Strictly os per the New Rcvlcod ._ yll,,bu,; ( A v .

201 a) of
Mumbai University
w ,c .r. ac:ndomlc vcor 2010- 20 20
(Asp r Choice Boscd Credit ond Gmdlng Syet c m)

SUBJECTS I AUTHORS I LEADERSHIP IEXPERIENCE

. '

MICROWAVE
ENGINEERING
( Code : ECC701)

Semester 7
Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

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 Syllabus ...

r-----,------.------------,------ - - --:---~-=----------
Subject Code Subject Name l-..:'l..:'c::.ac:.:.h~
·in~g:..:S:..c:.:.h:.:.e:.:.m~c~(:..:ll~rs:...):.._+----.----C-r_erd_it_s
:: ~
_A_ss_i_gn e_d______
7
Theory Practical Tutorial Theory Practical Tutorial Total
ECC701 Microwave 04 04 04 ---
Engineering

Examination Scheme
-
Subject Subject Theory Marks
-
Code Name
I'
Internal assessment
Test 1 Test 2 Avg. of Test t End. Sem. Term Practial and Oral Total
and Test 2 Exam. work Oral
ECC701 Microwave 20 20 20 80 - - - 100
t
Engineering

Prerequisites
I
I. Electromagnetic Engineering
2. Antenna and Radio Wave Propagation
11
3. Communication Engineering

Course objectives
1. To learn fundamentals of microwave systems.
2. To learn to make system level design decisions.
3. To learn passive and active device characteristics

Course outcomes
After successful completion of the course student will be able to
I. Charac_terize d~vices at higher frequencies.
II
2. Design and analyze microwave circuits.
3. Design and analyze amplifiers and oscillators at microwave frequencies. I
4. Demonstrate skills of planning, design and deployment of microwave networks.

.'

.,.
'
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 Module Unit Topic.-; Hrs.
No. No.
- 1.0
Introduction to Microwaves ·
1.1 Microwave Frequency Bands i ~ o Spectrum, Chara~Adv~ges---anc
Applications~•aves.
1.2
Scauering parameters : Chara1te_£istidmd Prpp!Ities~
1.3
Strip lines, Microstrip lines and coupled lines : Analyjs--and d9_jgrr.
1.4
Design of Impedance ~hing network using lum~<l and di~butcd parameters.
(Refer Chapter l)
2.0
Waveguides and Passh·e Devices os ·
2.1
Rccia~nd circular wa\'cguidcs : Construction. Working and
Mode analysis.
2.2
R~sonators, Re-entrant cavities Tees. Hybrid ring, Directional couplers, Phase
shifters. Terminations. Atlenuators and Ferrite devices such as Isolators, G_yrators
and Circulators. (Refer Chapters 2 and 3)
3.0 Mi~;;wave Tub~ 10
3.1 Two Cavi_l)'.,Kl ystr<?n, Mul\i-Cavity Kly~tron and Rdlex Klystron.
3.2 Helix Tra"el!ing Way\'.' Tube and Cross Field Amplifier.
3.3 Backward Wave Oscillator. Cylindric;tl Magnetron and Gyrot19 n.
~ - ' \. ·

(Refer Chapter 4)
-to 1\ licrowan! Semiconductor Devices 10
4.1 Diodes: Varactor. PIN, Tunnel. Point Contact. Schottky Barrier,
Gunn. l~IPAn·. TR,\PATT. and 13,\RITT.
4.2 Tra11'istor,: RJT. llctro juncti0n BJT. l\lESFET. :ind HEMT
.u l'arame1ric Ampliticr~ and ,\ ppliL·;1tion~. (Refer Chapter 5)
5.0 i\licrowan- :\lcasurc1~1cnt~ 06
. ,
5.1 VSWR, Frequency, Po\ver, Noise, Q--Factor, Impedance, Attenuation.
Dielectric Const;mt, Antenna Gain. (Refer Chapter 6)
6.0 l\licrowa,·e Integrated Circuits (1\tlC) 06
6.1 MIC f\1ateriak
6.2 Type~ of MIC: Hyb rid and i\tonolitltic MIC.
6.3 Chip Ma1hc111atic~. (Refer Chapter 7)
Total 48

000

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 Modu1e·1'

Introduction to Microwaves

I Syllabus l
Microwave Frequency Bands in Radio Spectrum, Characteristics, Advantages and Applications of Microwaves,

Scattering parameters : Characteristics and Properties, Strip lines, Microstrip lines and coupled lines : Analysis and
design, Design of Impedance matching networ1< using lumped and distributed parameters.

1.1 History ............................................................. ,................. 1·3 1.4.1 Improved Directivity........................................................... 1·8

1.1.1 Advantages ol High Frequencies ..................................... 1-5 1.4.2 High Channel Capacity ..................................................... 1-8

LO. 1.1.1 Explain advantages and disadvantages ol 1.4.3 High AnteMa Gain ............................................................ 1-9
high frequencies......................................................... 1-5
1.4.4 Power Requirement Is Low ..........................................~ .... 1-9
1.1.2 Disadvantages ol High Frequencies ................................. 1·5
1.4.5 Microwaves are Transparent ........................._. .................. 1-9
1.2 Microwave Spectrum ........................................................ 1-5 LO. 1.4.2 Justify : Microwaves aro transparent.. ........................ 1-9
LO. 1.2.1 Explaln what Is microwave spectrum and
1.4.6 Less Fading Effect - ·--···..............._ ...........- ................ 1·10
what are microwaves 7 .............................................. 1-5
LO. 1.2.2 What are Microwaves 7 ............................................. 1-6 1.5 Applications ol Microwaves ............................................. 1-10

LO. 1.5.1 Discuss applications of microwaves in different

1.2. 1 Definition of Microwave ..................................................... 1-6
fields......................................................................... 1-10
LO. 1.2.3 Define Microwaves..................................................... 1-6
1.5.1 Areas ol Applications ...................................................... 1· 1O
1.3 Microwave Frequency Bands ........................................... 1-7
1.5.2 Biomedical Application:; of Microwave ............................ 1--11
ua. 1.3.1 Discuss the various frequency bands of microwaves.

MU. Dec. 16. Dec. 17. 5 Marks ............................. 1-7 ua. 1.5.2 Explain any one blo-medical application using
microwave.
1.3.1 Old Mllltary Band Designations......................... ··.......... ···· 1-7
MU - Ma 17. Ma 18. Dec. 18. 5/10 Marks ......... 1-11

1.3.2 New U.S. Military Microwave Bands............................... 1-7

1.5.3 Microwave Dialhermy...................................................... 1-12
1.3.3 IEEE Microwave Bands .................................................... 1-8
1.6 Applications of Microwaves In Communication ............... 1-13

1.4 Properties of Microwaves ................................................. 1-8 LO. 1.6.1 Discuss applications of microwaves

ua. 1.4.1 Discuss the characteristics of microwaves. in communlcatioo . .................................................... 1-13

MU . Dec. l6. Dec. 17. May 18. 5 Marks ............... 1-8

1 .6.1 Cellular Telephone (I\Aobile Communication) System ..... 1-13

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 1·2 lntroductloo lo Mlcro-,,a,,~
/

1.0 .2 Coruloss Tolophono Syslom ... ................................... 1-I J 1. 12 GlrlpllM .................................. ....................................... 1·37

LO. t, t 2.1 , ptoln lllrlpllno ............................. .................. 1~

1 6.3 Porsonnl CommunlCllhon Syi;tom (PCS) ................ 1•1"

I IJ l.11cro-ilrlp ............. ......................,... . ..... 1-23

16 4 W1roloss Locol Arco Network (WLAN) ............. .. 1•14
LO. 1.13.1 Whol lo mlCtO:.tl1p llrl'J ? 01 ~.r,tJ',~... • ................. 1.:;;i
16 5 Torroslnnl Communlc-ollon (Mlcrowovo Unk.s) ........ ... 1• 15
1.1J I Advantogos ..... ..... .. ..........- ---- 1~
1 6 G Sotollllo Communlcohon ............... . ..................... 1· 15
LO. 1.13.2 Give advantago11 of mlcrootr1p........,-..... - ........... -· 1-~
16 7 Direct Oroadcasl Sotellile (OBS)..................................... 1• 16
1.13.2 Design Formulas ................... .................... _ ·-· - .... 1--n
16 8 Rodlo Froquency ldenlihcatlon (RFIO) ........................... 1• 16
1.14 Coupled Lines .............................................. .. _ ·.. • 1_. 1
1.7 OB and dBm .. . .... ............................. ...... ........... 1·17
LO. 1.14.1 What Is coupled line ? Discuss. .........- ........ -.... 1_. I
LO. 1.7.1 Whal Is OB and dBm ? What is need of 11 ? ............. 1•17
1.14.1 Even and Odd Modes ........................................- .._._ , _.1
1.7.1 ~13m Terminology............................................................ 1·18
LO. 1.14.2 Explain even and odd modes............................. __ 1... 1
1.(3 l11sert1on Loss and Return Loss ...................................... 1· 19
1.15 Impedance Matching Techniques ...........................- ..... 1~3
LO. 1.8.1 Explain Insertion loss and return loss ........................... ..
LO. 1.15.1 Explain what is the need of Impedance matching,
with expressions . ............... ...................................... 1•19
and how it can be achieved uslng lumped
1.8 .1 Insertion Loss (IL) .......................................................... 1·20
elements ? ................................................................ 1-4.3
LO. 1.8.2 Deline lnsen,on Loss (IL) ......................................... 1·20
1.15.1 Zo Matchlng ..................................................................... 1-43
1.8 2 Return Loss (RL) ............................................................ 1·20
1.15.2 Reactive Matching NetwOfks .......................................... 1-43
o. 1.8.3 Define Return Loss (RL). ......................................... 1·20
1. 15.3 Matching Networks with Distributed Elements ............ ... 1-44
1 a3 Other Ways of Spec1tying Iha Reflected Power.............. 1·21
UEx. 1.15.1 MU• Dec. 15. 10 Marks .................................. . 1-45
1.9 Scat1ering Parameters (S·Parameters) .......................... 1·23
1.16 Single Stub Impedance Matching on Lines.................... 1-49
LO. 1.9.1 Deline scat1ering parameters................................... 1 ·23
LO. 1.16.1 Explain what is lhe need of Impedance matctung.
LO. 1.9.2 Why z. Y. T or H Parameters cannot be used ?..... 1·23
and how 11can be achieved using distnbuted
1.9 1 Scattering Matrix ............................................................. 1·24 elements ?............................................................. t ...t9
LO. 1.9.3 Why electrical network parameters cannot be
1 16.1 Disadvantages ol Single Stub Matching ........... - ... _ .... 1·50
used at high frequencies ? .................................... . 1 •24
uex.1.1s.11uiosMD1t•rn:tta ...... ...... ....... ___ .1.so
1.9 .2 Oellning S•Parameters ................................................... 1·25 UEx. 1.16.2l &l'O ~l@IX:tl[1JX®a ................................_..,. 1-53
LO. t.9.4 Define S parameters ................................................ 1·25
1.17 Double Stub Matching ..................................................... 1·55
1. 1O Why Z., :: 50 U ? ............................................................ t ·26 UEx. 1.17.1 MU• Dec. 16. Dec. 17. Mo 18. Dec. 18. 10 Marks

LO. 1.10.1 Why we use charac1enS11c impedance In ................................................................................ 1-SS

microwaves as 50 ohms ? ....................................... 1·26 1.18 University OuosUons and Answors ................................ t -58
Chapter end1...............................................____ __•_ _ _ 1..sa
1.1 t Properties ol S•Matrix ..................................................... 1•27

LO. 1. 11 . 1 Explain
< properllos of S•matrbc................................. 1•27

T,·rli•~!'" l'ul,lu·atwni...........
· - -- • •
m rr Aut!wn ,i,,pirt" i n1101J1fto11
'' J • __ , S.la//,\'j1/4/1 li-nturr

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 Microwave Engineering (MU. Sem. 7 • E&TC)
1-3 Introduction to Microwaves

I a 1.1 History ]
Faraday's law of induction and Ampere's law with
Maxwell's correction. These four equations, together
with the Lorentz force law are the complete set of laws
of classical electromagnetism.

Maxwell demonstrated that electric and magnetic fields

travel through· space in the fonn of waves and at the
constant speed of light.

q, Maxwell's equations are

Name Differential Integral form

form ,: , ..

l. Gauss's V. D = P.
law
(electric)
(1Al)Fig. 1.1.1
2, Gauss's V•B=O
James Clerk Maxwell ( 13 June 1831 - 5 November law
1879) was a Scottish physicist and mathematician, (magnetic)
Maxwell is considered by many physicists to be the
3. Faraday's
th
19 century scientist who had the greatest influence on VxE=-B
th law
20 century physics.
-t Ampere's
His contributions to the science are considered by many V=R=J+D ~H-dl= J<T+5)d;
to be of the same magnitude as those of Isaac Newton law (with
and Albe~ Einstein. In the millennium poll-a-survey of Maxwell's
the 100 most prominent physicists Maxwell was voted correction)
the third greatest physicist of all time, behind only
Newton and Einstein.
5. Continuity V. J =- p, f J · d; =- Jp,.dv
equation
In electromagnetism, Maxwell's equation are a set of
four partial differential equations that describe the If asked most people outside a physics department
properties of the electric and magnetic fields and relate would not be able to identify Maxwell's equations, nor
them to their sources : charge density and current would they be able to state that they dealt with
density. electricity and magnetism.
These equations are used to show that light is an -
However, Maxwell' s equations have many very
electromagnetic wave. Individually, the equations are
important implications in the life of a modem person,
known as Gauss's law for electric, Gauss's law for
so much so that people use devices that function off the
magnetic.
principles in Maxwell's equation every day withou
even knowing it.

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 /
f
Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 1-4 Introduction to Microwaves

Is" · Heinrich Hertz

{1A3)Fig. 1.1.3

He made a simple receiver consisting of loop of wire.

At lhe end of the loop were two more small balls, again
{1A2)Fig. 1.1.2 separated by a tiny gap. The receiver was placed
several meters from the oscillator.
Heinrich Hertz (22 February 1857 - l January 1894)
was a German physicist who clarified and expanded The sparks generated across the gap at the transmitter

James Clerk Maxwell's electromagnelic theory of light. produced sparks in the receiver.

Maxwell's theory was not accepted for almost 2 The theory states that if electromagnetic waves were

decades since it was not proved practically. spreading from the oscillator sparks, they would induce
a current in the loop that would send sparks across the
Hertz was the first satisfactorily demonstrale the
gap.
presence of electromagnetic waves, by building an
• I
apparatus that produces and detected the VHF/UHF He reasoned that if Maxwell's prediction were correct,
each spark would emit electromagnetic waves that
radio waves.
should radiale through the laboratory.
When Hertz started experimental work at the
University of Bonn, he was aware of the pioneering In more advanced experiments, Hertz measured the

work that was left behind by British scientist James velocity of electromagnetic radiation and found it do be

Clerk Maxwell, · who has produced a series of the same as the light's velocity.

mathematical equations that predicted the existence of He also showed that the nature of radio waves
·I
I electromagnetic waves. That time no one had found a
way creating them.
reflection and refraction was the same as those of light
and establisbed beyond any doubt that tight is a form of

In 1887, Hertz changed all that. electromagnetic radiation obeying Maxwell equations.

He set up an oscillator made of polished brass balls, Hertz's experiments triggered broad interest in radio

·each connected to an induction coil. The balls were research that eventually produced commercially

separated by a tiny gap and when Hertz applied a successful wireless telegraph, audio radio, and later

current to the coils, sparks were generated across the television.

gap. To recognize his work, the radio wave unit of

freq uency, which is a cycle per second is named a

Tech-Neo Puhlications--Whue Autl,ors iaspire iaaoratioa ..J SACHINSllUI reaturr:

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 Microwave Engineering (MU_ Sem. 7 _E&TC) 1-5 Introduction to Microwaves

Hertz. It is used to measure periodic events, the most In the early 1900s, most of the wireless communication
common is to describe radio and au-1:
uio frequenc1es.
.
used very long wavelengths.
Guglielmo Marconi {1874-193?)
In world war II there was an urgent need for radar
(standing for radio detection ranging). A radar's
resolution i.e. the minimum object size that can be
detected is proportional to wavelength. Therefore high
frequencies or shorter wavelengths. Therefore high
frequencies or shorter wavelengths are required to
detect smaller objects.

From then onwards the use and development of

microwave and higher frequencies in communication
started.

'&. 1.1.1 Advantages of High Frequencies

LQ. 1.1.1 Explain advantages and disadvantages of

high frequencies.
(1A4JFig. l.1.4
{i) Large bandwidth
Marconi was an Italian inventor, known as the father of
(ii) Reduced dimensions for antennas and other
long distance radio transmission and
development of Marconi's law and a radio telegraph
for his
co'!lponents. -- - - ·- ----
(iii) High resolution for radar.
system.
(iv) Less crowed spectru_m.
Hertz's work remained a laboratory curiosity for almost
(v) Difficulty in jammi!lg,
20 years. Then Marconi found a method for
(vi) Less interference from other applications.
transmitting and receiving information. He
commercialized the use of electromagnetic wave
'&. 1.1.2 Disadvantages of High
propagation for wireless communication and was able Frequencies
to transfer the infonnation from one continent to
another without a physical connection. Atmospheric losses are high
(i)
~ ----·- - .. -- -
It was used for communication with ship. Marconi's (ii) Components are expen~ive.
wireless communication using the telegraph meant that
·-----·-
(iii) Higher components losses and less power output from
the ship was no longer isolated in the open seas and ·- - - - - -----
active devices.
could have continuous contact to report its positions.
(iv) For high operation use of GaAs instead of Si.
The world realized the usefulness of the wireless - --·--·
communication after the distress signals from the S.S.
Titanic. Because of it world came to know about the
Ia 1,2 Microwave Spectrum I
disaster and could save some people.
LO. 1.2.1 Explain what is microwave spectrum and
Because of his work in wireless communication, he got
what are microwaves ?
Noble price in 1909.

.....A SACIIIN S/1,4// J'entun:

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 I
Introduction to Microwaves
/ Microwave Engineering (MU. Sem. 7 - E&TC) 1-6 4.;;
The microwave portion extends from the upper edge of
The frequency of alternating signal can be from audio
VHF to just below the THz radiation (typically
frequency to as high as cosmic rays. The total range of
frequency is called as electromagnetic spectrum. 0.3 THz.)

Based on frequency (or wavelength, 11. = c/f) it is

L
~:_:!::::
LQ.1..2:___...:.W~h-a_t_a_re_M_ic_ro_w
_a_v_e_s_?_ _____
·_ J
divided into bands as shown in Fig. 1.2.1. The prefix. "micro" is " microwaves" is not meant 10
The RF (Radio Frequency) and microwave bands arc suggest a wavelength in micrometer range. It indicates
especially important for communication purpose. that microwaves arc "small" (in wavelength) compared
The RF frequency s ctrum ooes from 300 kHz to 10
waves used in typical radio broadcasting (MF, HF).

300 Hz. It covers _Medium Frequency (MF). High Nello Carrara is the person used the term microwaves
Frequency (HF) bands and very High Frequency (VHF) first time. He was an Italian physicist and founder of
ban3s. ---~-
------- 3 X 10
1
the electromagnetic wave research institute. He
researched X-rays and was a pioneer of radar. In his
.,II)
ELF (Extremely paper on "The detection of Microwaves" in 1932 he
'i3 Low Frequency)
10
6. .,C
::,
coined the common terms "microwave''.
SLFNF(SuperLow/

10
5 !
0
Voice Frequency)
3 X 10
3 From the whole spectrum in Fig. 1.2. I we are interested
,5
::, VLF (Very only in microwave region. and so instead of
c(
Low Frequency)
remembering the total spectrum, we will concen1rate
LF (Low Frequency)
3 5 only on the shaded portion shown in Fig. 1.2.2.
10 3x 10
MF
~g (Medium Frequency) :i..
-
<O · -
"'
;:e '>
u..~
HF RF band
(High Frequency) 1 m 300 MHz
~~

I
-:r Microwave
~> VHF (Very
High Frequency) 8
Wavelength (i.) 3 X 10 1 mm 300 GHz
in meters.
..: r/1
.!!~
UHF(Ultra
High Frequency)
-· THz band
"- =elf
i~
=-= ~ -
f
E2 SHF(Super ·
- c:,
CJ?
<0=
s High Frequency)
(1A6)Fig. 1.2.2: Upper and lower boundary ofmicrowaYes.
;t 'j:
0 7 EHF (Extremely •
-~ .gr/1
::E High Frequency) 11
3x10
"&. 1.2.1 Definition of Microwave
THz radiation

Infrared
3 X 10
14
LQ. 1.2.3 Define Microwaves. J
Visible light Definition : Microwaves are electromagnetic signals
in the frequency range..f!:gm 300 MHz (3 x IO Hz)
Ullraviolet light
11

·-
16
-8 3 X 10 to300 GHz (3 x I0 Hz). The wavelength for this
10
range goes rrom !..!_n to I m~ .
X-rays. Gamma rays,
Cosmic rays
Sometime~ microwave frequencies are referred to those
24
>3 X 10 6
from I GHz upto 10 GHz that is it can extend up to
(IAS)Fig. 1.2.1 infrared and visible light regions.

