic function.

• The general form of the quadratic function f is f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b and c
are real numbers with a 6= 0.

• The standard form of the quadratic function f is f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k, where a, h and
k are real numbers with a 6= 0.
It is important to note at this stage that we have no guarantees that every quadratic function can
be written in standard form. This is actually true, and we prove this later in the exposition, but
for now we celebrate the advantages of the standard form, starting with the following theorem.
Theorem 2.2. Vertex Formula for Quadratics in Standard Form: For the quadratic
function f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k, where a, h and k are real numbers with a 6= 0, the vertex of the
graph of y = f (x) is (h, k).
We can readily verify the formula given Theorem 2.2 with the two functions given in Example
2.3.1. After a (slight) rewrite, g(x) = (x + 2)2 − 3 = (x − (−2))2 + (−3), and we identify h = −2
and k = −3. Sure enough, we found the vertex of the graph of y = g(x) to be (−2, −3). For
h(x) = −2(x − 3) + 1, no rewrite is needed. We can directly identify h = 3 and k = 1 and, sure
enough, we found the vertex of the graph of y = h(x) to be (3, 1).
To see why the formula in Theorem 2.2 produces the vertex, consider the graph of the equation
y = a(x − h)2 + k. When we substitute x = h, we get y = k, so (h, k) is on the graph. If x 6= h, then
x − h 6= 0 so (x − h)2 is a positive number. If a > 0, then a(x − h)2 is positive, thus y = a(x − h)2 + k
is always a number larger than k. This means that when a > 0, (h, k) is the lowest point on the
graph and thus the parabola must open upwards, making (h, k) the vertex. A similar argument
1
and rationalizing denominators!
2
and get common denominators!
2.3 Quadratic Functions 191

shows that if a < 0, (h, k) is the highest point on the graph, so the parabola opens downwards, and
(h, k) is also the vertex in this case.
Alternatively, we can apply the machinery in Section 1.7. Since the vertex of y = x2 is (0, 0), we can
determine the vertex of y = a(x−h)2 +k by determining the final destination of (0, 0) as it is moved
through each transformation. To obtain the formula f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k, we start with g(x) = x2
and first define g1 (x) = ag(x) = ax2 . This is results in a vertical scaling and/or reflection.3 Since
we multiply the output by a, we multiply the y-coordinates on the graph of g by a, so the point
(0, 0) remains (0, 0) and remains the vertex. Next, we define g2 (x) = g1 (x − h) = a(x − h)2 . This
induces a horizontal shift right or left h units4 moves the vertex, in either case, to (h, 0). Finally,
f (x) = g2 (x) + k = a(x − h)2 + k which effects a vertical shift up or down k units5 resulting in the
vertex moving from (h, 0) to (h, k).
In addition to verifying Theorem 2.2, the arguments in the two preceding paragraphs have also
shown us the role of the number a in the graphs of quadratic functions. The graph of y = a(x−h)2 +k
is a parabola ‘opening upwards’ if a > 0, and ‘opening downwards’ if a < 0. Moreover, the symmetry
enjoyed by the graph of y = x2 about the y-axis is translated to a symmetry about the vertical line
x = h which is the vertical line through the vertex.6 This line is called the axis of symmetry of
the parabola and is dashed in the figures below.

vertex

vertex
a>0 a<0
Graphs of y = a(x − h)2 + k.

Without a doubt, the standard form of a quadratic function, coupled with the machinery in Section
1.7, allows us to list the attributes of the graphs of such functions quickly and elegantly. What
remains to be shown, however, is the fact that every quadratic function can be written in standard
form. To convert a quadratic function given in general form into standard form, we employ the
ancient rite of ‘Completing the Square’. We remind the reader how this is done in our next example.

Example 2.3.2. Convert the functions below from general form to standard form. Find the vertex,
axis of symmetry and any x- or y-intercepts. Graph each function and determine its range.

1. f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3. 2. g(x) = 6 − x − x2

3
Just a scaling if a > 0. If a < 0, there is a reflection involved.
4
Right if h > 0, left if h < 0.
5
Up if k > 0, down if k < 0
6
You should use transformations to verify this!
192 Linear and Quadratic Functions

Solution.

1. To convert from general form to standard form, we complete the square.7 First, we verify
that the coefficient of x2 is 1. Next, we find the coefficient of x, in this case −4, and take half
of it to get 21 (−4) = −2. This tells us that our target perfect square quantity is (x − 2)2 . To
get an expression equivalent to (x − 2)2 , we need to add (−2)2 = 4 to the x2 − 4x to create
a perfect square trinomial, but to keep the balance, we must also subtract it. We collect the
terms which create the perfect square and gather the remaining constant terms. Putting it
all together, we get

f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3 (Compute 12 (−4) = −2.)

x2 − 4x + 4 − 4 + 3 (Add and subtract (−2)2 = 4 to (x2 + 4x).)