-------::::--:--:--:---:-~==::-
TecIt-Neo Publirations.•••- ..- lf1it·re A11thon· impire in1Joration
- - - - - - - ---:-:::::-:=-:-::-:;--:-:-
•.•..A S,4CIIINSRAII lenturr

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 Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 1-7 Introduction to Microwaves

Most applicutions of microwave technology make use Tnhlc t.J. I : U.S. Mllllury Microwave Bands
of frequencies in the range of I to 40 GI lz.
Vcsl~nutlon Frequency range In gigahertz

a 1.3 Microwave Frequency Bands P hand 0.225-0.390

L band 0.390-1.550
ua. 1.3.1 Discuss the various frequency bands of
microwaves. S band 1.550-3.')00
MU· Dec. 16, Dec. 17, 5 Marks
C band 3.900-6.200
For convenience, microwave spectrum is divided into
bands called as microwave bands. X band 6.200-10.900

The field of microwave and RF engineering is driven K band I0.900-36.000

by applications orig_inally for military use such as radar
Qband 36.000-46.000
and, more recently for commercial, scientific and
consumer applications. V band 46.000-56.000

As a result of large application area, microwave Wband 56.000-100.000

terminology and frequency . band designations are
.
not
entirely standardized.
a 1.3.2 New U.S. Military Microwave

Ia 1.3.1 Old Military Band Designations

Bands

In May 1970, the department of Defense defined

There is a confusion and controversy about microwave another band designation or microwave frequencies as
band definitions. They were ~riginal ly invented during shown in Table 1.3.2.
world war II to confuse the enemy. Table 1.3.2: U.S. new military microwave bands
Engineers from military came up with the letter codes,
Designation Frequency Designation Frequency
which were classified as secret at the time... Naturally,
.._ .... a range in range in
logical order of A. B. ~-~ ou!d_':_'.t. ~o _fo~ \hat p~rpo~e, gigahertz gigahertz
so they choose L, C, X and K and a lower case letters.
- ----- - A band 0.100-0.250 H band 6.000-8.000
But this microwave band designation has never been
B band 0.250-0.500 I band 8.000- 10.000
officially sanctioned by any industrial, professional or ll-- ----+-- -- - - t - - - - - + - - - - - - i
govern ment organization. Cband 0.500-1 .000 J band 10.000-
20.000
la" U.S. Military Microwave Bands
D band l.000-2.000 K band 20.000-
In August 1969 the U.S. Department of Defence, office
40.000
of Joint Chiefs of Staff decided a new-frequency band
gl~~ in Ta~J.1: 1·. ------ E band 2.000-3.000 Lband 40.000-
designation-;;
- F band 3 .000-4.000 M band
60.000

60.000-
100.000

G band 4.000-6.000

Tech- Neo Publ1.cat'ons

1 ........... ff/Lere
,rn Authors i11s'l1ire i1111on1tio11 ,_4 S4CIIIN SI/All f'cntuff'

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 1.8 Introduction to Microwa~
I
/
~'a
Microwave~ hnvc certain propcrlie, ond charactcriitic,
1.3.3 IEEE Mlcrowavo Bonds
thnl make them different fro111 the wave~ of adjacent ballds
llccnu<,e of thc~c propcrtic, they arc npccifically ~uitabk r~
In 198-t the IEEE rrcommcndcd new micruwnvc hnnJ
ccrtnln npplicotlon~. Thcc:c propcr1ies arc:
designations as shown in Tahlc 1.3.3.
Tnblc 1.3.3: IF:EE mkrown,·r rm111rncy lmnil<i Ia 1.4.1 l,!!'provod Directivity J

Designation 1''rtquency nan~c In gigahertz

Microwaves ure u,cd in upplicatlon, like radar, ltj
HP 0.003-0.030
.......
dl,!:ction findin~. n,esc and many more appfication1
VHF

UHF
0.030-0.300

0.300- 1.000
- -
require point 10 )Xlint communication.
.
This type of communication require, the micrcn.-~e
signal 10 be highly direction~ ii hould have a fine
L band 1.000-2.000

S band 2.000-4.000 ------

beam of rJdiation.

--
Production of such a beam rc{juires the an~
Chand

Xband
4.000-8.000

8.000-12.000
------
dimensions to be scvernl wavelength large. At Im,

-- - -
- .
- of the antenna will be-
frequency (A is high) Lhe size
-
very larger and not practical. At microwaves the sizt ii
Ku band 12.000-18.000 -~anageabl; -
K band 18.000-27.000 ---
For example, in case of parabolic renector antenna the
Ka band 27 .000-40.000 first null beam width (FN BW) is given by
140°
Millimetre 40.000-300.000
4>o = (DIA)
Submillimetre > 300.000 Where. D = mouth diameter (m)
The new U.S. military designations having not yet A = wavelength (m)
gained widespread popularity outside of military To have a beam width of 1° at 300 MHz
community. (A =elf= I m) requires.
The IEEE designations are presently used widely in A
D = 140 -= 140 (m)
practice and the technical literature. ¢0
The frequency band designator story docs not end with But at 30 GII L (A = 1 cm), a bcamwidth of 1° is

IEEE, since U.S. waveguide manufactures have obtained using D = 140 cm (= I ..t m).

adopted their own set of standards over time. II is based Thus a fine beam antenna can be de igned ven· e:i.si}y
on passbands of the many different rectangular u ing microw:l\'e.
waveguide cross-sections.
Ia 1.4.2 High Channel Capacity
a 1.4 Properties of Microwaves
The bandwidth n·quin:d for diffen:nt tyres or
Iran mi " ion nn: us follows :
ua. 1.4.1 Discuss the characteristics of microwaves.
AM - 20 Kllz
MU. Dec. 16, Dec. 17. Ma 18. 5 Marks
FM · 200 Kllz
TV • 6 MIiz

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 Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 1-9 Introduction to Microwaves

There are so many AM, FM and TV channels that total Microwaves are typically used in terrestrial
requires at least 1 GHz of bandwidth.
connmmicntlon where number of repeaters are Used to
IN microwave band (1 GHz to 1000 GHz) there are carry the ~signal frodi-tr;smitter to re~~~ver. W!!,h high
~ sections ~f 1 GHz ea~.'2-,lhus any of these can ; gain antennas the ~acing between repeaters can be
use_!.to transmit all the radio (AM and FM), TV and
·increasecr:1fi
_u_s_re
_d-=-u-c'"in
7"_g_t:h;;;;~~-;peaters.
7
other communication. ' ....... . <•--~_.,..,,-r,.,.,..!> ...

Thus microwave band is said to have high information

~pa0)'~
1 ~ 1.4.4 Power Requirement is Low I

[a 1.4.3 High Antenna Gain ) As discussed above, the high gain antenna can be
designed very easily at microwaves. This reduces the
~~ --- --
Again if we3onsider an example of parabolic reflector
the gain of it is decided by the ratio (DIA).
powerreguirements at the"trans~tter ~
Power requirements are pretty low at microwaves as
~ = 6(~)2 compared to short wave band:

Since large DP. is 12,0ssible at microwaves,_the antenna

gain is very high.

Ia 1.4.5 Microwaves are Transparent

LO. 1.4.2 Justify : Microwaves are transparent.

The low frequency waves transmiu~d high up ~the sky,. when travel into ionospbere_(higher_P,art of the ·atmosphere),
the bending of the path makes these waves come back to earth. This is due to reflection.
But microwaves can propagate through ionized layer freely without bending. Due to presence of such a transparent
"window" in a microwave band it is possible to have.
(i) Duplex communication and exchanges of information between ground stations and space vehicles.
(ii) The radiation from sun and other stars can be studied.
Transmitter bend path
low frequency waves

' ' > .> •

... ..• .i• ," '1 I •

Earth i . :'. ·. -~~-:-~~.:;_·,

-~ 't : ·~ 4" ~ w, 1 .... ; •. - ; ·-. ; • j·\ ··.{

(lA7)F'ig. 1.4.1 : Propagation through ionosphere or (a) Low frequency waves; (b) microwave

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 ~
Introduction ·10 Microwaves
Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 1-10

noise. substituting false information (called as

r "'2s.. 1.4.6 Less Fading Effect
deceptive jamming), and other counter measures.

In fading effect the signal strength at the receiver The surveillance is used during the peace time to

c hanges due to changes in transmission path. This monitor military activities around the world.

effect is more at low frequencies. Civilian applications includes ai r traffic control, air

Due to " line of sight" propagation and hjgh frequencies craft navigation, space vehicles, remote sensing etc.

-
there is less fading and thus microwave communication
is more reliable.
3. Medical

Jn some cases microwaves can be used to treat health

problems better than drugs. Microwaves are primarily
"'2s.. 1.5 Applications of Microwaves
used in medical cases as an alternative to surgery.

It is also used microwave imaging, magnetic resonance

LO. 1.5.1 Discuss applications of microwaves in
imaging (MRJ), patient monitoring in a hospital or
different fields.
nursing home etc.
Microwave have a broad ranges of applications and
4. Microwave heating
some of the important are explained below :
Since this process does not use a conduction
f "'2s.. 1.5.1 Areas of Applications mechanism for the heat transfer, it can improve quality
of certain products significantly.
1. Telecommunication (wireless)
For example. the hot air used in printing process to dry
Besides the traditional applications in communications, the ink adversely affects the paper and shortens its life
such as radio and TV, microwave signals are being used in span. In microwave drying only the ink portion is
cordless phones, cellular communication, mobiles, PCSs, heated and the paper is barely affected by it.
I I
LANs, WAN, MAN terrestrial ljnks, satellite link, direct to Microwave heating is used in industrial heating as well
home (0TH) service. as household cooking.

2. Radar 5. Scientific research

The term radar was originally short for radio detection In this, microwaves monitor the environmental health
a nd ranging. of our planet as well as learn more about the universe.
Radar is used for military as well as civilian purpose.
Research scientists use microwaves in two ways :
Military applications include surveillance, navigation, active and passive.
e lectronics warfare, guidance of weapons etc.
In active systems, such as radars, scientists send out
Electronic warfare (EW) is the process of disrupting the microwaves and examine what comes back. In passive
electronics performance of a enemy weapon like radar, systems scientists simply look for naturally occurring
comm unication system, or weapon guidance. microwaves and use them for learning more about the

Jt is a battle for the control of electromagnetic spectrum objects that emit the waves.

by deliberate means such as interference, jamming with

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 Microwave Engineering (MU- Sem. 7- E&TC) 1-11 Introduction to Microwaves

6. Industry The highway applications of microwaves include

automatic toll collection, traffic control, highways
Microwaves are used in industry for process control,
traffic monitoring etc.
drying, curing, material processing etc.
Ii" List of appllcatlon of microwaves
1. Motor vehicle end highway appllcatlons
Various application areas and list of applications are
Most of the latest motor vehicles use systems using
shown in Fig. 1.5.l.
microwaves for collision warning and avoidance, GPS,
road to vehicle communication, near obstacle detection,
radar s ed sensors, vehicle RF identification etc.

Microwave appllcatlona

Communication Radar Industrial and

biomedical f:!eaUng

Cellular telephone Process control Industrial

Cordless telephone Drying House hold
Personal communication Curing
system Treatment of
Wireless local area elastomers
network Monitoring
Terrestrial links Imaging
Satellite Hyperthermin Motor vehicle and
Direct broadcast satellite hl9hway applications

Civilian Millitary
Motor vehicle Highway applications-,

Air traffic control Survellance Speed sensing Highway traffic control

Air craft navigation Navigation
Collision warning radar . Highway traffic monitoring
Ship safety Guidance of weapons
Antitheft radar or sensor Toll tag readers
Space vehicles Electronic warfare
Blind spot detection Vehicle detection
Remote sensing Autonavigation and GPS lnt.elligenlhighways
Low enforcement Vehicle identification Buried object sensors

(1A9)Fig. 15.1 : Microwave applications

a. 1.5.2 Biomedical Applications Future trends in medical applications of microwave

of Microwave technique and technology can be seen. in .development of
new diagnostic and imaging methods based on high
UQ. 1.5.2 Explain any one bio-medical application
using microwave.
MU - Ma 17. Ma 18, Dec. 18. 5/10 Marks
frequency EM field.

- ·-of
Interactions -· _____ ____
- EM field with biological
;;.._ systems are
"

utilised in the area of therapy (oncology. physiothe~y.

urology atp.) from late_seveotieth ~flast century.

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 Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7- E&TC) 1-12 Introduction to Mier .

Wide utilization of microwave thennotherapy can be The heat helps the tissues relax and stretch ,L

observed in the countries of EU, USA an.d Japan. • "Ills

alleviating stiffness. H~at also reduces nerve fi~
A significant importance for the future can be identified
for the following methods :

Microwave tomography,
-------
sensitivity, increas~ g_t:!_i.:._Pa t t e n ~

_ . There are three meth9(ls of diathenny. In each, en

'-
----
•
·-:-:"--
is delivered to the deep tissues, where it is convened
·----...... to
- ctgy
Microwave radiometry,
heat.
Measurement of complex permittivity, The three methods are :
Imaging in the Terahertz waves band and
Methods of diathermy
Microwave diagnostic radars.

Recent trends in microwave medical applications are to

1. Shortwave diathermy
study the possibilities to develop new diagnostics based on
EM field resp. on microwave technique. 2. Ultrasound diathermy
- -··- ,_,,. -
·~·-·. ·--~ -···
~

One popular application is microwave diathermy is 3. Microwave diathermy ·

explained in next article.
Fig. 1.5.2 : Methods of diathermy
1~ 1.5.3 Microwave Diathermy ► 1. Shortwave diathermy

6" Definition The body part to be treated is placed between two

capacitor plates. -:- - - -
In diathermy, high-frequency electrical currents are
used to heat deep muscular tissues. -- ---
Heat is generated as the high-frequency waves travel

--
.
through the body tissues ~~tween, the plates.
The heat increases blood flow, speeding up recovery.
Shortwave diathermy is most often used to treat areas

-----------~~~
Doctors also use diathermy in surgical procedures by
sealing blood vessels with electrically heated probes.
like the hip, which is covered with a dense tissue mass.

It is also used to treat pelvic infections and sinusitis.

The term diathermy is derived from the Greek words
The treatment reduces inflammation.
therma, meaning heat and dia, meaning through.
The Federal Communications Commission regulates
Diathermy Jitera1ly means heating through.
the frequency allowed for short-wave diathermy
W Description treatment.

______ ►
Diathermy involves heating deep muscular tissue~ Most machi_l!es ful]_ction at 27 .33~ _sga,hertz.

---·------
When heat is applied to the... . painful
_..., area, cellular
,
2. Ultrasound diathermy
metabolism speeds up and blood flow increases.
--4------.. .
a..-·-•.».: ~ . . - - - --= ----~ In this method, high-frequency acoustic vibrations are
The increased metabolism and circulation accelerates used to generate heat in deep tissue.
--~- ------ - ----·
tissue repair. - ► 3. Microwave diathermy

This method uses radar waves to heat tissue.

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~ Microwave Engineering (MU_ Sem. 7 _ E&TC) 1-13 Introduction to Microwaves

This fonn is th; easiest to use, but the microw.;.ves_~ As shown in the figure, a populated area is divided into
cannot penetrate deep muscles.
....- - ~ - many sma!I regions called as cells.
ff" Benefits Each cell is equipped with a special transmitter /

_arthr1·t·1s
Diathenny can be used to treat _ , burs1·1·is an d receiver combination called as base station to

other conditions i~volvi~~• painful joints. communicate with the mobile users operating in that

It is also used to treat pelvic infections and sinusitis. cell.

A b:nefit of diatheffi!Y.l§._that it i~.Q_ainless procedure Because each cell covers a small geographicaJ area, the
that can be administered at a clinic. transmitter / receiver is a low power unit. This allows
other cells to operate on the same frequency, since
Also, if the treatment relieves pain, then patients can
discontinue pain killers and escape their high cost and there is no interference occurs to low powers.
side effects. The frequency band allocated for cellular telephone is
from 800 to 900 MHz (microwaves) which uses 825 to
°B.. 1.6 Applications of Microwaves in 845 MHz for transmitting and 870 to 890 MHz for
Communication receiving.

The cells are linked to a central location, called mobile

LO. 1.6.1 Discuss applications of microwaves in telephone switching office (MTSO), which coordinates
communication. all incoming calls.
A person making a cellular telephone call enters a
In the previous section we listed applications of
number and presses the send button, which sends data
microwaves in communication. To get the idea of how
to a cell site.
exactly microwaves are used in these applications, some of
the important applications are discussed below without From the cell site, the data are forwarded to the MTSO
going into technical details of it. with the cells site's identification number. The MTSO
detects the call and sent it to the central office and then
°B.. 1.6.1 Cellular Telephone (Mobile to the "callee's" phone .
Communication) System
If the caller is moving (e.g., in a car), out of the cell the
MTSO senses the level of the signals being used and
A block diagram of a cellular system is shown m
automatically switches the call to the appropriate cell
Fig. 1.6.1.
so that the transmission is completed with the best
clarity possible.

Along with coordinating calls between cell sites, the

MTSO also generate time and billing information and
Mobile Telephone is stored in central unit.
Switching Office
(MTSO)

I
&. 1.6.2 Cordless Telephone System I
,, Central office ·;\
V
Telephone
Base llatlons In this system, the base is connected tq a conventional
(C811 Sile)
telephone line and contains an RF transmitter and
(1A1o)Fig. 1.6.1 : Basic cellular telephone system

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 ..
Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 1-14 Introduction to Microwaves

receiver that sends and receives signals to and from the A message is transmitted to the pager, where it is
handset, which is not connected to the base. displayed for the user to act on.

The communication between handset and base station

is wireless and uses microwave signal.

The handset is battery operated which the user can

carry around.

The handset also contains an RF transmitter and

receiver so it can communicate with the base station.

The handset can operate well within 50 to 500 ft from

the base station.

The cordless phone is shown in Fig. 1.6.2.

(1A12)Fig. 1.6.3 : The pager

\ & 1.6.4 Wireless Local Area Network

(WLAN)

To understand WLAN you must first Jcnow local area

network (LAN). LAN is a group of computers and
associated devices that share a common communication
line.

It covers relatively short area such as a signal building

or a group of buildings.
(1A11)Fig. 1.6.2: The cord~ phone unit
These LANs can be connected to other LANs over a
large distance using teJephone lines.
a. 1.6.3 Personal Communication
System (PCS) A wireless LAN or WLAN is a wireless local area
network, which is the linking of two or more compute~
Using PCS it is possible to reach people who are away without using wires.
from their desk, office or wherever they normally could
The linking is done using microwave signals.
be found.
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has
A common example of it is the pager.
approved specific frequency bands.
It is similar to miniature cellular telephone as shown in
902-928 MHz, 2.4-2.483 GHz. 5.15-5.35 GHz and
Fig. 1.6.3.
5.725-5.875 GHz.
The major difference in two is cel1ular telephone
Many areas have adopted the \VLAN due to improved
transmits and receives in both direction, but pager uses
mobility. In the campus you can take your computer
a one-way path.
anywhere you like without restrictions of the wire.

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 1-15 Introduction to Microwaves

~ 1.6.5 Terrestrial Communication Such type of co111111unlc111ion 111 called 11~ ftrrcsfrlal
(Microwave Links)
comnmnlrnllon. Muny linkHopcrnle In the 1t to 6 Of f7.
region.
In order lo send a infomrntion signal across cilic.'I in the
country requires point lo point co1111nun_icntion. The NyMc111 work11 like 111111

To communicutc efficiently between two points located o The trnm1111i11er 1run,111IIJ1 the microwave signal
far away from each other, requires that the tmns111i11ed towunls the repealer i.tnlion.
signal be sharply focused and ••iiittc·'u at 111e rcce1v1ng
• . o Repenter station receive~ the blWJnl u,lng antenna,
antenna.
amplifies it and transmit it vlu bCCOntl nnlenno ro
The role of microwave frequencies for th'is a 1· · next repeater hlation.
· · PP 1ca11on
is they have this ability. They are ideally suitable for o This rcpcates till the receivers end.
wireless type point to point communication.

But this has a limited range of communication due to

(i) They always propagate a line of sight (space wave

propagation), so curvature of earth puts the limit.
(ii) Sky wave propagation cannot be used since
ionosphere (medium above atmosphere) does not
reflect microwaves.

The point to point communication range is typically

less than 50 km. To increases the range then repeaters
can be used between transmitter and receiver as shown
in Fig. I.6.4(a).

There are many examples of point to point

communication at microwave frequencies. Many of
you might have observed while travelling an highways,
a sight as shown in Fig. l.6.4(b). lt is a microwave
repeater station. A series of these stations placed along
a line-of-sight paths can thus provide a communication
link between any two cities in the country.
Repeat= (1A14)Fig. l.6.4(b) : Repeater station
~
Ia 1.6.6 Satellite Communication

As mentioned in the previous article, the point to point

communication rJngc is not more than 50 km. In :1

siruation where TV signal is to be sent from one

(tAt3)Flg. 1.6.4(a) : Microwave link
country to another will require large number of
repeaters.

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 I
/
lnttoductlon to Mlcrowav&e
1-16

It provides a powerful alternative to cable television.

11lis problem can be i;olvcd by using u human made
reflector up in the sky. TI1is type of nrrangernenl is The system consists of
called as satellite communlcntlon 1,ystcm.
(i) Dish :mtenna
For example, a TV signal from one country can be
(ii) A feed horn antenna
lransmillcd to a satellite using a large ground based
(iii) A down converter
antenna. The satellite receives, amplifies and retransmit
the signal to a large receiving antenna located in the (iv) A cable to connect the output of down converter to
anolher country. From there it can be routed within that the home receiver/ decoder and
country using microwave links. (v) A TV set.
- · Thus TV signals are transmitted around the globe by The size of the dish antenna depends on the band u~.
lhe combination of satellite and point to point Typical diameters are given below.
microwave links.
C band • 3 m
The uplink and downlink frequencies arc different
which are used for sending the signal up towards X band • 3 ft
satellite or down towards earth station. These
frequencies lie in lhe range of 3 to 6 GHz. It is because Ku band • IO in
the atmospheric noise is low in lhis range. The Ku band digital satellite system carries more than
To avoid the interference between uplink and downlink 150 TV channels.
signals, lhe gap of at least 2 GHz is required. Almost all over the world, lhe DBS installations has
A typical satellite communication system is shown in rapidly increased and it could put a serious effect on the
Fig. l.6.5. cable television business.
Satellite
l I a 1.6.8 Radio Frequency Identification
(RFID)
I \
I \
I \ It is a general terms used for circuitary that uses RF or
I \
I \
I \ microwave energy for identification. It could be used to
I \
I \ identify people or objects for a number of applications.
Do;nlink l,1/ \~ownlink
Fo First time it was used to identify friendly aircraft.
·1 o ~ 1/ Uplink Upll \
I I
I Fu Fu '
\
The RFID system consists of a microchip on which
I \
I \ information (for example, a serial number of an object,
I \
or other information about a product or person) is

~ 4
Earth
stored. It is connected with an antenna for transmission
(1A15)Fig. 1.6.S : Satellite communication or information. This combination is called an RFID tag.
The RFID system can be generally classified as
a. 1.6.7 Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS)
(i) Uncoded

As the name suggests, the satellite transmits the signal (ii) Coded

for number of receivers simultaneously.