=
x2 − 4x + 4 − 4 + 3


= (Group the perfect square trinomial.)
= (x − 2)2 − 1 (Factor the perfect square trinomial.)

Of course, we can always check our answer by multiplying out f (x) = (x − 2)2 − 1 to see
that it simplifies to f (x) = x2 − 4x − 1. In the form f (x) = (x − 2)2 − 1, we readily find the
vertex to be (2, −1) which makes the axis of symmetry x = 2. To find the x-intercepts, we
set y = f (x) = 0. We are spoiled for choice, since we have two formulas for f (x). Since we
recognize f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3 to be easily factorable,8 we proceed to solve x2 − 4x + 3 = 0.
Factoring gives (x − 3)(x − 1) = 0 so that x = 3 or x = 1. The x-intercepts are then (1, 0) and
(3, 0). To find the y-intercept, we set x = 0. Once again, the general form f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3
is easiest to work with here, and we find y = f (0) = 3. Hence, the y-intercept is (0, 3). With
the vertex, axis of symmetry and the intercepts, we get a pretty good graph without the need
to plot additional points. We see that the range of f is [−1, ∞) and we are done.

2. To get started, we rewrite g(x) = 6 − x − x2 = −x2 − x + 6 and note that the coefficient of
x2 is −1, not 1. This means our first step is to factor out the (−1) from both the x2 and x
terms. We then follow the completing the square recipe as above.

g(x) = −x2 − x + 6
= (−1) x2 + x + 6 (Factor the coefficient of x2 from x2 and x.)


 
= (−1) x2 + x + 41 − 14 + 6
= (−1) x2 + x + 41 + (−1) − 41 + 6



(Group the perfect square trinomial.)
2
= − x + 12 + 25


4

7
If you forget why we do what we do to complete the square, start with a(x − h)2 + k, multiply it out, step by
step, and then reverse the process.
8
Experience pays off, here!
2.3 Quadratic Functions 193

2
From g(x) = − x + 21 + 25 1 25


4 , we get the vertex to be − 2 , 4 and the axis of symmetry to
be x = − 21 . To get the x-intercepts, we opt to set the given formula g(x) = 6 − x − x2 = 0.
Solving, we get x = −3 and x = 2 , so the x-intercepts are (−3, 0) and (2, 0). Setting x = 0,
we find g(0) = 6, so the y-intercept is (0, 6). Plotting these points gives us the graph below.
We see that the range of g is −∞, 25 4 .

− 12 , 25


y 4 y
8 6 (0, 6)
7 5

6 4

5 x=2 3

4 2
1
(0, 3) 3 x= 2
(−3, 0) (2, 0)
2
−3 −2 −1 1 2 x
(1, 0) (3, 0)
−1 1 2 3 4 5 x
−1
(2, −1)

f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3 g(x) = 6 − x − x2

With Example 2.3.2 fresh in our minds, we are now in a position to show that every quadratic
function can be written in standard form. We begin with f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, assume a 6= 0, and
complete the square in complete generality.

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c
 
2 b
= a x + x +c (Factor out coefficient of x2 from x2 and x.)
a
b2 b2
 
2 b
= a x + x+ 2 − 2 +c
a 4a 4a
b2
   2 
2 b b
= a x + x+ 2 −a +c (Group the perfect square trinomial.)
a 4a 4a2

b 2 4ac − b2
 
= a x+ + (Factor and get a common denominator.)
2a 4a
b


Comparing this last expression with the standard form, we identify (x − h) with x + 2a so that
4ac−b2
b b

4ac−b2
h = − 2a . Instead of memorizing the value k = 4a , we see that f − 2a = 4a . As such, we
have derived a vertex formula for the general form. We summarize both vertex formulas in the box
at the top of the next page.
194 Linear and Quadratic Functions

Equation 2.4. Vertex Formulas for Quadratic Functions: Suppose a, b, c, h and k are
real numbers with a 6= 0.

• If f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k, the vertex of the graph of y = f (x) is the point (h, k).
  
b b
• If f (x) = ax + bx + c, the vertex of the graph of y = f (x) is the point − , f −
2 .
2a 2a

There are two more results which can be gleaned from the completed-square form of the general
form of a quadratic function,

b 2 4ac − b2
 
2
f (x) = ax + bx + c = a x + +
2a 4a

We have seen that the number a in the standard form of a quadratic function determines whether
the parabola opens upwards (if a > 0) or downwards (if a < 0). We see here that this number
a is none other than the coefficient of x2 in the general form of the quadratic function. In other
words, it is the coefficient of x2 alone which determines this behavior – a result that is generalized
in Section 3.1. The second treasure is a re-discovery of the quadratic formula.

Equation 2.5. The Quadratic Formula: If a, b and c are real numbers with a 6= 0, then the
solutions to ax2 + bx + c = 0 are
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= .
2a

Assuming the conditions of Equation 2.5, the solutions to ax2 + bx + c = 0 are precisely the zeros
of f (x) = ax2 + bx + c. Since

b 2 4ac − b2
 
f (x) = ax2 + bx + c = a x + +
2a 4a

the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is equivalent to

b 2 4ac − b2
 
a x+ + = 0.
2a 4a

Solving gives
2.3 Quadratic Functions 195

2
4ac − b2

b
a x+ + = 0
2a 4a

b 2 4ac − b2
 
a x+ = −
2a 4a
"   #
b 2 1 b2 − 4ac
 
1
a x+ =
a 2a a 4a

b 2 b2 − 4ac
 
x+ =
2a 4a2
r
b b2 − 4ac
x+ = ± extract square roots
2a 4a2
√
b b2 − 4ac
x+ = ±
2a 2a
√
b b2 − 4ac
x = − ±
2a 2a
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x =
2a
In our discussions of domain,
√ we were warned against having negative numbers underneath the
square root. Given that b2 − 4ac is part of the Quadratic Formula, we will need to pay special
attention to the radicand b2 − 4ac. It turns out that the quantity b2 − 4ac plays a critical role in
determining the nature of the solutions to a quadratic equation. It is given a special name.
Definition 2.7. If a, b and c are real numbers with a 6= 0, then the discriminant of the
quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is the quantity b2 − 4ac.

The discriminant ‘discriminates’ between the kinds of solutions we get from a quadratic equation.
These cases, and their relation to the discriminant, are summarized below.

Theorem 2.3. Discriminant Trichotomy: Let a, b and c be real numbers with a 6= 0.

• If b2 − 4ac < 0, the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has no real solutions.

• If b2 − 4ac = 0, the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has exactly one real solution.

• If b2 − 4ac > 0, the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has exactly two real solutions.
The proof of Theorem 2.3 stems from the position of the discriminant in the quadratic equation,
and is left as a good mental exercise for the reader. The next example exploits the fruits of all of
our labor in this section thus far.
196 Linear and Quadratic Functions

Example 2.3.3. Recall that the profit (defined on page 82) for a product is defined by the equation
Profit = Revenue − Cost, or P (x) = R(x) − C(x). In Example 2.1.7 the weekly revenue, in dollars,
made by selling x PortaBoy Game Systems was found to be R(x) = −1.5x2 + 250x with the
restriction (carried over from the price-demand function) that 0 ≤ x ≤ 166. The cost, in dollars,
to produce x PortaBoy Game Systems is given in Example 2.1.5 as C(x) = 80x + 150 for x ≥ 0.

1. Determine the weekly profit function P (x).

2. Graph y = P (x). Include the x- and y-intercepts as well as the vertex and axis of symmetry.

3. Interpret the zeros of P .

4. Interpret the vertex of the graph of y = P (x).

5. Recall that the weekly price-demand equation for PortaBoys is p(x) = −1.5x + 250, where
p(x) is the price per PortaBoy, in dollars, and x is the weekly sales. What should the price
per system be in order to maximize profit?

Solution.

1. To find the profit function P (x), we subtract

P (x) = R(x) − C(x) = −1.5x2 + 250x − (80x + 150) = −1.5x2 + 170x − 150.

Since the revenue function is valid when 0 ≤ x ≤ 166, P is also restricted to these values.

2. To find the x-intercepts, we set P (x) = 0 and solve −1.5x2 + 170x − 150 = 0. The mere
thought of trying to factor the left hand side of this equation could do serious psychological
damage, so we resort to the quadratic formula, Equation 2.5. Identifying a = −1.5, b = 170,
and c = −150, we obtain

√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x =
2ap
−170 ± 1702 − 4(−1.5)(−150)
=
2(−1.5)
√
−170 ± 28000
=
−3√
170 ± 20 70
=
3
 √   √ 
We get two x-intercepts: 170−203
70
, 0 and 170+20 70
3 , 0 . To find the y-intercept, we set
x = 0 and find y = P (0) = −150 for a y-intercept of (0, −150). To find the vertex, we use
the fact that P (x) = −1.5x2 + 170x − 150 is in the general form of a quadratic function and
170
appeal to Equation 2.4. Substituting a = −1.5 and b = 170, we get x = − 2(−1.5) = 170
3 .
2.3 Quadratic Functions 197

170

14000
To find the y-coordinate of the vertex, we compute P 3 = 3 and find that our vertex
is 170 14000


3 , 3 . The axis of symmetry is the vertical line passing through the vertex so it is
the line x = 170 3 . To sketch a reasonable graph, we approximate the x-intercepts, (0.89, 0)
and (112.44, 0), and the vertex, (56.67, 4666.67). (Note that in order to get the x-intercepts
and the vertex to show up in the same picture, we had to scale the x-axis differently than
the y-axis. This results in the left-hand x-intercept and the y-intercept being uncomfortably
close to each other and to the origin in the picture.)