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 Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) Introduction to Microwaves
1-17

In the uncoded . system, the reader transmits an ... (l.7.1)

f:Ver~indB = 10 log : :') dB
interrogating signal and tag's nonlinear device returns a
second harmonic signal. It gives only the pass / fail Where, P;n and P001 are input and output powers
decision and is used where there is no need of the
respectively.
identification of individual tag. It 1·s s hown m
·
fig. 1.6.6(a). An amplifier has a higher output power than its input
power then the above formula gives positive number.
In the coded system, each ·
1s lag
assigned an
So the amplifier is ·said to have positive gain.
identification code along with other information. The
returned signal from the tag is modulated to contain the The positive dB indicates the gain or amplification.
coded information. It is shown in Fig. l.6.6(b).
Ex. 1.7.1

Reader or
Interrogator ~~
~ RFIO
tag
Find the gain of the amplifier shown in Fig. Ex. 1.7. I.

- _r=:7__
(a) Uncoded system
Pin=~ ~ = 6 mW

(1A17)Fig. Ex. 1.7.1

· Readeror
interrogator ~ ~
~
(Coded or modulated)
RFID
tag .
@' Soln. :

(b) Coded system

Gain = 10 log (Poul)
P;. dB

(1A16)Fig. 1.6.6: RFTO systems

= 10 log(~)= 4.77 dB

I "B.1.7 dB and dBm I Ex.1.7.2

Find the gain of the attenuator shown in Fig. Ex. 1.7.2.

LQ. 1.7.1 What is dB and dBm ? What is need of it ?

_ ~ W ·A~enuator ··
Pi n 6 -6~t=2mW
dB notation stands for -~~ibels, is a !ogarlthrnic~lfllit
Ex. 1.7.2
- --------- . -· .
that express the ratio of two values of a physical
__ .. ~"'
(1A18)Fig.

quantity, often.power, intensity or voltage. 0 Soln.:

The dB notation compresses the wide range of power pO\ll)

Gain = 10 log ( P;. dB
values that occur in microwave equipment into a
practical range of numbers.
= IO log(¾) =-4.77 dB
- - ---
This notation allows addition to be used instead of
- . . ·--~. ----
The negative dB indicates an attenuation or loss.
-
multiplication, when we trace the microwave signal
--- ..
through a microwave sy_s ~~~
..
The big advantage of using decibels is when a circuit
consists of several gains and losses as will happen in
We use decibels to compare the power coming out of a
real situations. Then the total dB is obtained just by

_
circuit or part of a circuit to the power level at the
adding all dB.
input. So, basically, it is an output power/ input power
- -----
__. is --~6...--~,--~-
comparison. As it
- ~--~~_,.__~•~
a logarithmic unit it obeys the Ex. 1.7.3
same rules as logs. The formula is : Find P out for the situation shown in Fig. Ex. 1.7.3.

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 Introduction to Microwa\'es
/
Iii Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC)
1-18
We have two power levels mentioned, the output and
:z.c.

input power.
Amplller Loss ~ Gain
C 12 ell 16d8 Bcll 8dB
l';: If we wish to use deci~ls as a meas~ ~~ u t c
v a l ~ t ! ~e ,~~~), .Vf! have~~~~od
(1A18)Fig. EL 1.7.3 the....; ~ ; ;by ~ suming a value for the inP.Ut

@ Soln.: .~ w_er
Gain or amplification have positive dB, while loss or Let p is the power level given and we have to obtain its

attenuation as negative dB. Total dB is obtained by dB equivalent.

adding all dB. It is done by

Total dB = 12- 16-6+8=-2dB Power level in dB = 10 log ( p ~m<d) dB

Four blocks in the Fig. Ex. 1.7.3 can now be replaced
by one block of - 2 dB.

~
Usually in microwave or optical fiber the assumed

~-
power is I mW, so th~fumlula becomes ---
Pin::~::7 Power level in dB = 10 log ( i!w) dB
(IA20)Fig. EL l.7.3(a) - This formula converts P in watts to P in dB. We must
indicate that we are now referring to a power level
Gain = 10 log ( pP;.oot) (= !mW). This is done by changing the symbol to
dBm, where
-2 = IOlogc:~V)

Pou, -UIO
~)------- ----- - -- --.
dBm means decibels relative to 1 mW

I', P(dBm)
10
3mW = = 10 log ( p . 3) ... (1.7.4)
Or pout = 3 x 10- x 10-
3 2110
= 1.89 (mW) ------ .... .,.,,., ~~-- -
1 X 10

The dB equivalent of any number N is For P = I mW refers to dBm= 0.

A power of 10 dBm is 10 dB above !mW, and 10 dB
dB = I0logN ... ( 1.7.2(a)) 1 10
(N = 10 0/ ) is IO, so 10 dBm is 10 mW.
or, N from dB is
A power of 20 dBm is 20 dB above lmW, and 20 dB
20110
N = lOdB/10 .. .( I. 7.2(b)) (N = 10 ) is 100, so 20 dBm is 100 mW.

The Equation (1.7.2) is valid for N as a power ratio, for Ex.1.7.4

a voltage or field ratio we should use 20 log ( ) instead Express the following in decibels.
of 10 log ( ). (i) SW (ii) I mW (iii) lµW

Ia. 1.7.1 dBm Terminology

0
(i)
Soln. :

P(dBm) = 10 log ( l x
2
_ ) = 36.99 dBm
10 3
In the formula
(ii) P(dBm)=lOlog( !mW 3 )=OdBm
I X 10·
dB = 10 log ( : : ) ... (l.7.3) 6
(.u1 } X 10- ) = - 30 dBm
··) p (dBm)= 10 log. ( _....;;.;:;,,_
1 X 10- 3
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 Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 1-19 Introduction to Microwaves

Ex. 1.7.S
~ 1.8 Insertion Loss and Return Loss
An LED output power is quoted as - 20 dBm. Express this
power in watts.
@soln.:
~
Component
- 20 = 10 log ( p )
+JV' Transmitted
1 X 10- 3 power
Reflected power
p
:. 1 X 10- 3 =
(1A22)Fig. 1.8.1 : A microwave component

LO. 1.8.1 Explain insertion loss and return loss with

5
= 10- = 10 µW expressions.

Note : The nice thing about dBm is that dBm and dB are A microwave component shown in Fig. 1.8.1 might be
completely compatible. We can just add them· up a filter, an isolator, an attenuator, or an amplifier etc.
around the circuit to et the final results. ·
Different powers associated with these devices are
Ex. 1.7.6 shown in Fig. 1.8.1. Microwave power is sent down a
Find P001 in watts in the Fig. Ex. 1.7.6 transmission line from the left and it reaches the
component. This power is the incident power.
· · +3dB -8dB - 2dB
When it reaches the component, a portion is reflected
(1A21)Fig. Ex. 1.7.6 back down the transmission line where it came from
and never enters the component. This is the reflected
@ Soln.:
power. The power is reflected because of mismatch.
The dBm and dB can be added to give the total
- The power not reflected gets into the component. There
= 16+3-8-2=9 some of it gets absorbed and the remaining passes
through the component into the transmission line on the
Since the input is in dBm then the result is also in dBm.
other side. The power that actually comes out of the
Thus
components is called the transmitted power.
P001 = 9 dBm The transmitted power is less than the incident power
for two reasons.
To convert it in watts,
(i) Some of the power got reflected and never got into
9 = 10 log ( p
I x lO
-3) the component in the first place.

p (ii) Some of the power that entered the component

Or = 109/10
was absorbed inside.

Based on these powers two very important terms arc

Or
defined, namely :
= 7.94(mW) o Insertion Loss (IL), and
0 Return Loss (RL)

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 _ Introduction to Microwavee
Microwave Englneerln (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC 1 20

Or RL (dD)= P1 (dBm) -Pr (dBm) ...(l.8.2(c))

Insertion Loss (IL)
Ex. 1.8.1
[ La. 1-8-2 Deline Insertion Loss (IL).
l Find the insertion loss in dB in the following table.
Transmitk.-d
~ Definition oflmcrtion Loss (IL) Sr. Incident Insertion .

Tlie ratio
b
of the transmitted power to the incident power,~in
dB terminology, is the insertion loss.
No.
I.
1>ower(P1)
!OW
IO mW
power (P1)
JW
2mW
loss (dB)~?
-
-
--
Mathematically, ii.
iii. 23dDm 13 dBm -
-
.
Inscruon loss= IL= -10 log
( Transmi11ed Power)
.
Incident power
( l 8 l(a))
.. · · · iv. 5µW -30dBm -
-
-
Or IL(;=~ ~-c:1 ... (1.8. l(b))
0
V.

Soln. :
IO dBm 2mW -
-
Or lL (dB) = P; (dBm) - P, (dBm) ...(1.8.l(c))
(i) Il.. = -10 log ( ;•)
The tenn attenuation is often used incorrecLJy to mean
insertion loss. Attenuation is the power loss inside the IL = - 10 log (I~)= 10 (dB)
component, but the power that gets out is reduced not
only by what is lost inside the component due to (ii) lL = -lOlog ( lOmW
2mW)

attenuation but also by what is reflected and never gets

in the first place. = 6.98 (dB)

Any insertion loss can be measured. To determine the (iii) lL = P; (dBm) - P1 (dBm)
attenuation, Lhc components must be matched perfccLJy,
so that all the incident power gets inside. In that case, = 23 - 13 = 10 (dB)

there will be no reflected power, so the insertion loss,

(iv) P; (dBm) = 10 log ( l x~;o-3)
which can be measured, will equal the attenuation.
6
1 ~ 1.8.2 Return Loss (RL) I = 10 log ( 5 X 10
_3 ) = -23 dBm
10

I LQ. 1.8.3 Define Return Loss (AL).

Il.. = P; (dBm) - P1 (dBm)

tr Definition of Return Loss (RL) '

= 27 - (- 30) = 7 dB
-io (v) P, (dBm) = 10 log ( l
The ratio of the reflected powerf\he incifie!l!J!2'!!..er,, in dB x~•o-3)
terminology is the return Joss.
(2 3
X I0- )
Mathematically. = 10 log _3 = 3 (dBm)
10
Reflected Power)
Return loss = RL = - IO log ( Incident power . .. (l.8.2(a)) IL = 10-3 =7 (dB)
-- ~-- - - , .,
Or ~(dB) = - 10 log ( :., ) ... (l.8.2(b))
Ex. 1.8.2
Find the transmitted power in watts or dBm in the following
table.

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l'1 Mlcrownvo Englnoorlng (MU. Som. 7 • E~TC) 1·21 Introduction lo Mlcrowovos

RL = - 10los(
0
i' )• I0(dU)

l\V
i.
ii. SmW
3 dll
(ii) RL = - 10log( 20
1
)c13(dU)
6 dB
iii. 20\V 10 dB
(ii I) P1(dOm) = IO log ( P, _1 )
iv. 7dllm 6 dB I X 10
1
v. 17 dDm 20 dll ( 50 X •10" )
= 10 log 3 = 17 dBm
@ Soln.: 10

(i) = 10 log( P, )
.. RL = P1(dBm) - P, (dBm)
l X 10- l
= 17-10=7 (dD)
= IO log( l~- l)=30dDm
(iv) RL = - 16-(- 30) = 14 (dD}

.. P, = P1 - IL= 30 - 3 = 27 dBm (v) P, (dBm) = 10 log ( I x~' _3 ) = 30 (dBm)

0
10
(ii) P1 (dBm) = 10 log ( S x ::) = 7 (dBm)
I X 10 . .. RL = r, (dBm) - r, (dBm)
= 43-30= 13 (dB)
20 Ex. 1.8.4
(iii) = 10 log ( _ ) = 43 (dBm)
l x 10 ·3
Find the reflected power in the following cases.
(i) P1=0dBm; RL= lOdB
(ii) P1 = 10mW; RL= 13 dB
(iv)
(iii) P1 = 10 dBm; RL= 13 dB
(v) P, = P1 - IL= 17 - 20 =- 3 (dBm) @ Soln. : Try It yourself.

Ex.1.8.3
Ans. : (i) - 10 dBm ; (ii) - 3 dBm, (iii) - 3 dBm
Find the return loss in dB in the following tublc.
& 1.8.3 Other Ways of Specifying the
Sr. Incident Reflected Return loss Reflected Power
power(P1) power (Pr) (dB)=?
i. IW 0.l mW - One way of specifying the reflected powe.r is the return
ii. 20mW lW - loss. This is measured in dB.

iii. SO mW I0dBm - Return loss = RL =- 10 log (:;)<dB) ...(1.8.3

iv. 16dBm -30dBm -
V. 43dBm lW - - Another wuy is to express the power reflected is in
percentage.
!ti Solo. :
P,
(i) RL = - IO log ( :; )
% power reflected = p x 100 (%) .•.( 1.8.4)
I

Herc both P, 11ml P1 ure expressed in Watts .

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 Introduction to Microwavaa

1-22
Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 • E&TC) sWR and reflection coefficient are jUsi
_ RetufllS loss, P,
· terms of •fying the ratio j>·
- The reflected power can be expressed tn different ways of spec• ;
.
power transnutted . ( t ming out of
mto component no co
the component). The power entering the component iS,
Ex. 1.8.5
Complete the following tab!~..= ., ,.:<, . , . ,, :.' ·\./;•;;-;;-,

In percentage,
reoectfon
% ~wer transmitted = ( P; - P,) x 100 (%) .. .(l.8.5) in the
m component P; (%)
component
- The reflected power is also expressed by using standing ..
c~f "·,
wave ratio (SWR). The reflection coefficient is given ? ? 7
I ?
by, i.
?
? 95
E, . ii.
Reflection coefficient = r =E- 3 ? 7
? ?
' iii.
~_L_]__L
? ......:...?_..L-.....:?_ .1.--1._95_.__ ?~ I
r1 I !' I
iv.
I = '4

0 Soln. :
Since power is proportional to, 1% then remaining is (= 99%)
(i) Since reflected is
P oc IE7 transmitted.
P, Pc 1
Reflected power
Incident power =
IE; I =I
E,
2 rl
2
-
P; =
l % ➔ p.
I
= I00 = 0.0 l

i.e.
P,
P1
= I:.• 12 = I r12 .. .(l.8.6) RL = -10 log ( ::)

I =- to log (0.01) =20 dB

I
I

or I rl = I :,,1 = ~ ... (l.8.7)

Hence,
I rI = ~ =✓0.01=0.l
l +I rI
RL = - IO log ( ; , ) s = 1.22
1-117
2
E, 2
= -10 log ( E; ) =-10 log I rl ... (l.8.8) (ii) Since transmitted is 95 % then 5% is reflected.

P, P, 5
The standing wave ratio and reflection coefficient are -P; = 5% ➔ p.= 100=0.05
I
related using.

l +I rl
... (l.8.9)
RL =- 10 log (0.05) = 13 (dB)
SWR =
I-In
I r1 = ~ = 0.22 .
SWR-1
Or I rl = SWR+l .. .(1.8.10)
l + I rl
s = - 1.57
1-ln

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 Mlerowavo En lnoot1ng MU. Som. 7 . 1:&TC) 1n1,C1.u:ti00 Id u ·QC'IH!J"/91

Rl "" 3dll
~ 1.0 Scottorlng Poromotora
(S-Poromotoro)
3 = - IO l"g ( ~)

Another wily of pc.elfyins rdurn :itirl n~tlP"IO l<.t1:• i•

S-p.muncter .

ILO. 1.9.1 Defino s.cattoring p.1romolor11.

Then % trnnsmittcd = 50% "'" lnffoltion

When we use incident and rr/kd t d JL:Qllf' tn clumf.>,r

~ =0.707
t1"4
I rt = ammeters of a junction, thtst! rJLmllnl aJ

scattering paromeJers.
1 +Ir I
s = ,_, n =5.80 L0.1.9.2 Why Z, Y, T or H Pammotors cannot bo
used 7
(iv) s = 1.95

-
In the electrical network we know Z, Y, T :ln<l JI
S-1
I rl = S + I =0.32 parameters. All these panuncter.; arc dc~crihcd in tcmL,
-- - - -
I rt ~ -r~P, = I r I2 = 0.1
- ---
of vohagcs and currents al the port~. Thus by
-
measuring voltages and currents thcl-c parameters tltl:
=
measured, alsothcse measurements are
-
c:uried out
P, either by open circui~ng.2r short circuiting 1l1c p:iru.
%-
P, = 0.1 X 100= 10 ' .
TI1esc calculations are possible only al low frequcncie!I.

Then the transmitted power is 90 %. For example,

The H-parametcr equations are :

Ex. 1.8.6
If 10 % of the microwave power is reflected at the v, = h1111+h 11 V2
mismatch, find the return loss, reflection coeffi cient, and
lz = hz, t, +hn vl
SWR.
@ Soln.: Thus, h,1 = -v,
-
1I
I V1 •0
( hort circuit i requiml}
RL = IOdB
r = 0.32 h11
v,
= Vz l 11 -o
(open cin:ui1is requiml)
S = 1.92
If the frequencie - are in 111(: microwave range, howc:,~r.
Ex.1.8.7 these parameters cannot he measurt·<l for the following
If the return Joss is 20 dB. find the present reflected power. reasons :
'
reflection coefficient and SWR.
(i) At 111icruwnvc: f~ q~ _(_ tt:ie · \'llltmeters nn.J
@ Soln.: ammeters for the: dirtcl IIIC!l!illrtlllt"nt of ,·olt1gts
% reflected power = I 'lo and currcnis J o nut ~;,.ist. - -

r = 0.1 (ii) Short und open cin:uit 11rt diflil'ult to achieve

ov:r n h~c~1d huml of f'!_quencies.
S = 1.2

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 Microwave Engineering (MU. Sem. 7 • E&TC) 1-24 Introduction to M ~
(iii)
~ctive devices. like power 1raosista~nnel-
diO<Jes, frequently will not have stability for a
b1 ~ 0: but b2 = b =....: : b .. 0
3
...
~--__.. .-.
shon or o~~ it.

Hence, some new parameters must be used, arc nothing

The reflection on the lsi line (b 1) going back to
junction is related to incident wave a 1 by the
but S--pammeters.
. .. (1.9,1)

~ 1.9. 1 Scattering Matrix Where,

Sil = Reflection coefficient of I si line and the

La. 1.9.3 Why electrical network parameters cannot be
subscript 'L · indicates that the sources is
used at high frequencies ?
th
connected to i line and ' l' indicates that
the reflection is obserYed on 1si line.

Hence, the contribution 10 the outward trJvelling wave

in the itll line is,

t' line ·· .( 1.9.2)

In general if the source is connected to the t line and

y
I
Source "-
th
the rcncction is obscrwd on k line, the reflection
coefficient is Sii• and the rcnected signal is

...(1.9.3)
G" Case2

Now con idcr :ill (n - I ) remaining lines be terminated

in mi. matched loads. The renections bl' b2, •• •• b" are
present on each line. Hence, the contribution 10 the
(11.23)11g. 1.9.1 : Junction or n trnnsmlsslon Unrs tot:il outwanl travelling wave in the itll line is,

In order to understand S-parameters, consider :i

junction of n-numbcr of transmission lines as shown in
Fig. 1.9. I. .. .(1.9.4)
th
The source is connected to i line. The incident wave at
Herc, tht.! source is connected 10 Lhe i'h line, but it can
the junction due to source is a,. At the junction it
divides into a 1, a2, • ••• a,,. Each of the transmission line be connected to I " , 2nd or any of n lines. Thus, i can
is terminated into loads Zi_ 1, Zu, ..... Zu- We will vary from I to n. For each value of 'i' we get a separate
study two cases depending upon the load values. equation.

Renection from the loads are shown as b1, b2, .... b".

Ei' easel

Only Zi_1 is mismatched to the transmissjon line while

rcmainjng all loads are matched. It results in renection
only on the first line. Thus

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 Microwave Engineering (MU- Sem. 7 _E&TC) 1-25 Introduction to Microwaves

These equations can be written in matrix , Signals going into or coming out of the output port are
__ ~ - -- - -----_:__'ormas,
1>i 5 11 S12 labeled by a subscript 2.
b2 S21 Sn S2n 3i - The field of the microwave signal going into the
=
(1.95(a)) component ports is designated 'a'; and leaving the ports

b.

Or, simply

[b] = [S] (a]

s •• Sn2 snn.
--- 0 as 'b'. For this two port devices Equation (1.9.6)
reduces to

... (1.9.7)
... (l.9.5(b))
In equation form,
Here, [b1= Matrix of the reflected waves
...(l.9.8(a))
[a] = Matrix of the incident waves
...(l.9.8(b))
[S] = Scattering matrix
Now, we define S-parameters as;
Elements or the S-matrix are called as scattering or
S-parameters.

Ia 1.9.2 Defining $-Parameters = Rencction coefficient at port I with 3i = 0 = r1

I LO. 1.9.4 Define S parameters.