y
4000

3000

2000

1000

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 x

3. The zeros of P are the solutions to P (x) = 0, which we have found to be approximately
0.89 and 112.44. As we saw in Example 1.5.3, these are the ‘break-even’ points of the profit
function, where enough product is sold to recover the cost spent to make the product. More
importantly, we see from the graph that as long as x is between 0.89 and 112.44, the graph
y = P (x) is above the x-axis, meaning y = P (x) > 0 there. This means that for these values
of x, a profit is being made. Since x represents the weekly sales of PortaBoy Game Systems,
we round the zeros to positive integers and have that as long as 1, but no more than 112
game systems are sold weekly, the retailer will make a profit.

4. From the graph, we see that the maximum value of P occurs at the vertex, which is approx-
imately (56.67, 4666.67). As above, x represents the weekly sales of PortaBoy systems, so we
can’t sell 56.67 game systems. Comparing P (56) = 4666 and P (57) = 4666.5, we conclude
that we will make a maximum profit of $4666.50 if we sell 57 game systems.

5. In the previous part, we found that we need to sell 57 PortaBoys per week to maximize profit.
To find the price per PortaBoy, we substitute x = 57 into the price-demand function to get
p(57) = −1.5(57) + 250 = 164.5. The price should be set at $164.50.

Our next example is another classic application of quadratic functions.

Example 2.3.4. Much to Donnie’s surprise and delight, he inherits a large parcel of land in
Ashtabula County from one of his (e)strange(d) relatives. The time is finally right for him to
pursue his dream of farming alpaca. He wishes to build a rectangular pasture, and estimates that
he has enough money for 200 linear feet of fencing material. If he makes the pasture adjacent to
a stream (so no fencing is required on that side), what are the dimensions of the pasture which
maximize the area? What is the maximum area? If an average alpaca needs 25 square feet of
grazing area, how many alpaca can Donnie keep in his pasture?
198 Linear and Quadratic Functions

Solution. It is always helpful to sketch the problem situation, so we do so below.

river

w pasture w
l

We are tasked to find the dimensions of the pasture which would give a maximum area. We let
w denote the width of the pasture and we let l denote the length of the pasture. Since the units
given to us in the statement of the problem are feet, we assume w and l are measured in feet. The
area of the pasture, which we’ll call A, is related to w and l by the equation A = wl. Since w and
l are both measured in feet, A has units of feet2 , or square feet. We are given the total amount
of fencing available is 200 feet, which means w + l + w = 200, or, l + 2w = 200. We now have
two equations, A = wl and l + 2w = 200. In order to use the tools given to us in this section to
maximize A, we need to use the information given to write A as a function of just one variable,
either w or l. This is where we use the equation l + 2w = 200. Solving for l, we find l = 200 − 2w,
and we substitute this into our equation for A. We get A = wl = w(200 − 2w) = 200w − 2w2 . We
now have A as a function of w, A(w) = 200w − 2w2 = −2w2 + 200w.
Before we go any further, we need to find the applied domain of A so that we know what values
of w make sense in this problem situation.9 Since w represents the width of the pasture, w > 0.
Likewise, l represents the length of the pasture, so l = 200 − 2w > 0. Solving this latter inequality,
we find w < 100. Hence, the function we wish to maximize is A(w) = −2w2 +200w for 0 < w < 100.
Since A is a quadratic function (of w), we know that the graph of y = A(w) is a parabola. Since
the coefficient of w2 is −2, we know that this parabola opens downwards. This means that there
is a maximum value to be found, and we know it occurs at the vertex. Using the vertex formula,
200
we find w = − 2(−2) = 50, and A(50) = −2(50)2 + 200(50) = 5000. Since w = 50 lies in the applied
domain, 0 < w < 100, we have that the area of the pasture is maximized when the width is 50
feet. To find the length, we use l = 200 − 2w and find l = 200 − 2(50) = 100, so the length of the
pasture is 100 feet. The maximum area is A(50) = 5000, or 5000 square feet. If an average alpaca
requires 25 square feet of pasture, Donnie can raise 5000
25 = 200 average alpaca.

We conclude this section with the graph of a more complicated absolute value function.

Example 2.3.5. Graph f (x) = |x2 − x − 6|.

Solution. Using the definition of absolute value, Definition 2.4, we have

− x2 − x − 6 , if x2 − x − 6 < 0


f (x) =
x2 − x − 6, if x2 − x − 6 ≥ 0

The trouble is that we have yet to develop any analytic techniques to solve nonlinear inequalities
such as x2 − x − 6 < 0. You won’t have to wait long; this is one of the main topics of Section 2.4.
9
Donnie would be very upset if, for example, we told him the width of the pasture needs to be −50 feet.
2.3 Quadratic Functions 199

Nevertheless, we can attack this problem graphically. To that end, we graph y = g(x) = x2 − x − 6
using the intercepts and the vertex. To find the x-intercepts, we solve x2 − x − 6 = 0. Factoring
gives (x − 3)(x + 2) = 0 so x = −2 or x = 3. Hence, (−2, 0) and (3, 0) are x-intercepts. The
b −1
y-intercept (0, −6) is found by setting x = 0. To plot the vertex, we find x = − 2a = − 2(1) = 12 , and
2
y = 21 − 12 − 6 = − 25



4 = −6.25. Plotting, we get the parabola seen below on the left. To obtain
points on the graph of y = f (x) = |x2 − x − 6|, we can take points on the graph of g(x) = x2 − x − 6
and apply the absolute value to each of the y values on the parabola. We see from the graph of g
that for x ≤ −2 or x ≥ 3, the y values on the parabola are greater than or equal to zero (since the
graph is on or above the x-axis), so the absolute value leaves these portions of the graph alone. For
x between −2 and 3, however, the y values on the parabola are negative. For example, the point
(0, −6) on y = x2 − x − 6 would result in the point (0, | − 6|) = (0, −(−6)) = (0, 6) on the graph of
f (x) = |x2 − x − 6|. Proceeding in this manner for all points with x-coordinates between −2 and
3 results in the graph seen below on the right.
y y
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

−3−2−1 1 2 3 x −3−2−1 1 2 3 x
−1 −1
−2 −2
−3 −3
−4 −4
−5 −5
−6 −6

y = g(x) = x2 − x − 6 y = f (x) = |x2 − x − 6|

If we take a step back and look at the graphs of g and f in the last example, we notice that to
obtain the graph of f from the graph of g, we reflect a portion of the graph of g about the x-axis.
We can see this analytically by substituting g(x) = x2 − x − 6 into the formula for f (x) and calling
to mind Theorem 1.4 from Section 1.7.

−g(x), if g(x) < 0
f (x) =
g(x), if g(x) ≥ 0

The function f is defined so that when g(x) is negative (i.e., when its graph is below the x-axis),
the graph of f is its refection across the x-axis. This is a general template to graph functions
of the form f (x) = |g(x)|. From this perspective, the graph of f (x) = |x| can be obtained by
reflection the portion of the line g(x) = x which is below the x-axis back above the x-axis creating
the characteristic ‘∨’ shape.
200 Linear and Quadratic Functions

2.3.1 Exercises
In Exercises 1 - 9, graph the quadratic function. Find the x- and y-intercepts of each graph, if any
exist. If it is given in general form, convert it into standard form; if it is given in standard form,
convert it into general form. Find the domain and range of the function and list the intervals on
which the function is increasing or decreasing. Identify the vertex and the axis of symmetry and
determine whether the vertex yields a relative and absolute maximum or minimum.

1. f (x) = x2 + 2 2. f (x) = −(x + 2)2 3. f (x) = x2 − 2x − 8

4. f (x) = −2(x + 1)2 + 4 5. f (x) = 2x2 − 4x − 1 6. f (x) = −3x2 + 4x − 7

7. f (x) = x2 + x + 1 8. f (x) = −3x2 + 5x + 4 1

9.10 f (x) = x2 − x−1
100
In Exercises 10 - 14, the cost and price-demand functions are given for different scenarios. For each
scenario,

• Find the profit function P (x).

• Find the number of items which need to be sold in order to maximize profit.

• Find the maximum profit.

• Find the price to charge per item in order to maximize profit.

• Find and interpret break-even points.

10. The cost, in dollars, to produce x “I’d rather be a Sasquatch” T-Shirts is C(x) = 2x + 26,
x ≥ 0 and the price-demand function, in dollars per shirt, is p(x) = 30 − 2x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 15.

11. The cost, in dollars, to produce x bottles of 100% All-Natural Certified Free-Trade Organic
Sasquatch Tonic is C(x) = 10x + 100, x ≥ 0 and the price-demand function, in dollars per
bottle, is p(x) = 35 − x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 35.

12. The cost, in cents, to produce x cups of Mountain Thunder Lemonade at Junior’s Lemonade
Stand is C(x) = 18x + 240, x ≥ 0 and the price-demand function, in cents per cup, is
p(x) = 90 − 3x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 30.

13. The daily cost, in dollars, to produce x Sasquatch Berry Pies is C(x) = 3x + 36, x ≥ 0 and
the price-demand function, in dollars per pie, is p(x) = 12 − 0.5x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 24.