... (l.9.9(a))

For an-part network we have

b, s,. s,2 s ,n = Transmission coefficient from port 1 to 2 with 3i = O

b2 S21 S22 S2n = T 21 ... (l.9.9(b))

= ... ( 1.9.6)
r S 22 = _!21
b" Snl s .2 snn 3i •1 =O

The coefficient of S-matrix are called as S-parametcrs. = Renection coefficient at port 2 with a 1 = 0 = r 2
In order to have better understanding of these ... (l.9.9(c))
parameters, consider a simple two port network as
shown in Fig. 1.9.2.
a1 = In at input . b2 =out at output = Transmission coefficient from port 2 to port I with a1
Two-port = 0
I Input Device a2 =I n at output
... (l.9.9(d))

(1A2')Fig. 1.9.2 : Signals at the input and output port These parameters are shown in Fig. 1.9.3.

In the Fig. 1.9.2, the microwave signals going into or

coming out of the input port are labeled by a
subscript 1.

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 1-26 lntrOduct
Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC)
Incident S21 Trans
_____
~
521
.....;;;.-,--
-------:-~:------
a1 i_,;.:..---,
S11
a1- Reflected
Two-port
Device

.,..........___..
..,.. Port 1
Device
Under
Test
Port 2
8 12

(1A25)Fig. 1.9.3 : Showing S-Parameters

Equations are not simply mathematical equations, these

are saying everything happening in the device shown in
Fig. 1.9.3.
Transmitted
(i) When wave a 1 is incident at part I, some part of it
(1A26)Fig. 1.9.4 : Signal now diagrarn
is reflecied (S 11 a 1) due to mismatch. The
remaining part of a 1 enters into the device but due
to losses only part of it is transmitted to part 2 , ..... 1.10 Why Z. = 50 il ? ]
(i.e. S 21 ai).

(ii) The reflected signal from load at part 2 (i.e. 32) is LQ.1.10.1 Why we use characteristic iml)edance ~
incident at port 2. Some part of it is reflected microwaves as 50 ohms ?
(i.e. S 22 32) and the remaining enters the device.
Equations to S 11 and S 22 are,
But due to losses only some part of it is
transmitted to part 1 (i.e. S12 32).

Thus the total signal going out from part 1 (i.e. b 1)

consists of

(a) Signal due to refection of a 1 (S 11 a 1), and

(b) Signal due to transmission of a2 (S 12 32). Thus In general for S-parameter measurement, signals a1ir
3i are set to zero.

In electrical network, for two port parma

Similarly the signal going out from port 2 (i.e. b 2) is measurement requires 11 = O or 12 = 0 oi V1 =Otr
V 2 = 0, depending upon the parameter. Herc setting
I= 0 means open circuiting the port while V =0DlC3115
short circuiting the port.
Another way of showing S-parameters in a two port
The question now arises is how to set a1 or 3i equal ll
device is shown in Fig. 1.9.4.
zero.

~
.,

I ~)2t
Two - part . ·.. Two-part ·
device ,; / device .'.
. '
~ ....
(a) (b)

(1A27)Fig. 1.10.1 : Matching the output port

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 S M101ownvo Enpln11011np (MU • Oom. 7 • EATO)
_ q
Cun~hlcr 1111(11111 n1 In Plu I I() I( ) I
,.,. • • 11 • I cnn be Ooth rl1er..o rct111l1c111Gnl11 111c rlltnt ulr lt;l 11et1Jc-1c a, 11
i:or111hJorcd 1111 11 ronocrcd 111 011111 r "- •
,1 rum h NJ 1orld. fhu.\ p:irtlcultir vnluc or J111pc,J:,«e. n)!j 14:al d w&ctt:.r1uir,
~ lllng 11, i:{jUlll 10 7.crn mco1111 IICIIJno fl l
,., re c:ct 0 11 equal 111 impcdilllcc therefore, Ls u cornp,o,n/~ t.d'Nt1.:tJ dier.,:
11:ro. J7or rencctlon ro ho :r.cru tJ .
le 101}(1 lllUllt be valuu, or 50 Q .
perfectly mntchcd (Z .,. 7 · )
-1. "'fl • 1111 11hown In
PIB, 1.10.1(b). SirnllurJy for 11 .,. O II For higJ1 frequency applicotion~ we u~.
1 • IC .'IOurce will be
perfectly mnlched,

In hlgh frequency 11pplicnrion11 we u•ft _ ., .

2'"'r)-.J0 n. nie ""
qucntion thut comc11 about iii • where d
figure come from ? It is not an urbi' t .
undc n.tund how thi11 value w•u•
. '
h'

rary number. To
h
..,, rcac cd refer
OCll t IS 50 Q
I 11 1.11 Proper1Jes of 5-Matrlx I
Plg. J. J0.2. It cun be ,;ccn thur :
[ LQ. 1.11.1 Explain properties of S-matrtx.
(i) TI1c maximum power handling capability of a
particular transmission line or system is 30 .Q, Following are the properties of S-matro::.
(ii) TI1e lowest· attenuation for a transmhsion line or (1) Size o1 [S] matrlx
system is 77 .Q.
For a n-pon network the size of the S-matrix. is n x n.
1,5 For e;,;ample for a 3 port network,

1.4
(SJ = [

1.3
In general

~
::,
1.2
I For a n-port network : Siu or [SJ ls n x n] ...( I.I I. I)
~ 1.1 (2) [SJ matrix-of a matched network
.!
g 1.0 When a device is perfectly matched it means the input
impedance at each port is equal to Zo when all other
z
0.9 ports arc terminated in matched loads.
Consider a ilh port in the Fig. I.I I.I, is perfectly
0.8
marched. Then the reflected wave from port i i.e.,
b, = 0. Jt resits in the reflect.ion coefficient
0.7 Power
capability
curve .
0.6

'--____.___....__....__.___.____....._...._.._..._. z When all ports arc perfectly marched,

0.510 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
S;; = 0 ..... for all i ... ( I.I 1.2)

(fA2B)Fig. 1.10.2: To obtain the idea value of Z0 We find therefore that a matched devices will exhibit a
scattering malrix where all diagonal elements are zero.

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;
Microwave En inoorln MU - Som. 7 - E&TC 1·28 lntroduc11on to 'Alcr0Na-1t1

I 1h port
In matrix form, thc"teciprocaJ networt is
N- Port
Device
I[SJ' = (SJ--+ Ir redprocal J ... ( I.I IA)

(
11l2t)Fig. 1.lJ.1: Rentttion cocffidmt for a rnatthtd port
Where t indicates (non-conjugate) transpose.

(4) Lossless network

- A lossless network or device is simply one that cannot

Therefore, absorb power. This docs not mean that the delivered
power at every port is zero, it means the total power
flowing into the device must equal the total power
leaving the device. It indicates there is no power lost as
a heat or radiation in the device, i.e. no power is lost in
the devices.
This is an example of a scattering matrix of a
- The S-matrix of a lossless network has the
matched three port device.
characteristic:
(3) Reciprocal network
[sJ' [SJ* = ruJ .... [SJ* = 11sJ' r 1 ... (1.115)
- In case of a two port network, if ports I and 2 are
This type of matrix is called as unitary matrix.
interchanged and the performance of the device is strn
the same then we call that network as a reciprocal - In summation form :
network. In terms ofZ-parameters the condition is, n
I SK; s:j = &.; .... For all i, j ... (1.11.6)
K=I

The terms &.; can takes two possible values depending

Similarly for S-parameters
upon i andj.
(i) If i = j then &.i = I
- For a reciprocal 3-port network n
⇒ I
K= I
sKi s;; = ... ( I.I l.7(a))

ln general,

IFor a reciprocal network : SIJ = S.ll ... (1.11.3) ⇒ ... ( I.I l.7(b))

For example,
- Equation (I.I l.7(a)) states that:

The dot product or any column or (SJ with the

conjugate or that column gives unity.

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 S.1=~-=M=lc=ro=wa•v=e=Ea:.n==agl=ne=e=rln~g!:;(ii MU=ia-.se.m•..;.'.;.·~E&:_T:.;;C•)--.:1~.2i:.
9- - - - - - - ~"-•'"•''•od•u•ct•lo•n•to.M.1c.row_a_vo_a
Since,
- From Equation (l.Jl.9), (Lil.JO) and (l.ll.JJ) and
knowing that for a lossless network,
Equation (1.1 l.7(a)) is also written as,
Input power = Output power
n
2
L
K•I
I SKJ 1 = 1 (for all i)
... (].] 1.8)

Equation ( LI l.7(b)). states that :.

The dot product of any colulllD With the conjugate

of a different column gives ze~o (orthogonal). WchaYe,.
- If the network is reciprocal then [S] is symmetric, and
the·same-statements can·also·be-made aboutthe·rows of
the scattering matrix.

Equation. (LlL8) can be very e.asily chec.ked..Consider.

·l -
a three port network with signal applied' to only port 1
as shown·in·Fig; 1.1 l.2. That is
i.e.. r
3
sl(j •s~ = ⇒ r 1s,j = 1
1
3

IC ... I

Here the input is applied to port I (a '# 0).

1

·- Irr general it carr be· applied to any port (r" pon) and
The input.power ::.. P+ ::.. ai2 thus for N port network..
1
...(l.I.l.9).
N
The output power
... (l.11.10) L ISKii2
K,,.1.
= 1 (For.all.i)

This is nothing· but Equation (l.l 1.8). This equation

simply says :

3- Port Input power = Output power

Device
- An example of a (unitary) scattering matrix for a
lossless device is,

0
l
2
-~
J 2 0
(1A30)Fig, 1.11.2 : Three port device I
2 0 0 -~
J 2
- Reflections-b1, b2 and b3 are expressed in tenns-of a as; [SJ =
1 .=11.· 1
J 2 0 0
2
As the-power is a real power, 0 .ii
J 2
1
0
2

b~ = rsll12 a~_;
- The dot product of 1st column with its conjugate is
bl3_ = ISJt ,2
a•1
2
... (l.l l.11) o+(½)(½)+v1)(-j¥)+o=¼+¾= 1

It satisfies Equation (1.1 l.7(a)). This is true for any

column.
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 TI1
c t.lot pn~oct of 1~ 1.-oh11nn with conj11go1c <1( ,,l,
column b,

When: 11 1, n1 nn1I bI • h1 .ire inum1llli( alJ(f c~_11g,,,,,,

wave1 at tcfcn:ncc pl:ine1 I rtnd 2 n:l\pativ ly,
11 sntislics Equation (I . I I.7(b)). This is true for nny two
1.-olumns. ,. /.ShHlndplnrm ~ ,~
~ / ~oforonco plnno, ~~
1 1

- The device is al~o perfectly 11llllchcd since nll <lingonal ...__ _ _ _--1

clements arc uro. Also the matrix is symmetric, hence ""'--o 1' ~ o1 """'--- ~ ~ b,j
1 I b Dovlco 02 I &z'
the device is reciprocal. 1

(5) Paulve device

I
1' 2 2'
A passive device contains no source that could add
(1"311f'ig. 1.1 J.J : ShJftJng of rdcrmcc pLmei
energy to your signal. The important properties of a
passive network are : When the wave travels from one position 10 another by

(i) Whcl11er it is reciprocal or non-reciprocal. a length I its pha~ ang.le changes by

(ii) Whether it is lossy or lossless.

(iii) Whether ii is impedance matched or unmatched. Now consider lhe reference plnncs I and 2 nrc shifted
For any of the above network, outward to I' and 2' by electrical plnLSC shift <, 1 and 92
respectively, such that
... (1.11.12)

It is less than I when the device is lossy. But for a

lossless network. it is equal to I. Then the new variables arc u;, ~ and b;. h; related by.

a e-J'91 I
e;,,
= aI
I
(6) Phase shift property - 11
1 ➔ u, - 'I ... ( I.I 1. I 6(n))

,
In general the amplitude and phase of the reflected b', e·H1
= b, ➔ bl = b1 c- itI ... ( I. 11. 16(b))
wave differs from incident wa\le, resulting in S-
parnmeter a comp)e.'{ number having some magnitude
, -J~
i¾C = u2 ➔ a: = Ui cltz ... ( I.I 1.l 6{c))

and phase. 1l1esc two are functions of frequency and b' c+1~
2 = b2 ➔
b'2 = b2C- Jtz ... ( I.I 1.1 6(d))
position of 1em1inal planes measurement positions. Al a
fixed frequency 1l1e change in the sca11ering parameters Using Equation ( 1.11. 12), new matrix equation is,
arising from 11 shift in lenninaJ plune can be determined
fb'] = [S'] [a'] ... ( I.I 1-17)
easily.
Equations ( I.I 1.16 (b) and (d)) are writh:n in matri,
For a two port network with unprimed reference planes
fom1,
I and 2 as shown in Fig. 1. 11.3, the S-paramcters here
have definite complex values.

(SJ =

Bui, (bl = (SJ [u] ... ( I.I 1. 13)

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 !iJ Microwave Engineering (MU. Sem. 7. E&TC) 1-31
Introduction to Microwaves

Equations (l.l l.l6(a) and (c)) arc, · @Soln.:

To rind S11 and S11
[ : ] = [ ·:· .-:, ] [~] ...(1.11.19)

From (1.l 1.18) and using Equation (1.11.14)

[~] = [ ·-:· .-:, ] [::]

For = o, port 2 is connected with matched
32

= [ ·-:· .-:. ] [ ~: :: t] termination of z, (= 50 Q) note that iris SO Q not because

of series impedance is 50 n. If it is any impedance then also
useZ,=50Q.
Using Equation (l.l 1.19)
sn
+ +

Comparing with Equation (1.11.17), which is

[b'] = [S'] [a']
~=50+50
We get,
(1A33) Fig. Ex. 1.11.l(b)
-.i+1

[S'] = [ e 0 Reflection coefficient at the input i.e. S11 is nothing but

~-
Solving,

s:, s:2 ] [S 11 e-i29, s e-i<+, •♦v ]

[
rs'J= s'
21
s'
22
=s
21 C
-i<+1•02> s,2 -m
22 e cso+50)-50 _ l
= (50 + 50) + 50 - 3
... (l.l l.20)
Due to symmetry
In general,
s'mn = S e-H+m•+n>
mn
... (l.l l.2l)

It provides the transformations for S-Parameters when

Input and ·output voltage V1 and V2 are now expressed
the phase planes are shifted away from the reference
in terms of 'a' and b as
planes.

Ex. 1.11.1
Frnd S-parameters of a series impedance connected between ... (i)

two ports.
. ..(ii)
50
oo--.-"N-Jiw---4'1o
Equation (ii) + Equation (i) gives

... (iii)

(1A32)Fig. Ex. 1.11.l(a)

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 t'

I
!
I
MU• Som. 7 • E&TC lnttoductlon to Mlctowav..

U11lng voltnge divider, In Ogurc,

..
\

V2 SO I Z,n, • 50 11 5<> • 2S (Cl)

v;- • 50+50·2 z., -:t.,,,
Prom IJquutlon (ill) and u11lng vuluc of S11 , - z z
"'"' + "''

.~,2 • (, +½)(½)-t
Due to Bymmctry,
S1, c ~, a~
11, •1-0 3

Prom 11ymme1ry
Voltage V I and V2 ure

v, = a1 + b1 = a1 + S11 a1
Then S-mulrix is, •.,(i)

Equation (ii)+ Equation (i) gives

b2 V2 2
Ex. 1.11.2 S21 = 3r "'Yi x 3
Find S-pnramcters of a shunt impedance connected between
two ports.

50'1 Due to symmetry

(1A34)Flg. Ex. I.I l.2(0)

The S-matrix is,
@Soln.:
To flnd S11 and S21

511 = a, ~1 •2-0
= ~ = Zn1 -Zo
Zin1+Zo
Ex.1.11.3
Find S-parametcrs of a series impedance Z connected
between two port.
+

son V2
+

son
o-----0------ao
Zo

Z,n1
(1A3e)Flg. Ex. 1.11.3
(1A35)Flg. Ex. I.I l.2(b)
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jl Mbowave ~ ~(MU. Sem. 7. E&TC) 1-33 Introduction to Microwaves

8.56 8.56
S11 = Su= Z Z
+22.o ♦ ♦

+
S:, -= s - 2~
u-z+22.o
v,
Ex.1,11.4
Find S-p.v:unctcrs of a shunt admittance y
be(\''ttn two ports.
connected

(1Al9)Flg. Ex. J.ll.5(b)

y ~•• = 8.56+[141.811(50+8.56)]
141.8 X 58.56
= 8·56 + 141.8 X 58.56 = 50 (Q)

7.., -2-o 50-50

C1AJ7)flg. f.x. I.I 1.4 Sil=~ = Z., 1
+ 2-o = 50+50 =O
@ Soln. :
Due 10 symmetry,
-Y
Sil = S:: =
Y +2 Yo
Volt.1ge V1 :ind V2 m expres.sed as
2 Yo
S1, = s,: =
Y + 2 Yo

EL 1.11.5 ... (i)

Find the SC3ttc:.ring ~ tcrs of lhe 3-dB :mcnuzuor circuit (': al = 0) . ..(ii)
sho~'TI in Fig. E.x. l. l 1.5(n).
8.56 Cl
Equ:uion (i) + EqU31ion (ii) gives
8.560
b: v2
S:1 = ;.- =~ . . . (iii)

Port 1 141 _5 n Port 2

Using volL'.lge divider,

( 141.8 II (50 + 8.56))

VJ = v, 8.56+(141.811 (50+8.56))
141.8 11 (50 + 8.56) = 41.44 (Q)
(1A38JFls:. EL I.I 1.5(a)
41 .44
@ Soln.: VJ = V, . 8.56 +41.44 = 0.83 v,

To find S11 and Sz, Again using voltage divider,

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 I
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lntrodudion t o ~ l
~ M'icrowave Engineering (MU - Sam. 7 - E&TC) 1-34

The input power = cli2 = lOOmW '

Using Equation (ill)
2
V2 1be output power = b2 = 60 mW
S21 = VI = 0.7(1)
60
From symmetry 100

or
We can note that for a matched load,
Due to symmetry,

IndB Then S-rnalJ'U is,

0.13 0.78 ]
dB = - 10 log (0.5) = 3 (dB) [S] = [ 0.78 0.13

that is why this is a 3-d.B attenuator.

Ex. 1.11.7
The S-matrix is,
A 50 .Q microwave integrated circuit (1,.-iIC) amplifier has

[SJ = ·[ 0 0.709 ] the following S-pa.ramcters

0.709 0 0. 12 L- 100 0.002 L- 78° ]
[SJ = [
9.8 L 160° 0.01 L- 15°
Ex. 1.11.6
Calculate:
Find the S-par:unct.ers of a microslrip line component if the
(i) Input VSWR. (ii) Return loss. (iii) Forward insertion
measured VSWR = 1.3 when the component is tcrmin:Hed
with a matched load. It is also found that the power to the power gain and (iv) Reverse insertion power loss.

matched load is 60 mW for the input power of I00 mW. @ Soln.:

Same results are obtained when the component is reversed. (i) Cnput reflection coefficient.
@ Soln.:
For a matched load, a.z = O
I~ I = IS111=0.12

bl It is expressed in terms of VSWR (S) as

S11 = -
al
= lint
I +0.12
I - 0.12 = l .27
Iin L is obtained from VSWR as,
S- I 1.3 - I (ii) Return loss is given by.
= S + l = 1.3 + 1 = O. l J

= - IO log (O.t2/ = 18.42 (dB)

As same results are obtained when the component is
reversed, (iii) Forward insertion gain is,
2
= 1S 2 / = (9.8) = 96.04
S 11 = S21 = 0.13
IndB,
Also, S 21 = :21 "2"'o = lO log IS2/ = 10 log (96.04) = l ~.8lidB)

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 1-35 Introduction to Microwaves

Qv) Reverse insertion gain is,

=
= IS.l (0.002)2 4 X 10- 6 = Attenuation is given by,
IndB, Attenuation (dB) = - 20 log IS21l
6
= 10 log (4 x 10- ) = _ 53.98 (dB)
.. 5 = - 20 log IS 21l
5
IS211 = 10 - no = 0.56
Ex, 1.11,8
Because the device is reciprocal,
The scattering matrix of a two port is given by,
0 0.3 + j 0.4 ]
Su = S22 = 0.091
[SJ = [ 0.3 +j 0.4 0 s,2 = S21 = 0.56
Calculate the distance that the position of port 1 should be Hence S-matrix is,
shifted to the left so that S 12 and S21 will be real numbers.
Given ~ = 34.3 rad/m.
[SJ
=[ 0.091 0.56
0.56 0.091
]
@Soln.: Ex. 1.11.10
I
Convert the number is polar fonn, The S-matrix of a two port network is,
0.15 L-0° 0.85 L-45° ]
0.3 + j 0.4 = 0.5 L 53.13° [S] = [
0.85 L 45° 0.2 L - 0°
As only port l is shifted, , 2 = 0. (i) Determine if the network is reciprocal and lossless.
After shifting port l, the new parameters are (ii) If port 2 is terminated with a matched load, what is the
return loss seen at port I 7
0 s,2oe-i•1 ] (iii) If port 2 is terminated with a short circuit, what is the
[S'] = [
s,2 e-i♦1
return loss seen at port 1 7
0 @soln. :
= [ 0.5 e- i(53.t3 - ♦1)
(i) For a reciprocal network,

For new S 12 and S21 to be real,

53.13-,. = 0 But S 12 :f. S 21 (angle difference). Thus the network is

not reciprocal.
7t
4l 1 = 53.13° = 53.13 X ISO = 0.9273 (rad) For a lossless network S-matrix must be unitary. The
dot product of any column with the same column must
i.e. -~1 l 1 =· 0.9273
be unity. For the first colwnn,
0.9273
/1 = 34_3 =0.027 =2.7 (cm) 2 2
ISlll + IS21 1 = 0.15 + 0.85
2 2
:f. 1

Ex.1.11.9 Hence the network is not lossless.

A 5 dB attenuator is having VSWR of 1.2. Assuming that (ii) When port 2 is terminated with a matched load the
the device is reciprocal, find the S-parameters. reflection coefficient is,
@ Soln.:

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lil Mcrov.-ave Engineering (MU· Sem. 7 • E&TC) 1-36 Introduction to Mierow~

Rrtum loss is gn-c:n by, (iii) What is Lhc rerum loss at port I when all other P0r1I
arc tctmin3ted with matched loads ?
• 2
RL = - JO log IS 1i!° =- 10 log (0.15) (iv) What is Lhc insertion loss between ports 2 and 4, v,,~
all other ports 3.fC tcnnioarc:x1 with matehcd loads.
= 16.S (dB)
(v) What is the reflection coefficient seen at port I if 1
(iil) Port 2 ls short drcuitcd short circuit is pl.3CCd at the tcnnin:il plane of pon 3
and all other ports :ire matched 1
.
@ Soln.:
(i) For a lossless network. [S] must be unitary :
From S-parameter equations IS./+ IS2/ + IS1 if + IS,/ = (0. 1)2 + (0.8) + (0.3)2
1

= 0.74 ~ I

Thus !he network is not lossless.

(ii) Since [SI is ymmetric (sti = S1,), !he netwon.: is
From Equation (ii)
rcci proc:i I.
b: S 11
- - --
!11 - I + S:,
... (iii) (iii) The reflection coefficient at port I when ports 2, 3 and
.i arc pcrfcctJy m.'.U.ch.cd is:
Dividins Equ:11ion (i) by :i 1 :ind u ing Equ:irlon (iii),

ba t,.
I~ I = IS111 = 0. l
:11
= s11 -s,:~I l{L = - 20log I fmT I = -201og(0. 1) =20(dB)

( S:, )
fT = s.. -s., l+ S:: (iv) llerc poru I :i.nd 3 an: perfectly matched. so the
in\Crtion 10\, bc1~ecn port 2 :u,d 4 is
S: 1 )
fT = S,a - S., (
I + S::

0 15 - (0 5 L - ,Uc) (0 &5 L ,i50) (v) Herc rts 2 Md 4 3/e nutched,

= . . I +0.2

fT = -0.-452
Port 3 in ~hort circui1eJ
RL = - 20 log I fT I
RL = - 20 log (0A52) = 6.9 (dD)
[bl = ISi (al
EL 1.11.11
For Lhc fir..1 element :
The S-nuuix of :i four port network i ,
0

]
[ 0.1 L O> L - W 0.3 L - 4l'
0. L - -W 0 0 0-1 L -15°
(SJ ,. OJ L - 45° 0 0 0.6 L - 45°
0 0.4 L 45° 0.6 L- 45° 0
(i) l this ne1work lo sless ?
(ii) ls !hi network rcciproc:tl ?

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 .Microwave .En lneering (MU • Sem•.7 • .E&TC) j-.37 .Introduction to Microwaves

·For1he third elements~

- E
83 = S31 a1 + S32 cli + S13 a3 + S3,4 a
4 -----H
= S31 a1 . f: I¼ = s
a4 = 0 and 33 = 0) ... (ii)
(b) Field dl~tribution
Usin_g Equations (ii) in (i)
(1A41)Fig. 1.12.l
b1 = Su a, -Su S31 a1 It consists of a thin conducting strip .of .width .w is
-bi centered between two wide conducting ground planes
a, = S11- S13 S31 = [Tnl of separation · h, and the entire region between the
ground planes is.filled with a dielectric.
Iinl = S11-S13Sn
In practice, a stripline is usually constructed by etching
= (O.l L 900) - (0.3 L. - 450).(0.3 L. _·450) and center conductor on a grounded substrate of

fin l = 0. t9 L 90° thickness l and then covering with another grounded

substrate of the same thickness.

a 1.12 Stripline Since striplines has two conductors and a homogeneous
dielectric, it can support a TEM wave, and is the usual
mode of operation.
[Lo. 1.12.1 Explain stripline.
Like the parallel plane guide and coaxial lines,
All electrical and electronic devices with high power however, the stripline can also support higher order TM
output .commonly use conventional lines, such as and TE modes, but these are usually avoided in
coaxial lines or waveguides, for power transmission. practice. Such modes can be suppressed with shortning
However, the microwave solid state device is usually screws between the ground planes ·and restricting the
fabricated as .a semiconducting .chip with a volume on ground -plane spacing to less than ¼, The shortning
3
the order of 0.008 - 0.08 mm .
screw arrangement is as shown·in Fig. 1.12.2.
- The method of applying signals to the chips and
extracting output pow.er from them js entirely different - The number and spacing of lhe shortning screws are
from that used for vacuum-tube devices. Microwave adjusted to prevent higher order mode propagation in
.integrated circuits with microstrip lines are commonly the frequency range of interest.
used with the chips.
- first we will study stripline and then how microstrip
line is ·different.from it The geometry .of the stripline is
shown in Fig. l.12.l(a).

Shortnlng screws
(tA421Fig.1.12.2: Method of reducing higher order modes
Ground planes
Note the similarity between the stripline mode and the
coaxial line. The voltage is applied between lhe center
Low loss dielectric strip and lhe pair of ground planes. Although the

(1A40)Fig. 1.12.l(a) Stripline

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 Microwave En lneorin MU • Som. 7 • E&TC 1·38 Introduction to Mlcrowav111

structure is open nt the 1,idcs, it Is bn.-;icnlly n non 10 mount discrcle device, and maJce minor adjustments
radiating transmission li_nc. in the micrm,lrip circuit. AlllO this mlcrostrip is easily
lntcgrnlcd with other pa.,8ivc and active microwave
TI1c structure discussed nbove is synunetric, ii is also
called ns symmetrical strip trnnsmlsslon line or simply device,.

strlpllne. When the structure is nsyrnmclric ii is culled If the dielectric were not preGCnt (E, = I) we COUid
as mlcrwtrlp. think of lhc line a.• a two wire line consisting of two flat

Ia 1.13 Mlcrostrlp I strip conducrors of width w, M:paratcd by a distance 2h.

In this case we would have a &implc TEM rran&mi&&ioq
line, with v,. = c and K = jft

LQ. 1.13.1 What Is mlcrostrip line? Discuss.

The presence of the dicleclric, and particularly the fact
that the dielectric does not fill lhc air region above the
Microstrip line is one of the most popular types of strip, complicates the behavior and analysis or
planar transmission lines, primarily because it can be microstrip line.
fabricated by photolithographic process.
Unlike stripline, where all the fields arc contained
The geometry of a microstrip line is as shown in within a homogeneous medium. microstrip has some
Fig. 1.13. I(a). It consists of a thin conductor of width w (usually most) of the field lines in the dielectric region,
and a ground plane separated by a low-loss dielectric concentrated between the strip conductor and the
material with relative pennittivity e ,. The sketch of the ground plane, and some fraction in the air region above
field lines is shown in Fig. l.13.l(b). the substrate. For this reason the microstrip line cannot
- - - - T hin metal strip support a pure TEM wave, since the phase velocity of
the TEM field in the dielectric region is _ ~ but the
-ve,
phase velocity in the air region is c. Thus a phase match
at the dielectric-air interface would be impossible to
attain for a TEM type wave.

(a) Microstrip line

Modes on the microstrip line are only quasi TEM. Thus
the theory of TEM coupled lines applies only
approximately. As with all transmission lines. higher
order propagation modes are possible in microstrip of
-E
--- H
particular concern are TE and ™ surface waves
between the ground plane and the dielectric material.
(b) Field distribution
For e, >> I, the effect of these modes can be
(1A43)Fig. 1.13.1
minimized by choosing the dielectric thickness (b) to
I 'B.. 1.13.1 Advantages be less than a quarter wavelength at the highest
frequency of interest (f,.w)· Assuming a nolUJlllgllCtic
dielectric (µ, = I), this requires
/ LQ. 1.13.2 Give advantages of microstrip.
h C
As shown in Fig. l.13.l(a), the top surface of the < 4 fnw -Je,
microstrip is easily accessible so it is very convenient
The effect of TE mode is minimized if
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 lntroduotton to Mlcrowavoe

Now tho 0111plrlcnl rnlutlon11 depend only on line

ilhno1111lo11N (w 111111 h) mul lhe effc:cllvc dlcleclrlc
.. Th,\ l'hl\.~~ \'('IN lly n11,1 l'"'PIINflll(,11 \1(11111111111 111-a l!lvon llOIINIIIIII fl , ,
h)\
l'or nnrmw Nlrlpllne11 (f < I)
Z (Hh w_\
711 ,. * - /11 w+4fJ
p R -~ II ~ (Ko~ i\)-•1 r,o (Hh w_\
- Whc-1\'1 lho ~ff<",'llvo ,llol"'ctrlc co11~t11111 of tho "" ~ In -;+tlh)
t; • :i '\JCi,
mlcm~trlp llna, Shw<1 so1110 or thu lluhl llnus nrc In z
1lorc.i z, [&_ Q376,8 n • .!:J_ -
"\J¾
1111 Lf\
,ll~l«·trlc l't1Nll'n 1111d somo 111\l In nlr, tho uffectlvc
A
•• 21t - UV

,ll<-k1.·11'1 c c,111st1111t :111tbl1c:1 tho rol11tlon

nm! Is d<-pell(lont ,111 tho suhstrute thickness, h und the

romlurt()r whllh w.

_ Tho motholl of c11lcul11tlon or ea Involves tho

For II wide line (f > 1)
rnlc'ulntion of c11p11clt11ncc llOr 111111 length for tho Z,= l201t

111kro.~trlp wllh 11ml without tho dielectric present. The

mtlo of cnp11clt11nces is det1ncd us the effective
dickctric const11nt (e ,) or the microstrip line.

Ia 1.13.2 Design Formulas I - The variation of 7--u and Ee a~ a function of ; is shown

below.
If the substrntc thickness h incruuscs or if the conductor 1kr---.---,.--.--.-,_...,,.......____..,__..,....,.......,.....
width w ll<:creascs, fringing fields become mcire
prominent and c11nnot he ignored in the mathematicnl
model.

- Exact nnnlysis results 11re very complex 11nd require

suhst11ntiul computntionnl efforts. for the purpose of
ohtuining fast 11ncl generally reliable estimations of the
line p11ramcters, simpler empirical formulas are more
beneficial.
&- Assumption
0.1 0.3 3
- The thickness t of the conductor forming the line is 10
Line width to dielectric thickness ratio, w/h
negligible compared to the substrate height h.

i.e.
t
h < o.oos (1A«)Fig. 1.13.2 : Plot or Z0 versus (f)

Tech-Nco PuLlication~----- Wha c Autl11mr ia.vpirc i110on1tio11

-4 SAC/JINSJ/All Yeaturr

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 ::
Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC)

12
1-40 Introduction to Microwaves

appropriate relations we shall detennine w/h. If it docs not

-
Q
\II · match with our starting assumption it means we are on the
10
c wrong track. TI1en we will-use other possibility. So-let us.
- .s
"
Cl)
C 8 start with w/h < 2. For this case we have
8
(J
·c 6 7. ~
A = 21t.:::11. +I +
~ e~
- I ( 0.23+-·-
0 II)
ti
Cll
ai
z, 2 e-, + I- e-,
'o 4 Er= 4
with, e ,= 4.6,
(!)
>
~

:rl
::::
2
w WC get
0
0.1 0.3 3 10
A = 1.5583
Line width to dielectric thickness ratio, w/h
(1A45)Fig. 1.13.3: Plot or E•" versus(}) Then w/h ratio is obiained using

G' Design of mlcrostrlp w 8 e"

h = ~ = 1.8477
Now we arc interested in finding Ti when ¼ and E, is given. It matches with our starting assumption: To find·
velocity we require
. -112·

w SeA Ecrr =
~ + Ec- l ( I+ 12;
2 2
h)-
h = /A-2
= 3.4575
where,
¼~,+I
A = 2n -
E, -1( 0. 11)
- ?- +- - 0.23+ - -
Zr - E,+ 1 E, Using the obtained ratio for w/h, and E err:,

w = 1.8477 X h = 1.8477 X 40 = 73.91 mil

VP = c / ~ = 1-.61 X IO~m/s-

A = v/ f= 80.67 mm
If we want to check whether obtained w/h-gives- correct•
¼ then calculate¼ using

Ex. 1.13.1
A particular RF circuit requires thnt a line impedance of
50 .Q is to be maintained. The selected PCB board material
is FR-4 with a rela1ivc dielectric constant of 4.6 and a = 50.2243 .Q ~ 50 .Q
thickness of 40 mil. What are the width of the trace, phase
Ex. 1.13".2
velocity, and wavelength al 2 GHz ?
A lossless 50 .Q microstrip line is terminated into a load with·
0 Soln.:
admittance of 0.05 mS. What additional impedance bas to
Wi1h Zo = 50 .Q and E, = 4.6 we can determine w/h placed in parallel with load to assure-impedance-of 50 .Q.
ratio using graph in Fig. 1.13.2. It is less than 2.
0 Soln.:
lf the grnph is not available, one can select the mtio
Given: YL = 0.05 mS
arbil.rarily either less than or greater than 2.. Then using

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 Microwave En ineerlng {MU_ Sam. 7 _E&TC) 1-41
Introduction to Microwaves

Let ~11111 is placed in parallel with y L· Thus

50 = 2si,un1 11 y1L I =
1 r
or 50 =~ uni
+YL

I
or = 50- 0'.05 X 10" 3 Evon mode Odd mode
~uni
(1A46)Fig. 1.14.1 : Coupled line analysis using Superposition
or ¼iun1 = 50.125 Q ~ 50 Q
Odd mode response :- When the two lines are driven
by the opposite signal ~larities, the i:_espon~ is called
"'- 1.14 Coupled Lines
as odd mode response.

Ga, 1.14.1 What is coupled line ? Discuss.

Field distribution in these two modes is as shown in
Fig. 1.14.2.
_ Coup!~ lines are lines which are lai.d alongside each
~
El l ( • •. + ·,:
other to pennit coupling between the two lines.
" l 1 ·- · ·· · ··· · ·· ·
_ . Let us consider two parallel microstrip lines that are
placed so close to each other that the fields of the lines (a) Even mode (b)Oddmode
(1M7)Fig.1.14.2: Field distributiorr hr even and odd modes
couple to each other.

The coupling can be done in various ways, depending Instead of a single characteristic impedance (Zo),
capacitance (C), effective microslrip permittivity (E .rr)
on the amount of desired coupling and bandwidth.
being associated with a single microstrip, we hav.e two
- Characterization of coupled lines is more difficult than
definitions for each of these quantities - one for each
single lines because the EM fields between the two · mode.
lines can have different forms.
The·notations used are
- But using Superposition the analysis can be done.
Zo., and Zoo - for characteristic impedances

(a 1.14.1 Even and Odd Modes Ci• and C;0 - for capacitances

E cffc and E erro - for effective relative permittivities·

[ LQ.1 .14.2 Explain even and odd modes. For a single- microstrip the physical parameters are·
width of the patch (W), relative permittivity (Er) of the
- Consider there are two coupled lines and one of it is substrate, thickness (h) and so on.
driven by a single source as shown in Fig. 1.14.1.
The coupled microslrip line will have one extra
- The response of the line connected to a source is physical parameter·- the strip separation (S), as shown
obtained by sum of two circuit responses even. and odd in Fig. 1.14.3.
modes as shown in Fig. 1.14. l. Note that there is one important di"mensional parameter

-
- --
Even mode response : When the two lines are driven.
- ..,,,,.
by the same signal polarities the response is called as
not shown in Fig. 1.14.3 and it is the length of the
coupled region, usually denoted by I.

even mode response.

------ A single lossless microslrip line equivalent circuit is as
shown in Fig. 1.14.4.

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 1•42 Introduction to Mlc,owrtvoa

I --IS!- I
1-w-+l
I I
w-.i I

o,
11or 11i111ilur co11duclor11

(IMS)Flg. 1.14.3 : Nomenelnture for the cro.•,11-11ccllon dl111c1111loll~

I(z) L I(z + tiz )

0 •
I rml' ' 0

V(z)

0
IC V(z + tiz)

0
Vi(,z + 62)

tiz 1-:" rti

Vl,~
/'
(1149)Fig. 1.14.4 : Equivalent circuit of a single line
V2 (~ + Az)

For a coupled line the equivalent circuit is shown in

Fig. 1.14.5. In the figure C11 , L11 and C22 , li 2 arc
Coupling
capacitance and inductance associated with line I and 2 C22
respectively. While C12 and L12 arc lhc cffccL'i of \i'(l,) V2(z)t

coupling.
Even and odd impedances ½: and Zoci arc expressed in (tASO)Flg. 1.145 : EqulvoJent drcuit ora coupltd
tcnns of C10 , C10 and respective phase velocities as : line or section tu

These capacitan ces ar c difficult to obtain correctly and hence to find Zo. an d Z0o a numerically compoted
im~dance grid as shown in Fig. 1.14.6 is used.

::•, .'.,, I

120 h
0.07 2.0
e,
100 s
e 1 = 10

80
C:
......
0

r-S'
80
'

40

20

20 40 80 80 100 120 140 180 180

Zoo/0
(1A51)Fig. 1.14.6 : Jmpcdancc grid for z0• and Z0o

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 Microwave Engineering (MU _Sem. 7 _E&TC) lntroductlon to Microwaves
;.z..

~ 1.15. Impedance_
Technrques
Matchlng_ :l a_ 1..lll Beactlv.e Matchlng.Netw.or.ks I
One of the most widely used matching- networks
- LO, 1.15.1 Explal~ what is the need of impedance consists of a reactive element placed either in series or
matching, 8nd how it can.be achievectusing shunt with a small" length of low-loss line.
lumped elements 7-
· Ii" ""Series reacllve matching
Impedance matching is very dc.iliable with RE - Fig. 1.15.2 illustrates reactance techniq~e of matching a
transmission lines. Standing waves lead· to increased losses load Zi. to a transmission line. The subscripts L, A, and
and frequently cause the transmitter to malfunction.
in are used to denote. the. impedances at. the. load,.plane.
There are two types of impedance matching. Namely, A, and the fuput, respectively.

(I) Conjugate matdiing - Note that the characteristic impedance of the line
section Z1 has been ch~n to-equal the characteristic
The matching of a load impedance to a generator for
impedance of the input line (2.o). This choice makes the
maximum transfer of power.
Smith chart solution easier and· usually results in a
(2) Z0 matching simplified-configuration.
In this article we will focus only on Zo matching
Matching ne~rk
[~ 1.15.1 Z, Matching 1-
----K>H:---------------~ JX '
The term Zo matching is used to denote matching a load
impedance to the characteristic impedance of a
transmission line (that is, Zi._-= 2.o).
-
To generator

·-- .---,4.,
:-I.====
Z.,,=Z,

If Zi.. "I' Zo, a matching network may be used to ;.' i.'

eliminate the standing waves on the line. This
(1A53)Fig. 1.15.2 : Matching with series reactive element
arrangement is shown in Fig. 1.15.1, where in most
cases the network is essentially dissipationless. With Zi. - The requirement for a match rondition is,
connected as shown, Zo matching requires that the
input impedance of the network equal Zo or,
To achieve this, two steps are required ;
(i) The line length l must be chosen_so that the real part of
ZA equals Zo-

Matching

=------.:>--;_____ (1A52)fig. 1.15-.1

network

o----
t_-
(ii) Next a reactance X must be- inserted in· a series with ZA
so that the imaginary part of~. becomes zero.

Let, ZA = Zo + j X then series element is capacitive.

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E ,.,.G'OWll\1t t.zt::r::s cuu • ~m. 7 • E&TC)

z,. • Z.- j X thczuaics clement is ioducti\ C. u irnide the J -+ jX circle on the Smith durt. thcn the
circuit of Figure a ~ Id be u_,;cd.
1'hc. t.anr logic can be applied fer cxxmccting the
cka:rni in i.ti.wil 11i!h the ~ u s.hov.1l in Fig. 1. 15.3. Jf the nomuJiz.cd !rod impcdJ.ncc is outsicJc the I + jX

•·~ circle on the: Smith chm. the: circuit of Figure b should

be used. The I + jX circle is the: re istancc circle oo the
impc:d.lnc."C Smith du.rt for \I, hich r = I.

a 1.15.3 Matching Networks with

Distributed Elements

O I
17 Serie-• atub matching

At micrownc frcqucnc.ics, lumixd inductors llnd

c:ir,.ic,too :ire d1f(icult to comtruct. As :i re1>uh. shoned
ar L aectk,n lmpodance msttnlng :inJ ()f<n ircuitcJ lino (c:tllcd ~ub ) ore oflcn used to
Pf') \ idc the ~ X l .l.llC'C nccdcJ for !lllllching.
~ !)1 the Mmpbt l)"f'C c,( nult-hinR nch H'IC \. I\ the

l.r1«ti<wt, lblnt 1'111 1.l t't'Jt.."'1 1\"C ck:mcnh 10 11\2.l• h ~ T" o c ump In of "rici nut.ching \Ii ilh tubs ill'C 1>hown

:.itntr.tt) 10-IJ itnj't'\b."IC't' 10 2 tr~\lnt \j('O line

1n Fit 1.1 :i) 311d (b) bclOYI•, \Ii hen: I, and~ m the
lcnrtli .lfiJ ciutJCUm.tic impcd..lncc of the tub line.
n r n- :i.rt 111 0 fX )Jbk conf11,-unt>M ~ t l ht\ l'lC'IIA 1'1 l ,

.U ll in •!!· 1.1 .: .