14. The monthly cost, in hundreds of dollars, to produce x custom built electric scooters is
C(x) = 20x + 1000, x ≥ 0 and the price-demand function, in hundreds of dollars per scooter,
is p(x) = 140 − 2x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 70.
10
We have already seen the graph of this function. It was used as an example in Section 1.6 to show how the
graphing calculator can be misleading.
2.3 Quadratic Functions 201

15. The International Silver Strings Submarine Band holds a bake sale each year to fund their
trip to the National Sasquatch Convention. It has been determined that the cost in dollars
of baking x cookies is C(x) = 0.1x + 25 and that the demand function for their cookies is
p = 10 − .01x. How many cookies should they bake in order to maximize their profit?

16. Using data from Bureau of Transportation Statistics, the average fuel economy F in miles
per gallon for passenger cars in the US can be modeled by F (t) = −0.0076t2 + 0.45t + 16,
0 ≤ t ≤ 28, where t is the number of years since 1980. Find and interpret the coordinates of
the vertex of the graph of y = F (t).

17. The temperature T , in degrees Fahrenheit, t hours after 6 AM is given by:

1
T (t) = − t2 + 8t + 32, 0 ≤ t ≤ 12
2

What is the warmest temperature of the day? When does this happen?

18. Suppose C(x) = x2 − 10x + 27 represents the costs, in hundreds, to produce x thousand pens.
How many pens should be produced to minimize the cost? What is this minimum cost?

19. Skippy wishes to plant a vegetable garden along one side of his house. In his garage, he found
32 linear feet of fencing. Since one side of the garden will border the house, Skippy doesn’t
need fencing along that side. What are the dimensions of the garden which will maximize
the area of the garden? What is the maximum area of the garden?

20. In the situation of Example 2.3.4, Donnie has a nightmare that one of his alpaca herd fell into
the river and drowned. To avoid this, he wants to move his rectangular pasture away from
the river. This means that all four sides of the pasture require fencing. If the total amount
of fencing available is still 200 linear feet, what dimensions maximize the area of the pasture
now? What is the maximum area? Assuming an average alpaca requires 25 square feet of
pasture, how many alpaca can he raise now?

21. What is the largest rectangular area one can enclose with 14 inches of string?

22. The height of an object dropped from the roof of an eight story building is modeled by
h(t) = −16t2 + 64, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2. Here, h is the height of the object off the ground, in feet, t
seconds after the object is dropped. How long before the object hits the ground?

23. The height h in feet of a model rocket above the ground t seconds after lift-off is given by
h(t) = −5t2 + 100t, for 0 ≤ t ≤ 20. When does the rocket reach its maximum height above
the ground? What is its maximum height?

24. Carl’s friend Jason participates in the Highland Games. In one event, the hammer throw, the
height h in feet of the hammer above the ground t seconds after Jason lets it go is modeled by
h(t) = −16t2 + 22.08t + 6. What is the hammer’s maximum height? What is the hammer’s
total time in the air? Round your answers to two decimal places.
202 Linear and Quadratic Functions

25. Assuming no air resistance or forces other than the Earth’s gravity, the height above the
ground at time t of a falling object is given by s(t) = −4.9t2 + v0 t + s0 where s is in meters, t
is in seconds, v0 is the object’s initial velocity in meters per second and s0 is its initial position
in meters.

(a) What is the applied domain of this function?

(b) Discuss with your classmates what each of v0 > 0, v0 = 0 and v0 < 0 would mean.
(c) Come up with a scenario in which s0 < 0.
(d) Let’s say a slingshot is used to shoot a marble straight up from the ground (s0 = 0) with
an initial velocity of 15 meters per second. What is the marble’s maximum height above
the ground? At what time will it hit the ground?
(e) Now shoot the marble from the top of a tower which is 25 meters tall. When does it hit
the ground?
(f) What would the height function be if instead of shooting the marble up off of the tower,
you were to shoot it straight DOWN from the top of the tower?

26. The two towers of a suspension bridge are 400 feet apart. The parabolic cable11 attached to
the tops of the towers is 10 feet above the point on the bridge deck that is midway between
the towers. If the towers are 100 feet tall, find the height of the cable directly above a point
of the bridge deck that is 50 feet to the right of the left-hand tower.

27. Graph f (x) = |1 − x2 |

28. Find all of the points on the line y = 1 − x which are 2 units from (1, −1).

29. Let L be the line y = 2x + 1. Find a function D(x) which measures the distance squared from
a point on L to (0, 0). Use this to find the point on L closest to (0, 0).

30. With the help of your classmates, show that if a quadratic function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c has
two real zeros then the x-coordinate of the vertex is the midpoint of the zeros.

In Exercises 31 - 36, solve the quadratic equation for the indicated variable.