,.

z.. Z,o

~ I •I
1•1
Qi;>«\

_J ~
,.

z..
In either of the ronfi~uon\ of Fir, I. 15.4. 1hc
rcac1in: ck-mcnti llU)' be cilller imJuc-10~ or t::i_p.11.·iw,,.
~ ~
£k-pe ndm g on the lo.id Im c. If the nonnlll11cJ (b)
Jo..fimpni.lnC'C, pcqtl:. 1.1 5.5 : ~'3tchJng "' Ith ~ries stub

Z• = Z"t IZ~o Although the choice of~ is arbitrary. it is best to use :i

high impe<hncc ~horted line for inductive re:ictanet

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 lnltoOootlof1lo MictCIHll'-tN
nnd n low lmpcdnncc opcn-clrrulr-·• II r
' l'\J nc ,or cnpoclll \'c
rcoclnncc.

_ This lends to the smnlbt vnluc or 1 . 111tn M1\CCJ)IJ1nco Oh co11oc,tc<l In ~l,tml .co 1h,1t,
,. w11• d1 mluc:<'.1 the
rcacranoc or i.usccptnix-c ''nrinlion wit.I "
'•l'C<)ticncy.
ir Shunt 1tub matching
11,is technique i~ c11llcd jlni lc slub m;ifddng, A,
_ n,is technique Is similar to series m t . i
. n c1ung except that
Lhc rcact1vc clement Is placed in shunt . h the . explained c,ulier, shortc<l nnd opcn-cirruilc<l tJutn nuy
. ~ l~M
microw:wc frequencies, it is generall . be used 10 obtain Lhc rcquirctl susccpLnna:.
• · Y cns,cr to build
shunt clements into n transmission 1.
inc structure. This The two shunt stub configurations llIC illu5trulcd In
is shown in Fig. 1.15.6.
Fig. 1.15.6{i) and (ii).

As before, it is best to use a high impcdmcc shorted

line for inductive susccplancc and n low impedllllCc
open-<:ircuited line for capacitive susceptnnce.

UEx..1.15.1 MU• Dec. 15, 10 Marks

'
Short Design two lumped clement L section mntching network at
500 MHz to transfonn, 2,, = 200 - j 1000 to n JOO a
transmission line. Use Smith Chart.
(i)
0 sotn. :
Matching network
Refer smith chart Fig. Ex. 1.15. l(c).
• L__..__ "'
r·······i=::=t----+J The nonnalizcd impedance

I:i._ 200-i JOO

._
To generator Zo Zo,=Zo Zn = 2o - 100 = 2 -jl

...I :········r··-··------------J
• 'j. It is ploned as point P on the smith chart. This point is
In A j_ inside I + jX circle, so L-section network selected is
L-section
,---------------,
(ii) '' ''
'
I
(1AS7}Fig.l.15.6: Matching with shunt stub I

2m= 1 +jo-l I
I

The procedure is similar to that explained for series

reactive matching except that all calculations must be L----------•---~
done in terms of admillances. (1AS9)Fig. Ex. 1.15.1 : Example or L-Stttlon matching

- Because when the elements are connected in shunt, it is Here fi rst element jD is parallel 10 Zt_. When two
easy to calculate admittance than impedance. elements are parallel then it is easy to use ndmi11an~. For
- The line length I is chosen so tliat the real part of Y,. this purpose let us convert Zy, inlo Yn·

equals Y0•

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Ji} Maowave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 1-46 Introduction to Microwaves
2'.
• To convert Z. lnto y • Now. go back to Y• i.e. point Q. When jB is added Witb_

Here we rcqui:rc to dnsw a constant VSWR circle: For it the resultant admittance will move on constant

lb.is take O as· a ccolcf and OP as radius 10 draw a circle. conductance circle i.e. 0.4 circle.

1lus is called at mngaol VSWR.cin:.le. We will go on adding jB and stop whc.n the rcsuitant
When we tu.c d i ~ y opposite point of Pon this ndmittance (YP = Y. + jB) is on im:lgc or 1 + jX circJc. Hen:

c:in:lc we gd Y~ c:oocspanding to Z,.. II is shown as paint Q. we get two points Q1 and Q2• which results in two different

1lie value or Y. is designs of the same problem.

At Q1 ➔ Y111 = 0.4 + j 0.49 (+jB is nddcd with YJ
Y• = 0.4 + j 0.2 (Point Q)
At Qi ➔ Y,2 = 0.4 - j 0.49 (- jB is added with Y.)
Now jB is in pantlld with Y• and c.-u1 be nddcd. Tix:n
rr Ar.t design : (With a,)
only rc~,·c part of Y. will cha.nee. Either it will dccreMc
or incrc!lSC.S depending upon the n:iturc of shunt clement Con,idcr Q is ctwiged to Q 1 by addingjB 1 with Y,
(jB) i.e. inductor or c.:1p3eitor.

After we :idd jB with Y. (= Y,) the rcsult:mt is required

OA + j 0.49 c 0.4 + j0.2 + jB,
to rorwat b3Ct into impcd:m-rc (= 7~ Ml til:lt it c:m he
:ukkdwithjX. ➔ j.B I : J• 0-29

We W3!lt this Z, to be on I + jX circle, M) th:it the

~\"C PJit can be c:mcdlcd by :idding proper \':ilue of jX

The: ~iLi,·c ,·.uuc: of the susccptancc indicates that it is
resulting in
n ap:ici.lor. Thus the c.lcmc.nt connc~d in parallel with
Z.,. = l+jO 2t_in Fig. E:t. I.IS. I is acap3ei1or.

This u the condition for nutching. Thi! :ibo,·c v1luc is a oorm.iliz.cd ,·aluc. Demoraliu i1
by multiplying with Y~
As mentioned above Z, mu t be on 1 + jX circle.. 11us
will tuppen only if Y, will be on imztge of I + jX circle. For B 1(dcnonna.littd) = 0 .29 X y o = 0.29
¼
this v.,-c construct a rooitcd I + jX circle which is the mim>r
of 1 + jX circle. For c:ip:icitor :

El" To dmw Image of 1 + JX drcle

B1 =
we _0.29
I - ¼

The center of this circle is at R.. = 0.333 on the

0.29
borizont:l) diameter (shov.'Il as C} ZIIld radius equn.l lo co'.
c, =
2.m x¼
faery point on this circle is to be rcod as admittance. 0.29
= 6
21t X 500 X 10 X IQ()
Also if we take diametrically opposite point of any point on
this circle. it will be on I + jX circle.

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 1-47 Jntroductlon to.Microwaves

io ob~n the value o( jX, we talce diametricaJly The negative value of susccptance indicates that it is an
oppasite pomt of.Q1•0ll 1 + jX.circle; it is ~hown as At Q;. inductor.
this point
-0.49
Bidenormaliud) = -0.49XYo=~

0.49
AMingjX with-it must result in Z.n = l+ jO. This is lhe· - _l_
(J)~
= -~
condition for matching.
.zQI I + jXJ.:: .1 + j .0 i.e. ~ = 0:49-xZi21t·xf -- 46.l (nH)
.,
1--j l.22+jX1 = l +j-0 Diametrically opposite of Qz is ~

z,Q2 = l+jl.22

The1105itive-valueof~cc·means it is an·inductor. Fonnatching

1 +jO =- Z , + jX2
X~ (denormalize)= 1.22 x Zo Q2

i.e: CDL 1 =- l.22 x Lo = 1 +lt:22+JX2

.i.e.
l.22-x 100 .:. "2 = ·-1.22
·½· = 21t X 500 X 106 = 38.8 (nH)

The negative value of. .reactance indicates that it. is a

The outcome ofthis analysis is,
capacitor.
38.8 nH
:. X 2 (denormalire) = - 1.22-x Zi

.lm-= .100 + jO -0.92 pF 200 -j100 1

- l.22xZo
roCz
1 .
:. c; = (I) X L22 ~ = 2.6l(pF)
(1A60)Fig. ·Ex. 1.15.l(a}: R~ult of first part

g · Second des1gn : {With -02)" So the second design is

0.4 -j 0.49 = 0.4 +j 0.2 +j82

~---------
2.61 (pF)

~" = 100 + jO 41.1 nH 200-j100

r.e. jB2 = - j 0.49

(tA&t)Fig. EL LlS.l(b) .: Brsult of second design
or B2 = -0.49

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Microwave Engineering MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 1-48 Introduction to Mlcrowa,

LIi LO

' .. ' ,.
'. ' ' \ .
=+ circl
. V

li.
t
1
".. " 0
. := ·::::.::"'Is ·
- ' .:·- - :: -·:.·_________
•• .
::~ .. . . .. .
t
.
• ~
.
I

•
. •

•
• .,

•
o

tr:
..
• I • • •

. . ...
'. . ---:-:

(1A58) Fii:. E"(. 1.1 5. l(c)

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 1-49 lntroductlon to Microwaves

~ t.16 Slngle Stub Impedance

Matching on Lines

Short circuited
LO, 1.16.1 Explain what Is the need of Impedance stub
matching, and how It can be achleved using
.
distributed elements ?

_ The input impedance of an open circuited or short

circuited lossless line is purely reacti've 11w)Flg. t.16.1 : Showing stub conned.Ion
. • Such a section
.
is usually connected across the line at a convenient When the line is tenninatcd in an impedance 2t, ( * Zo),
point ~d cancels the negative part of impedance at this
reflections take place. The input impedance of the line
point seen looking towards the load. Such a section is
seen towards the load at a point of voltage maximum
called Impedance matching stub. Since the stub is will be S 2,i and .at a point of voltage minimum will be
connected in shunt across the main transmission line, it ZJS, where S is the standing wave ratio and''.l,i is the
becomes possible to use the stub of desired length and
characteristic impedance of the lossless line. Hence at
construction without any restriction imposed by the
some point intermediate between a voltage maximum
main line.
and a voltage minimum, the input impedance of the line
Usually the length of matching stub is kept within can be expected to be equal to 2,i If this point is at a
quarter wavelength so that the stub remains practically distance d1 from load, stub is connected at this point.
lossless at all high frequencies. A short circuited stub of
The input admittance of the line at d1 before insertion
length less that A / 4 offeres inductive reactance at the
of the stub can be written as,
input while an open circuited stub of length less than
).. I 4 offers capacitive reactance at the input. Thus 1 .
Y = Ro ±JB
depending upon the requirement, either the short
circuited stub or the open circuited stub may be used. The value of susceptance B may be positive or negative
- Since the Zo of a line is usually a pure resistance, the depending upon the load 'impedance zi,. This
impedance of the load, as seen by the line (towards susceptance B is required to be eliminated in order to
load), should be a resistance of the same value. i.e. Ro provide impedance matching and thus making the line
(or conductance = 1 / Ro), If such a match does not smooth. Now if a stub having input susceptance ± is
attain, energy will be reflected from the load. Standing connected at a distance d1 from load, the total input
waves will be set up. Energy transfer effectiveness will admittance at d 1 is,
be -less-than optimum.
- Because the matching stubs are connected in parallel
Yl : RoI ± j'B -+ J'B = RoI . -;, Z ='-"Oat
7 dI

with the main transmission fine, it is easier to consider

The length d2 is selected such that the input
the analysis in terms of admittances rather than
susceptance of the stub is equal to+ jB.
impedance. The method of connecting stub is shown in
Fig. U6.1. In the Fig. 1.16.1 the short circuited stub The lengths d1 and d2 are given by,
has been connected at a distance d1 from the receiving
di = (cj) +1t-~os-
1
Ip))¼
end.

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 i1 1-30
lntroructioo t o ~ ~
- ~
-\iEX.t..16-1
C1kul~ the position -~ ~"'th of -~ ~ ~
where Q = reflectioo angle _<ksign to tmr..h (100 + J"3Ct1> ~ ~ to 3. ~ ~
w~~~~ ~3((}Jl_(U..::c Sroitll~
lp)magnitllde of reflection coefficient
RI Soln.:
S = VS-WR
In the e..u..."'llple no infonn,:Uicn is gh-cn ~'"'llt the~
Usually a short chcuitt:d stnb i:s ptciened to "3D op:n \li'hetbcr it is ~ries conno:..--red or shunt ronntX""tro..
circuited stub for the follo\1,ing reasons :
Since shunt sruo bss adv-s.n~c-es over $e:rks stub, \\>e
{i) It is easy to provide short circuit or zero resistall\.--c
will go foi-sbunt sruh.
across any ·pair of tcz minah by simply conne.cting ~
large plate of conducting ma.1erial, where as it is
difficult·to keep perfect open circuit condition requiring
very high insulation resis1.anec across t.bc stub
terminals. This becomes more difficu:lt :it high
frequencies involved in stub ma1.ehing.
{ii) The short circuited stub bas lower loss of energy due to
radiation becansc a large metal ptare can always be
used at the shorted end disallowing any radiation of
energy.

(iii) The same stub can be used for rna.tching at diffi=rent (tW)Fag. Ex. 1.16.l
frequencies or for differeac loads by \"atying lhe lenglh
of stub by rne:ins of a sliding short circuited bar. The normalized lood impedance is

200 + j 300
a. 1.1-6.1 Disadvantages of Single Stub JOO = Q_66 + j l
Matching
This is planed as point P on the Smith c.h:ut.
l. The single stub rnatchin_g system is useful for a fixed Taking Cl!Jltre of the chart ·o· as the centre :mdJengtb
frequency only because, as the frequency changes, lhc OP as radius draw a conslant VSWR circle.
location of the stub will have to be changed. The
Since the stub is connected in p:iralle.l across the line at
change of the susceptance of the stub does not
point R. it is easier if we use admittances. So find the
however, present any problem, because lhe shorting
plug may be moved to the required position. So, single diametrically opposite point of P. which represent the

stub maccbing is a narrow band system. admittance (Y J corresponding co Z.,. le is shown as point Q
on the chart. Now the Smith chart is used as an admittance
2. Another disadvantage of the single stub is lhat, for final
adjustment the stub has to be moved along the line
ch:ut so that every Rn vaJue we read as &i :md every Xa we
read as susceptancc 8 0 •
slightly. This is possible only in open wire lines and
therefore, on c-0axial lines, single srub matching may To have no reflection on transmission line at the teft of
become inaccurate in practice. through jt reduces the poinl R. the admittance jusL on left of point R must be
reflection losses to a considerable extent l + j 0. The connection of stub contributes only co reactive
The procedure of solving the single stub problem is part. Hence just right of point R. the admittance is l ± jB.
explained in following examples. We have to find this point on the transmission line. This

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 1-51 Introduction to Microwaves

paint is -surely on &i = l circle (since the real part of stub which is - j 1.3 i.e. 0 - j 1.3. This point is plotted 11.'i the
.adntlttaneejs unity) and.also on lhe transmission line. Thus intersection of g,. = 0 and Bn = - 1.3 circle.
tbi's point will be !he intersection of 011 . 1e WI'lh
" = 1 CU'C
This is shown ns point S on the chart. The R,, = 0 circle
- ..cNint VSWR circle (it rcp~nts the transOUSSIOO
. . me. )
-i_v,w- 1 , will represent constant VSWR circle for the stub. Point S is
To obtain this point start travelling from point Q on !he
standing on wavelength towards load scale ut 0.148 A. As
constant VSWR circle in clod,.-wisc direction (towards
far as stub is concerned we know the input side of it.
generator) where .this circle intersects g,, = 1 cin:Ie. This is
Finding d2 is nothing but finding distance of short circuit
point R on the chart. The &, and "Ba values corresponding to
-pointR are from !he input of the stub. For this purpose we travel from
foput of the stub (point S) on the constant VSWR circle of
·O
on
=- 1 and Ba =· 1.3
lhe stub in the anticlockwise direction (wavelength towards
. Hence admittance at point R is .load) and stop when we me.et short circuit This is point O"
Ya (R) ·= l +j 1.3 on lhe extreme right of the horizontal diameter.

At this point stub is connected. The distance of this The point O" represents the short circuit, the reason for
point from Yn-is QR which is nothing but d 1• it is , it is the intersection of·8 0 =0 circle with g0 =00 circle.
For the short circuit, the resistance is zero but conductance
The position -of point Q on the .chart is obtained by
is infinite.
extending line 0Q till it intersects !he wavelength towards
generator scale- (point Q'). The scale here is ·0.393A. The
position of R on .the scale cin:Ie is obtained by joining line
from centre through R, till ·it intersects the scale circle at R'.
The wavelength here is-0.¼7111..
I•."'"
CIICUII

o·
(tAS.)Fig. Ex. 1.16.l(a)
Note that the··scale ·becomcs discontinuous at O'. Hence
find distance Q' 0' and 0 ' R' separately and add to find the Hence O" represent the sho'rt circuit while O' will
di;tance ·Q'·R'. . -represenrthe open circuit. The point S is standing at 0.148 A
Q' o· = co.s·- 0.393) A and O" is at 0.25 A. Thus .the .distance SO" is the distance d2
given by
O'R' = 0. !71 A
d2 = SO" = (0.25 - 0.148) A= 0.102 A
d1 = Q' R' = ((0.5 - 0.393) + 0.171) A
So the design is
= 0.278).
The susceptance at point R is l.3. The stub should have
susceptance·of - ·l.3-at the-input of it, so-that just on !he left
of point .R, the total admittance is

l +j 1:3 - j 1.3 = t + j'0

The designin_g of stub means finding the length of stub

"Which gives - j "l .3 anhe input of it.

For the stub calculation we should draw a constant

VSWR for the stub. We .know .the input admittance of .the
(tA65)Fig. Ex. 1.16,l(b)

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 Microwave Engineering (MU. Sam. 7. E&TC)
1-52
Introduction to Mlcrc,w

(1A66)Fig. Ex. 1.16.l(c)

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Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 1-53 Introduction to Microwaves

'uex:ij_G-.2 .MU·
-.- f.1a... 16, 10 Marks To cancel this part, the stub requires a susceptance of
-nie-terminating impedance- 7 .- .60 - J·so "'·
n Des" tw
. ,• - 1.47. It is plotted as point X on the ~ scale at the lower
.• · · .. ....,_ 1gn o·
single ·stu~ ·(short .circuited) . tuning ~etwork: to match· this half. This is the input susceptance of the stub. To find the
~Jo..a·SOOJjne• ~ ~- . . · length of the ~tub, we travel from X on the Xn scale in
0 5oln-;
.j _..._ ·.:_

. - -- ~-- --~- ~ anticolockwise direction till O" where short circuit is

present. This point is the right side of the horizontal
7 _ ~ _ 60-jB0
---ii - 2.o - 50 = l.2 - j 1.6 diameter.
The length of the stub is
This is plotted as point P. Taking o as a center and OP
as radius draw a constant VSWR circle. /1 = XO"= (0.25 -0. 155) A= 0.095A

Let us connect the short circuited stub across thc For second single stub I.e. d2 and·12
transmission line. We have to find two poss'b! ..
1 e positions In the first part we travel from Q on the const.'.llll
and two possible lengths for this stub.
VSWR circle in clockwise direction and stop when we get
intersection with g,, = I circle. It was point R. But if we
travel further we get one more intersection at point S. This is
the second possible stub.