31. x2 − 10y 2 = 0 for x 32. y 2 − 4y = x2 − 4 for x 33. x2 − mx = 1 for x

34. y 2 − 3y = 4x for y 35. y 2 − 4y = x2 − 4 for y 36. −gt2 + v0 t + s0 = 0 for t

(Assume g 6= 0.)

11
The weight of the bridge deck forces the bridge cable into a parabola and a free hanging cable such as a power
line does not form a parabola. We shall see in Exercise 35 in Section 6.5 what shape a free hanging cable makes.
2.3 Quadratic Functions 203

2.3.2 Answers
y
1. f (x) = x2 + 2 (this is both forms!) 10
No x-intercepts 9

y-intercept (0, 2) 8
7
Domain: (−∞, ∞) 6
Range: [2, ∞) 5
4
Decreasing on (−∞, 0] 3
Increasing on [0, ∞) 2
Vertex (0, 2) is a minimum 1

Axis of symmetry x = 0 −2 −1 1 2 x

2. f (x) = −(x + 2)2 = −x2 − 4x − 4

y
x-intercept (−2, 0)
y-intercept (0, −4) −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
x

Domain: (−∞, ∞) −2
−3
Range: (−∞, 0] −4
Increasing on (−∞, −2] −5

Decreasing on [−2, ∞) −6
−7
Vertex (−2, 0) is a maximum −8
Axis of symmetry x = −2
y
3. f (x) = x2 − 2x − 8 = (x − 1)2 − 9 2
x-intercepts (−2, 0) and (4, 0) 1

y-intercept (0, −8) −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x

−1
Domain: (−∞, ∞) −2
Range: [−9, ∞) −3
−4
Decreasing on (−∞, 1] −5
Increasing on [1, ∞) −6

Vertex (1, −9) is a minimum −7

−8
Axis of symmetry x = 1 −9

4. f (x) = −2(x + 1)2 √+ 4 = −2x2 − 4x√+ 2

y
x-intercepts (−1 − 2, 0) and (−1 + 2, 0)
4
y-intercept (0, 2) 3
Domain: (−∞, ∞) 2
1
Range: (−∞, 4]
Increasing on (−∞, −1] −3 −2 −1 1 x
−1

Decreasing on [−1, ∞) −2
−3
Vertex (−1, 4) is a maximum −4
Axis of symmetry x = −1
204 Linear and Quadratic Functions

y
5. f (x) = 2x2 −4x − 1 = 2(x − 1)2 −3
√ √ 4
x-intercepts 2−2 6 , 0 and 2+2 6 , 0
3
y-intercept (0, −1)
2
Domain: (−∞, ∞)
1
Range: [−3, ∞)
Increasing on [1, ∞) −1 1 2 3 x
Decreasing on (−∞, 1] −1

Vertex (1, −3) is a minimum −2

Axis of symmetry x = 1 −3

2 2 17 y
6. f (x) = −3x2 + 4x − 7 = −3 x −


3 − 3
1 2 x
No x-intercepts −1
−2
y-intercept (0, −7) −3
Domain: (−∞, ∞) −4
Range: −∞, − 17 3
−5
−6
Increasing on −∞,
23

−7
Decreasing on
23 , ∞ −8

Vertex 23 , − 17
3 is a maximum
−9
−10
Axis of symmetry x = 23 −11
−12
−13
−14

2
7. f (x) = x2 + x + 1 = x + 12 + 3
4
y
No x-intercepts
y-intercept (0, 1) 4

Domain: (−∞,
∞) 3
3
Range: 4 , ∞ 
Increasing on − 21 , ∞ 

2

Decreasing on
−∞, − 12 1

Vertex − 12 , 43 is a minimum
Axis of symmetry x = − 12 −2 −1 1 x
2.3 Quadratic Functions 205

2 y
8. f (x) = −3x2+ 5x + 4= −3 x − 65 + 73
12
√ √ 6
x-intercepts 5−6 73 , 0 and 5+6 73 , 0
5
y-intercept (0, 4)
4
Domain: (−∞, ∞)
73
 3
Range: −∞, 12
Increasing on −∞,
65
 2

Decreasing on
56 , ∞ 1

Vertex 56 , 73
12 is a maximum −1 1 2 3 x
Axis of symmetry x = 56 −1

−2

−3

1 1

2 40001
9. f (x) = x2 − 100 x − 1 = x − 200 −
40000
√ √  y
1+ 40001 1− 40001
x-intercepts 200 and 200 8
7
y-intercept (0, −1)
6
Domain: (−∞, ∞)
5
Range: − 40001
40000 , ∞
4
1
 3
Decreasing on  −∞, 200 2
1


Increasing on 200 ,∞ 1
1 40001
Vertex 200 , − 40000 is a minimum12


−2 −1 1 2 x
1
Axis of symmetry x = 200

10. • P (x) = −2x2 + 28x − 26, for 0 ≤ x ≤ 15.