Y2 = l - j l.47 (point S)

The distance QS is the second possible position of the

stub i.e.~-

~ = QS =Position of S - position of Q
= 0.325 A- 0.065>. =0.2601..
{1A67)Fig. Ex. 1.16.2 The susceptance of the stub required to cancel the
reactive pan of Y2 is+ jl.47. It is plotted as point Yon the
To find first single stub I.e. d1 and /1
Xn scale in upper half. The distance of Y from short circuit
Since the stub is connected in shunt we use is YO" in anticolockwise direction. The scale becomes
admittances. discontinuous at O'. Thus

The diametrically opposite point of P (Z0 ) on the ti = YO"= YO'+ O'O" = 0.155 A+ 0.25 A
constant VSWR circle is Q. It represents Y0 •
ti = 0.405 >.
Y0 = 0.3 + j0.4 (Point Q)
So the answer is :
To find the position of stub we travel along constant
For the first possible stub
VSWR circle in clod.-wise direction and stop where the
circle intersects g0 = I circle. It is shown as R. d 1 = 0.lll A

This is one possible position (d 1) of the stub. Thus l 1 = 0.095 A

d1 = QR= Position of R - Position of Q For the second possible stub

= 0.176 A- 0.065 A= 0.1l l A d2 = 0.260 A

The susceptance at R is 1.47. /2 = 0.405 A

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 .'1 t.(,croWDVO Englnoering (MU· Som. 7 • EATC) 1-55
tntrodUctk>n to Microwaves

distance will always be Jess than A / 2. Gcnerolly

c:t. 1.17 Double Stub Matching the di tmce chosen will be cit.her A / 4 or 3A / 8.
By imibr n::isonjng the distance l,1 gets
_ To o,·crcomc tlic two <fuadvnntJgcs of single stub ~ strictcd.
rnn1cJ1ing two 5-hon circuited stub~ whose lengths :1f'C
2) In addition, since matching is obtained between
odju 1oble but whose ro-i1ion~ arc fixed, moy be u~
the point 8 nnd ~nerator. we have reflection loss
M , hown in Fig_ 1.17. 1.
occurring to the right of B due 10 the mismatch. In
order to keep thi, value to a minimum. the total
das1.:1.ncx: /11 + l,1 should be is snull as possible.
B
-+ ·n i:,1 i, v.hy. -.omctirncs the fi~ t tub is located at
1hc lo., d it..cl(. Our. in common practice the
,I

d" rnncc /, 1 i, gencr.:11ly of the order of

0 li.10 0. 15}_
The proc-cdun: of ~ hi ng the problem using smith
ch.ir1 1, c l pl:uncd in following examples.
(Wl71:- 1.1 7. 1 : Sbcn,ini: mnnro.lon1 ol douWc Muh
UEx. 1.17. 1
- l..c1 the fir"!'I ub \\ hose lcns th i ,,, l"<: lc,c., tcd :ti IOI
UU • Dec. 16. Dec. 17. r.i.1 18. Dec. 18. 10 Marks
,\ :sl 3 tfuuncc o f 1, 1 from the lo:11.1 c.nd. 1bc nomuh,ct.l
input ad.mill~ :u 11,:11 point be, Match :s loot! irnpctl:incc: 2,_ = 60 - jBO to :1 50 !l line wing a
double rub runcr. The stubs :ire open circuited and arc
Y, = lh + jb" ')plCCJ ). 18 O-JX!11. 11,c m.J!ch frequency i 2 GHL

- When J srub hJ, mg J 'll-.Cept:mcc b 1 i\ :ukh:tl :it this 0 Solo:

point, the OC:\\ admitl:inec \jJue will be The: ~p.i.r.uioo bci\\Un tow rubs is given as )Jg
(di~l.tnet: AB). The fir..r tub of length d1 is connected at
point A. while ~ coo<l tub of length ct, is connected et point
- Since only the W\CC:puncc v:Juc i~ J.ltcred by the B. ·nic di, r.mcc of point B fom1 load is not given we will
odd11ion of 1hc \tub, lhc co nd ucr:mcc p:in n:11utim rake position B c:<:ictly :11 lo:id position.. In practice the
unclungt>d, Y,.' <.hou)d r-c of MJch u val ue thut the ~ par.Ilion between two srub · is either ), I 8 or 3). I 8.
:idmiuancc Yk equal\ I + j h: . ·n,c , tub length ut B i~
To plot lo~id in10 Smith chan we find the nomializcd
adju 1ed uch that nt the inpur it ha.'i W'-Ccpt:mcc of lo:id imptdam:c.
- bi· W heo thit tub is coallCCl.cd. the :u.!111.i11:mcc nt B
~ _ 60-j 80
ctunge 10
2i. = ¼ - 50 =1.2 - j 1.6
This i ploncd as point P in the Smjth chart. Taking
- lbere are ~ome rc~tric1ions on 1, 1 ond l,1 which arc oncn centre of the chart O as a centre 3Jld OP as radius draw a
encountered in prncticc. const.nnt YSWR circle. For solving stub problems we need

I) 1nc: distance /, 1 can never be more tbnn or t.-quaJ 10 udmillance, so locate point Q. Tilis point corresponds ot
normalized load adntinance
), / 2, in which cute the input udmiunncc looking
towards the load repents iLi.clf. As such. the YO = 0.3 + j 0.4 (point Q)

-4 £U/JJHSJL.U/ Ya/J.rre

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 Introduction to Mlcrowovoa
) Mlcrownvo Englnoorlng (MU - Som. 7 • Ell.TC) 1-50
0 2 5
The second slub of lcng1h d: is 111 n position B which Is j11s1on lhc lcl'l uf ils is Y' 1 (Q,) 0.3 + J 0, 8 , This mean$
thnt the rcnctuncc of the stuh Is cnlculntcd n.~
exactly 111 the load. Since on 1he left of poinl 1\ we don't I

wnnt rcncc1ion, 1hc11 jusl on the hifl of point i\, the o . = h I + 0.4
()•2°5
I
mlmillance 11111st he I + jO. :. b
1
= - 0.115
The nddilion of stub will just nller the reactive part, so Jf we select point Q1 , then just 0 11 U1c right of the
thut just on right of point A. the ndmillnncc will he I ± j 13. second stuh. the ndmi1tnm:e is O.J + J OJI The mlmilluncc
Hence point A 11111s1be on 8n = I circle. Then poinl 13 will he
just on the left of its is Y1 (Q 1) = OJ + j 1.7 I. This mcnns
on the rolatcd g11 = 1 circle. Now wcalher the rotntion is
1hnt the rcnctnnce of the stub is cnlculnlctl as
clockwise or :m1iclockwise. The logic is while going fonn
1.71 = h1 + O.•I
point A to point B we travel towards load. so in
anticlockwise direction. Then g11 = I circle is shown ns :. b1 = l .3 1

circ]l\ I on the chart. In the previous problem we hnvc studied how to find
Draw a spacing circle of 'A / 8 by rotating the constnnl length of the stub fonn the required vnlm: of input
conductnnce unity circle (g11 = I) 1hrough n phnse angle of susccptancc. These nrc

21t 'A 1t ,; = 0.204 A

2P d = 2 X°'T Xg = 2
In anticlockwise direction (1ownrds load). This is
shown as :rotated 1+ jb circle in the chart. If lhe distance To find length of first stub nt A, we draw constant
between two stubs in 3A / 8 in ·1hat situnlion we dmw a VSWR circle with a rndius OQ 1 and note the interse~tion of
I

spacing circle an angle of it with g11 = I circle in clockwise clircclion. It is shown nt Y:

2tt A 1t it corresponds to point A i.e. position of first stub in the

2pc1 = 2x ""T x3 8 =3 2 problem figuri:.
I
Without stub 2, the admiuancc of transmission line at Y = I + j 1.38
2
point B is 0.3 + j 0.4. After connccling lhc stub i.e. just on
Hence the stub susccptancc of - j 1.38 is required in
lefl of point B, the admit1ancc will have real part same
order to nrnkc the total nonnalizcd admittance at A cqunl to
(= 0.3), only rcnctive part will changc (agai n stuh will
contribute to only reactive part). Thus to find the point just 1.0 +jO.
on the lefl of point B. we move from point B along lhc
constant conductance (g0 = 0.3) circle. that intcrsccls the
rotated g0 = I circle nt two points, point Q, and Q1• lhe If we repeat tbc procedure at point Q2 , the required
susccptancc of the sccoml stub is
admittance at these points arc :

To obtain lhesc susccptanccs required lengths of the

stub arc
We have to select one of these two points based on the
length of I.be slub.
1: = 0.305 t-..

l f we select point Q 1• then just on the right of the 12 = 0.482 t-..

j.' second stub, the admittance is 0.3 + j 0.4 The admjttance
I

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 lntroduclion to Microwaves
1-57

(tA70) Fig. Ex. 1.17.1

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=
(§il
11 Microwave Engineering (MU- Sam. 7- E&TC) 1-SS- _
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~==~~========;;;:;;;:;;;:;;;::l:::;nt;::rod;;;;;;u=ctl=o=n=to;;;:;;;:M=lc=ro=w:::;:;~

Ill. Dec. 281·7

'a. 1.18 University Questions and
Answers a. 4(b) Match a load impedance Zi.. = 60 - jBO to a 50 n line
using a. double stub tuner. The stubs are open
circuited and· are ·spaced 'JJ8· apart. The· match.
frequency is 2 GHz.

Q. 6{a) Design two lumped element L section matchfng . (Ans.; ReferEx. 1:17.1) (11>-Markat
network at 500 MHz to .transform, . Q; -5(a) 0iscuss the various frequency bands and-
4 = 200-j 100 n to a 100 n transmission-line. Use characteristics of microwaves.
Sm1th Cnart. (Ans. : Heter Ex. 1: 15. 1) (1 <J M"arl<s} (Ans. : Refer sections 1.3 and 1.4) (~o Marks).

11
• May 2018
a. 2(a} The terminating impedance Zi.. = 60 - j80 n.Design a. 1(B) Discuss the characteristics.of.microwaves..
two single stub (short circuited} tuning network to (Ans. :-Refer section·1.4) (-5-Marks)·
match this load to a 50 n tine.
(Ans. : Refer Ex. 1. 16.2) (10 M'arks)
. a. 4{A)- Explain any one bio-medical. application. using.
microwave.
II.. Dec. 2016· (Ans. : Refer section 1.5.2) (10 Marks)
a. 4(8)' Match a load impedance Zt = so·- j -so·to a so·n-
a. 2(aJ Match a load impedance Zi. = 60 - j80 to a 50 n line line using a double stub tuner. The stubs are open
using a. double stub tuner. The stubs are open circuited and are- spaced- 'JJ8- apart. The- matGh-
circuited and are spaced >Ja- apart. The· match frequency is Z GHz.
frequency is 2 GHz.
(Ans.: Refer Ex. 1.17.1) (10 Marks).
(Ans.: Refer Ex. 1.17.1) (10 Marks)
a. 3(a) Discuss the various frequency bands and 11
., Dec. 201 S-
characteristics of microwaves.
(Ans. :Refer sections 1.3 and 1.4) (10 Marks) a. 1(C) Match a load impedance Zt_ = 60 - j 80 to a 50 Q

II.. May 201.7

line using a doubla stub tuner. The stubs are open
circuited and are spaced ).\8 apart. The match
frequency is 2 GHz. ·
0. 6(d) Biomedical applications of microwave. (Ans. : Refer Ex. 1.17.1) -(1-0-Merks}
(Ans.: Refer section 1.5.2) (5 Marks)
Q. 3(A) Explain any or1e bio-medical application using
a. 3(a) Calculate the position and length of short circuited · microwave. ·(Ans. ·: Refer-section 1.5:2) {10 Marks}
stub design to match (200 + j300) ..Q load to a
transmission line whose- characteristic impedance- is
n
300 (Use Smith chart).
(Ans.: Refer Ex. 1.16.1) (10 Marks)

Chapter Ends...

□□□

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 Module 2

Waveguides

Syllnbu1

Acclongulor ond clrculor wnvoguldos C <>rulNciion, \'lo1k'

Re-entmnl c:w,lios.

2.1 lnlroduction ....................................................................... 2-3 2.-4. 1(A) Boundary ConcS~

LO. 2.1 .1 Defino : Guided wavo..........................·-····---······-· 2-3

2.4.2 Propogallon ol TM Wav
LO. 2.1.2 Defino : Wavoguldo .................................................... 2-3
LQ. 2.4.3 Donvo oxp,OSSlQns IOt l M w.r11i~ W'I
2. 1. 1 Longltudlnal and T ransverso Compononts ol tho Flold .... 2·3 roctMl)ull r w a ~ . ..
")

LO. 2.1.3 Explain TEM. TE. and TM typos or waves ................. 2-3 2.4.2(A) Boundary Cond,hon., . .. ... .

2. 1.2 Transverse Electro-Mognotlc or TEM Wavo ..................... 2-4 2.5 Slgn1llcanco ol m and n ......... . 2· 1
2.1.3 Transverse Electric or TE W aves ..................................... 2-4 LO. 2.5.1 What Is !ho slgnillalnc.o 01 m l!/"10 n ~

2.1 .4 Transverse Magnetic or TM Wave .................................... 2-4 waveguide a ~ ?

2.1 .5 Boundary Relations .......................................................... 2-5 2.6 Characteristlc5 ol TE and TM .

LO. 2.1 .4 Whal are tne boundary condlt1ons tor

ua. 2.6.1 Donve equacon !or pn.as.e
cutotl wa elefYJ111 ana t, e~
dlel&ctrlc-conductor Interface? ................................... 2·5
wa 8Q\Jld8. IJU • Dec. 11. 10 liar\..,
22 Rectangular Waveguide - Construction ............................ 2-5
2.6. 1 ExpresslOn lot C\JIOH Fn,quorc/ (1...) _ _ __
UQ. 2.2.1 Wn1e a shon note on reciangular waveguide.
2.6 2 1:Ap1eSS10n !Of C
MU - Doc. 16, Dee. 17. 10 Marks ··········"······"··· 2·5

2.3 Rectangular Waveguide - Operation ................................ 2-5 263 &presslon t()( Phase

LO. 2.3.1 Wnte a shon note on operation of 264 & ,ess.,on l0t Gr
rectangular waveguide............................................ 2·5
265 E,\pl
2.4 Rectangular Wavoguldo ............................... . 2-6
2 6 press'
LO. 2.4.1 Describe tho &l ops tor m aking waveguide

analysis ............................................................ .. 2 6 lA) /1 '°' l l.l

2.4.1 Propagation of TE Waves ..................... · .............. .. . 2·8

La. 2.4.2 Dertvo the flold components of ·ri: wovo~ 111 27 Do/ liil\d/ II I.I la W\ a \'Id 8'_,'l\Jl\..'5
rectangular wovoguldo ........................................ • · 2-8

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 ...Sl=.M.;:;:·c=ro;;::w;a~v~e~E~n~gi~n:ee~n~·n~g~(~M~U:,;-~S~e~m~.:_7_;-~E~&~T~C~)===~2~-2~===============W~avegi.f
1

LO. 2·7•1 Write short note on dominant mode in a 2.14 Dominant Mode in Circular Waveguide ..........................2,3e ~
rectangular waveguide............................................. 2-17 LO. 2.14.1 Write short note on dominant mode In

2 .7.1 circular waveguide. .................................................. .

For TE Mode ................................................................... 2-17 2 36
2.15 Examples of Circular Waveguide ....................................
2.7.2 For TM Mode .................................................................. 2-18 2·le
2.7.3 UEx. 2.15.1 MU;;Ma ·:,.m .t0.Marks ..................... 2.31
For a Given Waveguide .................................................. 2-18
2.16 Field Patterns in a Circular Waveguide..................... .......
2 39
2 .7.4 Dominant Mode and Degenerate Mode ......................... 2-1 8

LO. 2.7.2 What is degenerate mode ?...................................... 2·18 2.17 Quality Factor (0) of a Waveguide ................................. 2.40

2.8 Examples of Rectangular Wave guide ............................ 2-18 2.17.1 Expression for a Factor .................................................. 2.40
2.9 LO. 2.17.1 What is Q factor? Derive expression for it. ............. 2.40
Why TEM Wave does not Exist in a Waveguide ? ......... 2·26
2.18 Coaxial line .................................................................... 2-40
2.10 Construction of a Circular Waveguide ............................ 2-27

ua. 2•1 °·1 Write a short note on circular waveguide. LO. 2.18.1 Write a short note on : Coaxial line. ...............:......... 2.40

l&LidC,MMl•l&Efib ........................................ 2-21 2.18.1 Higher Order Modes........................................................ 2·42

2.11 Operation of Circular Waveguide.................................... 2-27 2.19 Cavity Resonators........................................................... 2·43

2.12 Circular Waveguide ........................................................ 2•27 LO. 2.19.1 Write a short note on : Cavity resonators................. 2-43

2.12.1 Propagation of TE... Modes ............................................. 2.28 2.19.1 Field Expressions for™~ Modes in a

UQ. 2.12.1 Derive the wave equation for a TE wave and obtain all Rectangular Cavity Resonator ........................................ 2-44
the field components in a circular waveguide.
LO. 2.19.2 Derive the field expressions for TM modes
MU - Dec:~s.,10 Marks ........................................ 2-28
In a rectangular cavity resonator.............................. 2-44
2 .12.2 Propagation of TM""' Modes ........................................... 2-32
2.20 Quality Factor (Q) of Cavity Resonators ......................... 2-48
La. 2.12.2 Derive the wave equation for a TM wave and obtain all
LO. 2.20.1 Define the quality factor (0) of cavity resonators..... 2-48
the field components in a circular waveguide.......... 2-32
2.21 Applications of Cavity Resonators .................................. 2-49
2.13 Characteristics of TE and TM ......................................... 2-34
LO. 2.21 .1 Give applications of cavity resonator....................... 2-49
LO. 2.13.1 Derive characteristics of TE and TM waves of
circular waveguide . .................................................. 2-34 2.22 Reentrant Cavities........................................................... 2-49

LO. 2.22.1 Write a note on : Reentrant cavities......................... 2-49

2.13.1 Cutoff Frequency ............................................................ 2-34
2.23 University Queslions and Answers ................................. 2-50
2 .13.2 Cutoff Wavelength .......................................................... 2-35
Chapter Ends............................................................................. 2-51
2.13.3 ~. vp, v , Z, (TE), Z, (TM) ................................................ 2-35
0

I
I1
I
I

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 Mlcrowavo Englnoorlng (MU • Sorn. 7 • E&TC} 2-3 Wovo ul<Joo

The third ex11111ple i, of w11vcg11idc, dc r, nrd :i,:

~ j
2.1 Introduction
ILO. 2.1.2 Dollno : Wovoguldo

Jn 1hc crn,rscs or dcctrnmagnctic. ,,·c ~ludied plane

t,r Dc{i11itio11 of W,wcf!11iclc
wave propagation in an u11bo1111Lled 111cdium t rn.:c
It is n hollow mclallic tu/Je through which 11 ·<1 11,•H / 1(11 ,·I.
space, diclcc1ric or conductor). The word unhnundcd
means it is infinite in extent. Thc:--c \\'ave~ arc 11 is abo calh.:LI as single conductor waveguide. ,i11cc 11

lr.·111s.·\'cr~c elcctroma_... ncti•·... ,,,.,,,

0 · Iy T E~I
• cs or s1mp has no inner conduclOr like co-axial cahk .
waves.
1301h single co11duc1or or 1wo conduclor line, cannot
When the rrn.:dium is infinili.: in cx1en1. ii will 110 1 h,l\'l! ~upporl TEM wavi.::--. thi.:y support TE and TM wavi.:,.
any boundary where lhc medium l!IHb. Obviously 1he n. To 11mkr~tand 1hc., e wa\'c~ ,11111c c.xpla11a1iu11 i,
waves in unbounded media do not have 10 ~ali~fy required.
boundary conditions for fields.
'c). 2.1 .1 Longitudinal and Transverse
In practice we don' t tind in linilc medium. In manv
Components of the Field
actual cases, propagation is by means or guided waves.
dctined as
LO. 2.1.3 Explain TEM, TE, and TM lypes ol waves.
( LO. 2.1.1 Define : Guided wave.
In general the fie ld components of 1hc wave in
C'§' Definition of Guided woves Cartesian coordina1e system arc :
These are the waves tl1C1t a rc guided along or over Electric liclds : E,. E) and E,
conducting or dielectric surfaces.
Magnetic fields: 11,. I\ anti 1-1,
Common examples of guided elec1romagnc1ic w:wcs
Thc~c field components can be di vided in10 two ~cl~ :
arc:

(i) Waves along earth surface from radio trnns111it1cr (i) Longiwdinal components
10 radio receiver. (ii ) Transverse componcnls.
(ii) Waves along ordinary parallel wire or co-axial
line. (i) Longitudinal components

(iii) Waves in a waveguide. The field components in the direction of propagation

- Jn the first example !he transrnilling antenna in ai r is arc called as longitudinal components.
suppose to transmit only in air. But when the earth (ii) Trunsvcrse components
surface 1s closer to the antenna some waves travel These arc the components perpendicular (i.e.
along earth surface. In 1his case the earth is said to he transverse) to 1hc dircc1ion of propagation. For ~, wave
guiding 1hc waves along the surface. in i-direction, we can write

In the second example, the waves not only travel Longitudinal components: E, and 11, nnd
between the conductors of 1wo wi re~ hut also travel Transverse compone ms : E,. E). 11, nml II .
along cond11e1or surfaces.
Now we can deli ne T EM . TE and TI\I waves.

..... IS f{.'11/ \'.\'//Ill li-11111rr·

Tl'!'l1-Nco l'ulilit·:ilion•........... Jr'l11·rt· Autluir.•· iu•flin' i1111muti1111

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 2-4
[i} Microwave Engineering (MU · Sem. 7 • E&TC)
The transverse components are related using
~ 2.1.2 Transverse Electro-Magnetic or
TEMWave z, =
E
..=.:i.. -
5.
Hy - - H, ···(2.1,4

As the name suggests, this wave will have only

where , Z, = wave impedance for a wave·
transverse components of electric and magnetic fields. z-direction. 111

Or in other words, it will not have any longitudinal

y
electric or magnetic field. Thus for a wave in
z-direction, TEM wave will have longitudinal z
-tc
components, ,?-1-
/// J' Direction of
E2 = H, =0 ... (2. 1.1 ) ~1, / propagation

-
1t is shown in Fig. 2.1.1 .

The transverse components arc related by,

l1 -
-
s.._ .5. _ _ /µ
HY -- H, - -\Je ... (2.1.2)
(1B2)Fig. 2.1.2 : TE wave

Where l1 = intrinsic impedance of the media.

a 2.1.4 Transverse Magnetic or TM
y Wave .,

z
For these wave the magnetic field is only transverse b1
()
❖
not longitudinal. For a wave in z-direction ,
❖~1, Direction of
~'\- 17 propagation H, = 0 but E, *0 . .. (2.1.~

TM wave is shown in Fig. 2.1.3.

The transverse components are related usit
Equation (2.1.4).

(1B1)Fig. 2.1.1 : TEM Wave y

a 2.1.3 Transverse Electric or TE

"kc
z
Waves ~ 1,
❖r_;,, • Direclfon of

These are transverse electric waves, i.e. electric field is

~.,, 17 propagation
only transverse. Or in other words this wave will not
have longitudinal component of electric field. For
example, for a wave in z-direction,
-
- + - - -- - - -- - X

[~. =j } but ~* ~ .. .(2. 1.3)

(1B3)Fig. 2.1.3 : TM wave
It is shown in Fig. 2. 1.2.

Tecb-Neo Publications - - rf'here Authors inspire innoralioa -4 S.4CI/INSJJAJI Yt11tlllf

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 Microwave Engineering (MU - Som. 7. E&TC)
2-5 Wave uldco

summary: Refer Pig. 2.2. 1. II shows 1hc cross ~ tion of

for n wave in z-dirccllon, properties or wave urc : rcclangul:ir waveguide.
TEM wnve E, =H, =o A rccwngular waveguide is a hollow mct:illic lube with
TE wave El =OH~o·
, l r
a rectangular cross section.

TMwave A smaller dimension i.e. width of the rec1;ingular

waveguide is denoted as 'b' and wider dimension i.e.
The transverse components are related through
breadth is denoted by 'a'.
_.!h__ Ev
Z• -H--R
y I
Width is shown along the copper walls whereas.
breadth is cut along base of the waveguide.
["29. 2.1.5 Boundary Relations ] The inner surface of the waveguide is coated with the
thin lining of gold (Au) or silver (Ag).
LO. 2.1 .4 What are the boundary conditions for
dielectric- conductor interface? W// //////// // /// ~
?';;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;~~~
- In this chapter we will frequently come across 7;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;~;~:~
boundary of dielectric-conductor interface, the field 7);;;;;;;;;;;;;;;J;;~~
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, --,z.~~~/.,
~,~

relations at the boundary arc important. ;~;~:.,/

'~'½'o
' ' ' Copper walls
- These arc:
Inner surface
thin lining of
E1 = 0 and Hn 0 = ... (2. 1.6) Au or Ag

- That is the tangential component of electric field and

normal component of magnetic field just adjacent to

-
the conductor must be zero, as shown in Fig. 2.1.4.