• 7 T-shirts should be made and sold to maximize profit.
• The maximum profit is $72.
• The price per T-shirt should be set at $16 to maximize profit.
• The break even points are x = 1 and x = 13, so to make a profit, between 1 and 13
T-shirts need to be made and sold.

11. • P (x) = −x2 + 25x − 100, for 0 ≤ x ≤ 35

• Since the vertex occurs at x = 12.5, and it is impossible to make or sell 12.5 bottles of
tonic, maximum profit occurs when either 12 or 13 bottles of tonic are made and sold.
• The maximum profit is $56.
• The price per bottle can be either $23 (to sell 12 bottles) or $22 (to sell 13 bottles.)
Both will result in the maximum profit.
• The break even points are x = 5 and x = 20, so to make a profit, between 5 and 20
bottles of tonic need to be made and sold.
12
You’ll need to use your calculator to zoom in far enough to see that the vertex is not the y-intercept.
206 Linear and Quadratic Functions

12. • P (x) = −3x2 + 72x − 240, for 0 ≤ x ≤ 30

• 12 cups of lemonade need to be made and sold to maximize profit.
• The maximum profit is 192¢ or $1.92.
• The price per cup should be set at 54¢ per cup to maximize profit.
• The break even points are x = 4 and x = 20, so to make a profit, between 4 and 20 cups
of lemonade need to be made and sold.

13. • P (x) = −0.5x2 + 9x − 36, for 0 ≤ x ≤ 24

• 9 pies should be made and sold to maximize the daily profit.
• The maximum daily profit is $4.50.
• The price per pie should be set at $7.50 to maximize profit.
• The break even points are x = 6 and x = 12, so to make a profit, between 6 and 12 pies
need to be made and sold daily.

14. • P (x) = −2x2 + 120x − 1000, for 0 ≤ x ≤ 70

• 30 scooters need to be made and sold to maximize profit.
• The maximum monthly profit is 800 hundred dollars, or $80,000.
• The price per scooter should be set at 80 hundred dollars, or $8000 per scooter.
• The break even points are x = 10 and x = 50, so to make a profit, between 10 and 50
scooters need to be made and sold monthly.

15. 495 cookies

16. The vertex is (approximately) (29.60, 22.66), which corresponds to a maximum fuel economy
of 22.66 miles per gallon, reached sometime between 2009 and 2010 (29 – 30 years after 1980.)
Unfortunately, the model is only valid up until 2008 (28 years after 1908.) So, at this point,
we are using the model to predict the maximum fuel economy.

17. 64◦ at 2 PM (8 hours after 6 AM.)

18. 5000 pens should be produced for a cost of $200.

19. 8 feet by 16 feet; maximum area is 128 square feet.

20. 50 feet by 50 feet; maximum area is 2500 feet; he can raise 100 average alpacas.

21. The largest rectangle has area 12.25 square inches.

22. 2 seconds.

23. The rocket reaches its maximum height of 500 feet 10 seconds after lift-off.

24. The hammer reaches a maximum height of approximately 13.62 feet. The hammer is in the
air approximately 1.61 seconds.
2.3 Quadratic Functions 207

25. (a) The applied domain is [0, ∞).

(d) The height function is this case is s(t) = −4.9t2 + 15t. The vertex of this parabola
is approximately (1.53, 11.48) so the maximum height reached by the marble is 11.48
meters. It hits the ground again when t ≈ 3.06 seconds.
(e) The revised height function is s(t) = −4.9t2 + 15t + 25 which has zeros at t ≈ −1.20 and
t ≈ 4.26. We ignore the negative value and claim that the marble will hit the ground
after 4.26 seconds.
(f) Shooting down means the initial velocity is negative so the height functions becomes
s(t) = −4.9t2 − 15t + 25.

26. Make the vertex of the parabola (0, 10) so that the point on the top of the left-hand tower
where the cable connects is (−200, 100) and the point on the top of the right-hand tower is
9
(200, 100). Then the parabola is given by p(x) = 4000 x2 + 10. Standing 50 feet to the right of
the left-hand tower means you’re standing at x = −150 and p(−150) = 60.625. So the cable
is 60.625 feet above the bridge deck there.
√ √ ! √ √ !
27. y = |1 − x2 | 3 − 7 −1 + 7 3 + 7 −1 − 7
y 28. , , ,
2 2 2 2
7
6
5
4
3

2
1

−2 −1 1 2 x

29. D(x) = x2 +(2x+1)2 = 5x 2 +4x+1, D is minimized when x = − 2 , so the point on y = 2x+1

5
closest to (0, 0) is − 52 , 51

√
√ m ± m2 + 4
31. x = ±y 10 32. x = ±(y − 2) 33. x =
2
√ p
3 ± 16x + 9 v0 ± v02 + 4gs0
34. y = 35. y = 2 ± x 36. t =
2 2g