Tbc components which are not shown in Fig. 2.1.4 i.e.

-.
width b
-1
En and H1 arc nonzero and take the maximum value at
the boundary. ?
Dielectric
vv
breadth a d length

(1B23)Fig. 2.2. l : Construction of rectangular waveguide

~ 2.3 Rectangular Waveguide -

Conductor
Operation
(1B4)Fig. 2.1.4 : Boundary relations

'5. 2.2 Rectangular Waveguide - LQ. 2.3.1 Write a short note on operation of

Construction rectangular waveguide.

Refer rig. 2.3. 1. ·11 shows n.:tkction of the plane wave

UQ, 2.2.1 Write a short note on rectangular waveguide. in the waveguide.

Teth-Nco PuLliratioo• ..... IT11cn: Authors ii1spirc 1i11101,1tio11 ....• I S.ICIIINSIIAll li:nt11~

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 Wave ui~
2-6
~ Microwave Engineering (MU· Sem. 7 • E&TC)
/ = number of hal f waves of electric or
Where 111
The electromagnetic fields arc trapped between the ,nagnetic intensity in x direction.
. · .· 'd' the EM
walls of the waveguide. Tlus results in gui mg
wave forward. n = number of hal f waves of electric or
C
1"
Number of modes may exist in the waveguide. magnetic intensity in y direction

- · Plane waves arc reflected from wall to wall when the if propagation exists in z direction.
wave travels longitudinally_down the guide.
These reflections actually results in one of the
component of EM wave (either electric or magnetic) in
the direction of propagation.
Therefore TEM (transverse electromagnetic} wave
does not exist anymore in the waveguide. - z
(1B24)Fig. 2.3.l : Plane wave rcnl.'Cted in a waveguide
As shown in Fig. 2.3.1, any uniform plane wave in a
lossless waveguide may be resolved into TE and TM
'9.. 2.4 Rectangular Waveguide
waves.
When the wavelength >.. is in the direction of
propagation : LQ. 2.4.1 Describe the steps for making waveguide

(i} '')..,,' will be the component in the direction normal analysis.

to the retlecting plane. It is given as, The process of making waveguide analysis consists of
>.. , followi ng steps :
>..n = -cos e
Step l : To find the wave equations in terms of
(ii} '>../ will be the component parallel to the longitudinal components for the problem in
• I reflecting plane. It is given as. hand(common analysis for TE and TM).
I
>.. . Step 2 : To obtain the relation between trans\'erse and
sine longitudinal components.

Where e = angle of incidence Step 3 : To solve wave equation and obtain longitudinal
components by using boundary conditions.
A = wavelength of incident W,J\"C
Step 4 : To obtain remaining field components using
Hence it can be concluded that. a plane wave in
relations in step 1.
waveguide resolves in two components:
(ff" Assumptions
(i) Standing wave (have wavelength= >..11)
(l) Wall of the waveguide is perfect conductor.
(ii} Travelling wave (have wavelength= Ar)
(2) Wave is travelling in z-direction.
Hence in a los~less waveguide modes are classified as
(i} TM - Tranwcrsc Magnetic (TM mn ) (3) Medium inside the waveguide is dielectric r free
spate.
(i i) TE - Transverse electric (TE1110 )

height ' h'. ·

Tech-Neo Pul,licalions.._,,..... JTl,ert' Authon· in.-pirr inno111li1111

.....A S.Kl/l1VSILHI re111ure

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 Mlcrownvo En lnoorin (MU . Scm. 7 • Ea TC) 2-7

Sim:c lhc wuve i, tr.JVelling in ,.-Jin: lion, ihe ficl<l •

I:, :
,•~,., C •I
i:01111xi11cnt~ E, and II , arc longitudi nal while E,. i;. II ,.
,1nd lly arc tran~,cr.-.c componcn1,. D1ffcrcn11.11u1n 111 ,t \\ r 1 , µ1, c,
y
i • I

iJ, ·

Then E4u:11wn l 2.-1 .5 J l-.cc,11111.:,

~ - - - - - . . . . J . C . . ._ _ _ X
i r:, iE, .
·- - - a- -...~ -;--7"+ -a : +{ E, = - 11,· 11 G E,
C/X )'
(lBS)Fig. 2.-t.1 : Rcclangular "m·cguldc
i E iE , .
Step I : To ohl:lln n •clor wn,·c cquallon.
i). +~a:+(·(+ c1f
::...::.,. 11 E)E, = 0
X y I

The electric and magnetic wave equations in frequency

i.e.
a' :. .
domain arc given by ayf+ h·E, . .(2.-1.6)
- - - ----
... (2.-1. 1) where 1/ = l + c,1' 11 t= ( 2-l 7 )
1

.. .(2.-1.2) Similarly for T~I mode wc •t:t

Equ,11ion, (2.-1. 1) and (2.-1 .2) arc l'.allcd a., vel'.tur wave
a:t\, a:111 _.
-:1
r, ,X
• + oy
-:1 : + h II, = 0

equalion~. In gencml each of the,c equa1ion;; l·on,i,1~

of three scalar wave cqua1ions. Wl' know that Equ:i1ion, (2..1.6) and ('.!.-1.8) arc c:illt:J :1, \, .1,c
longitudinal componcnl. for TE and T:-.1 arc different equations for wa, t:guidc. , olving thc-.c "c get fit!ld
given hy co111p<111cnh E, and 11, .

Step 2 : U\i111: l\lux~ elt', Cttll1tllon, nnd 01111:r ncld

For TE wu,·c : E,. = 0 and H1. -t- O
components E., E1, 11, and 11 1 In km1' o f I- ,
For TI\I wuvc: H, = 0 and E1. ~ 0 1111d 11,.

We 1.!Xpre!-s Equations (2.-1.1) and (2.-1.2) in E, and 11, The Maxwell\ cqu:ition, for didc:c1ric t J = 0) .1rc:
rt!spccti vcly as -
vxR = D= jWE E • I ~-.l ll )
For TE ware: '
= - ofµ E H, ...(2.-UJ
, xE = - 0 =- jwµ ii . l ~ -1.101
For Tt\l wave: ".' E, = - uf' µ E E,

The f11r111 of lhc,e two cquatiun, i, :-.amc ,o ,,e

rnnce111ra1c onl y on one cquaticin and after , nh in!! 11.
,I '
-,1, -,I .
the n:~ull i~ applied to olhcr equ ation. Expanding \-;· in
rcct;ingular 1:o-ordina1c ,y,tem Equation (~. I..'\) ,,
,- ii = cl/th dt,h ·,
wri llcn a!\. II , II , 11,

...,1 .. u,
For a wave travelling in 1.-din.:c1io11 the licltl c:111 he
ex pressed as

Trd1-Nco l'ul,liralions.........~ lr/1rrr Authors 1i1•pirr 1i111m:ili1111 _ 4.\'40 11,n1WI li-nturr

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 Miaowave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 2-8

aH, - These equations gi\'e !he relationship among the fields

cy +.Y.H, = j(l)E E, ... (2.4.11)
within the guide. Nole 1ha1 if Ez and Hz are both icro
~
cy +yH, = -jWE E1 ... (2.4.12)
then aJI components within 1he guide vanishes.
Therefore for waveguide irmsmission there must either
a1-( aH1 be Ez or H,. componenl. Now we divide the analysis
cy - ay = jw EE, ... (2.4.13)
into TE and TM parts.

- SimiJ:uiy expanding Equation (2.4.10) nnd equating

coefficients we gel
aE
1 a 2.4.1 Propagation of TE Waves
J
=+ys = -j(J) µ 11, ... (2.4.14) LO. 2.4.2 Derive the field components of TE waves in
ay
rectangular waveguide.
~
ay +yE, = jw µ 111 ... (2.4. 15) - TE wave is char.1c1eriscd by El = 0 and Hz 'I- 0

~ ~ - The wave Equation for TE wave is (Equation (2.4.8))

ay- ay = - jw µ 11, ... (2.-U6)
/ J111
From Equation (2.4.15)
a1 + a211
a/ -t- 11
i
11, = o
In this equation li t is differen1ia1ed with respect to x
and y. Then the olution of this equation i. e. Hz must

Putting ii in Equation (2.4. 11) be a function of x and y.

- The partial differential Equation which can be solved to

aH, +y ~- I ~ + -1.... E ) =J·(l)E E,
cy .(!) µ ax jw µ • get the different licld components by using separat.ion
of ,•ariable method. Let us assume,
i.e. :L ) £!it -1....~
E, (- jwµ + j(l)E = dy + jw µ ax
...(2.4.21)
2 , dH aE
i.e. E, (-w µe -i) = jw µ =+y= Where X is a function of 'x ' only
ay ax
aE aH Y is a function of 'y' only.
2
i.e. E,(-h ) =y=+jwµ=
ax oy Putting lit in Equation (2.4.8)
1
Rearran in above c uat'on a2(X · Y) il (X • Y) 2
::i 2
vX
+ ::i 2
oy + h (X · Y) = 0

.. .(2.4.17) ix iY 2
Y · dx2 + X "cil +h X Y = 0
- Sim larly other lransversn-omponents · obtained as
Dividing by (X Y) and taking constant term h2 on one
... (2.4.18) side
/

' I ix ' I ct2Y

H .. = .. .(2.4.19)
X dx) + y d/ X = - h2 ...(2.4.22)

In the above equation the 1cm1 on LHS is a constant,

... (2.4.20)
thus two terms on the RHS must be constants

Tttb-Neo Publications_ JTl,e,r AuthoN impirr iono••tion

_ 4 S.4C/l lVSIU/I reaturt

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 1

Wovo uldoB
Mlcrownvo En lnoorln MU • Som. 7 • E&TC
eoundory Conditions
, •,(2,4.23) 'a. 2.4. 1(A)

, ,~· . x-uid~ iH hori1..ontal and y-a.xi.1 i~

Note IIllll 111 ·1g . 2•4•1 ·
... (2.-t.24)
vertical. The left and right side wall.~ of tile waveguide
l
- h = - k -k
l l urc vertical at x =0 und x =a re~pcctively, while top
,--- - -•-
I and bottom walls arc horizontal at y =0 and y = h.
l l
\ ' ti1 = k ·tk .. ,(2.4.25) d (E and H ) arc
The horizontal components of the fi cI
'
.
y • •
tangential to top and bouom surfaces while vertical
_ Equntions (2..t.23) nnd (2.4.2,t) nrc differential
cqu:1tions in tenns of X nnd Y respectively. Let the componcnL~ (E, und H,) are tangential to left and rigJ11
sC'llution of these equations be surfaces.

X, = A,sin.(k, • x) +~ · cos (~x · x) ... (2.4.26)

According 10 boundary conditions the tangential
components of electric field at the conducting wall
Y =[0 ~i~ (ky • y) + D • c?s (ky • y). ... (2.4.27) must be zero which results in following conditions.

Relllelllbcr that X is a funclion of only x and Y is a ' (i) ,~ E, =Oat y = O, {bollom wall)
,.. ....
function of only y, hence x and y appear in the
(ii) 81 =0 at X =0,, (left ~all)
• f
e:<prcssions of X and Y explicitly. Then these in
(iii) E, =0 at y = b, (top wall)
Equation (2.4.21) give
(iv) E1 = 0 al x.= a. (right wall)
(
Hz = [A sin (kx · x) + B · cos (kx · x)]
While applying these conditions remember that WC

[C sin (ky • y) + D • cos (ky_• y)) ...(2.4.28) have not yet determined E, and E1 , we have only H,
(Equation (2.4.28)). So we convert boundary ~
- From Hz we can determine other field components by
conditions in terms of H,. Now we will apply each
using Equation (2.4.17) to (2.4.20) us
boundary condition separately.

<Jr Using first boundary condition

The (irst boundary condition is Ex= 0 at y = 0 . From

... (2.4.30)
Equation(2.4.29)

. .. (2.4.31) Ex = 0 requires a11/ay =0 at y = 0 .

Now differentiating expression for Hz w.r.t. y gives

... (2.4.32)
~
ay = [A sin (k, · x) + B cos (k,, x))~
- These componcnL~ along with Hz give all possible
components of fields in waveguide for TE waves. Out [C cos (k1 • y) - D sin (k 1 • y)l

all these field components has to satisfy boundary

conditions. ~1
i'Jy y =O = IA sin (k. · x) + D cos (k,. x)]k 1

[C cos (ky · 0) - D sin (ky , 0))

Tech-Neo Publications........... Jr'1,cre Authors i11.•pirr: i1111on1l1011 '"·"' SAC/1/N SI/All J'cnturc
I

- I
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 2-10
Mlcrowavo Englnoorlng (MU - Som. 7 • E&TC
<tr Uolng fourth boundary condition

ayIy =
i)H O = [A sin (k. • x) + 0 cos (k. · x))k1 Si111il11rly hy applying 1'0111111 ho1111dnry condition we

[(C · l) - (D ·O)I
nm ... (2.4.36)
k :::i -
We require Ihis 10 he zero. II is ;,,ero if C = 0. The vuluc ' a
of C modi lies Ihe expression for 11,. Eq11a1ion (2.•1.2H) Using vulues of'kx nncl ky, the final expression l'or JI7.
as
hccomcs
H,. = [A sin (kx • x) + ll • cos (kx · x) I
11, = 11\Tt
n . o cos ( --;- .x
)
cos
( lilt
T, • y ) ... (2.4.37)
I D • cos (ky • y)) ... (2.·l.33)

f-or the wnve propogaIing in ;,,-direction Hz can be

(iJ" Using second boundary condition
written as
The second boundury condilion is Ey = 0 at x = 0. nm ) ( mt ) - J 1,ii,.
II, = 11,,, cos ( --;- · X I,· y C ... (2.4.38)
From EquaIion (2.4.30)

Ey = 0 requires iJH, I iJx =0 al x =0. I lcre fl~is Ihe phase con~lant in a hounded medium like
inside a waveguide. The difference bet ween r1 and [II
oH = k, IA ws (k, · x) - B sin (k, • x)J ID ms (k>• y)I
ih wi ll be dear when we will ~tudy prnpcr1ics of TE and
TM .
a:I
i)H x = O = k, (A cos (k,0) - 0 sin (k, · 0)IID cos (k>. y) I Using Equation (2.4.38) we can determine other field
componen ts. From Equation (2.4.29)
= k, l(A · I )-(B · 0)) [D cos (kl • y) )
E __ jw J.l clHz
l - h2 ily
This is zero if A = 0. Then Ihe expression for H,. in

Equation (2.4J3) modifies to i.e. Ex= _j~r gy[H icos(7•x) cos(~·Y) e· l 11oz]
0

= l B • co~ (k~ • x) 11 D · cos (ky · y) I

H,.

= 13 D cos (k, • x)• cos (ky • y) ... (2.4.34)

=+ j~r (~) Hoz cos (7 ·x) sin(~. y) 8-1 11oz
@" Using third boundary condition I.e.

Ex = Orequires iJH/uy =0 at y =h. 13y using Equation (2.4 .30)

a11,
i)y = - 13 Dk>cos (k, • x) sin (kl . y) E> = E••> sin (nm.
a x ) cos.(~
b · y ) e Jl
1
g,. ... (2.4.40)

DH,, = - B D k, cos (k, · x) sin (k~ · h) We know thc relation between transverse field
Dy y = b
cor11po11ents as

Thi~ is zero if sine function is zero. i.e. z-, .= .s._ .s

H - - H
) \

H
' = _S
z,. -_- Su. .. ( nm
z, sin a .x
)
cos
( n1t
b. y) e-i p' z
or .. .(2.-U5)

Tcch-Nco rulilirations...-...·- lfl,crr: .-luthor.,· ,i,spirc innm:~tion .....A SACIIINSI/All Vtntutt

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- Microwave En ineering (MU _ Sem. 7 _ E&TC)

· H• -- Ho1 sin ( ~
,.e. a · x) cos (mt
b . y )e - Hlz
g ••••(2.4.4 1)
_
2 11

Putting Hz in Equation (2.4.43)

Waveguides

where H0 , = - Eo/ Z, a2(Xox•1Y) + a2(Xo/· Y) + h2(X . Y) = O

Similarly From Ex we determine Hy as

H1 = Sz, = ~z, cos ( ~a . x) stn· (!!2!b · y ) e- Hli

g

Dividing by (X Y)
i.e. H1 = H0 ycos ( :7t ·x) sin ( :7t. y) e-i 11s'... (2.4.4 2) I ct2x I ct2Y
X dx2 + y ct/ X = - h2 ... (i)
All these field componenis r
ior TE wave are
summarized as follows : Since LHS is a constant, two terms on the RHS must be
constants
rJr Set of Field components for TE
I ix 2
Let = -k
E, = E0 ,cos( ":11:•x)sin(:1t•y) c-lllg'
x· ct? •
. ' .(ii)

I iY 2

E>. = Eo>•sin ( n:n. x) cos ( nhn . y) c- llls'

y · d/ = -ky ... (ii i)

2 2
-h-' = - k -k
E, = 0 y •
!
h2 = k +k ! ... (2.4.44)
l y
H, = Ho,sin (n:n•x)cos( nbn·y) e-JII~,
Let the solution of Equations (ii) and (iii) be
HY = Hoycos ( l:7t. x) cos ( nl~. y) c- JP~, X = A sin (kx · x) + B • cos (kx • x)

1 ~ 2.4.2 Propagation of TM Waves

Y = A sin (ky • y) + D • cos (ky • y).

Then E,. in Equation (2.4.43(a)) becomes

LO. 2.4.3 Derive expressions for TM waves in E1 = [A sin (kx • x) + B • co, (kx • x))
rectangular waveguide.
(C sin (ky • y) + D • cos (ky • y) ) ...(2.4.44(a))
For TM wave Hl = 0 and EL i. 0
From El we can determine other field components by
The wave Equation for TE wave is using Equations (2.4.29) to (2.4.32) as
a2E a2E
al+ a/ .,. h E, = o
2
... (2.-l.43) E, = _1r£S
h- clx ... (2.4.45)

This is a panial differential Equation which can be E>' = _lr£S

h" oy ...(2.4.46)
solved to get the different field components by using
separation of variable method. Let us assume. H, = jCJ)f £S .. .(2.4.47)
h oy
Ei. = X·Y .. :(2.4.43(a))
H) =-
j WE £S ...('.!.4.48)
Where X is a function of ·x · only
h- ax
Y is a function of y only. All these lieltl components has to satisfy boundary
conditions.

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 Microwave Engineering (MU - Sam. 7 - E&TC) 2-12

, ~ 2.4.2(A) Boundary Conditions

r:Jr' Using fourth boundary condition

Similarly by applying fo urth boundary condi tion We

Here the longitudinal component E, is tangential to all gel
four walls of the waveguide resulting in fo ur boundary
... (2.4.56)
condi1ions :
i) E2 =0 at x = 0 (left waJI) ...(2.4.49)
Now the final equation for E,. becomes
ii) E, = 0 al y = 0 (bottom wall) ...(2.4.50)

iii) Ez = 0 at x = a (right wall) ...(2.4.51) E, = A · C sin ( : 7t · x) cos ( nb7t · y)

iv) E, =0 at y = b (top wall) ... (2.4.52)
For the wave propagating in z-dircction Hz can be
r:ff> Using first boundary condition written a,;

E, = 0 at x = 0
E,. = Eo,. Stn
. (m7ta · x ) cos.(ll7tb · y ) c - illg1. .. . (2.4.57)
By using this expression we can determine other field
[C sin (ky · y) + D cos (ky · y)] components as

This is zero if B = 0. Then new expression for Ez is,

E, =[A sin (k1 • x)J [C sin (ky • y) + D • cos (ky · y)J

... (2.4.53)

cJfr' Usfng second boundary condition

E, = Oat y = 0 y
E. = -~cos
(
a
mn · X
) sin ( 1,·
nrt )
y e
- ill ,
g ... (2.4.58)
E, / y = 0 = [ A sin (k1 • x) + B cos (k, · x) J
Similarly we can find other field components as
[ sin (ky • 0) + D cos (ky • 0) ]
Ey= Eoy SIil a.
. ( m1t
X
) nn . y ) e- i llg,
cos ( b ... (2.4.59}
This is zero if D = 0. Then new expression for Ez is,
We know the relation between transverse field
Ez = [ A sin (k, • x) J[ C sin (ky • y) J
component,; as
"E, = A C sin (k1 • x) sin (ky • y) ... (2.4.54)
. .. (2.4.60)
c:ir' Using third boundary condition

0 at x = a

A C sin (k1 • a) sin (ky • y)

This is zero if

m 7t
mn
or kX =
a
.. . (2.4.55)

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 Wavoguidos
nng (MU • &.-m. 7 • E&TC) 2-13

TE,o mode : (m =1, n =0).

Significance of m and n
The field component, rcduC('i to

ol m 1,nci n in
E, - 0

We fC-1 Jiffc-:rnl -.c-1 t'f c-.1u::1t1,i1, fl"! Jdfrrrnl ,.,Jun nt

ru .nJ n lllC ...r-1 1 ( c-,1u~1i.,:h rJ , ,ii/, .I ,11 ,-;,-..Ir II "
I;, a 0

"11:tcn -' 11•,.,~ \ r I \ I""' \\'c h.\\ r (1 t 11 lll,'l'.lr.

II, 11 ,•m(;•,)c,c,,
l • Ill ( !!.e
l• \ h 11, fl

I•

llrrc .ill I • 1 j l ; , ..<~l\ ..JC , .u) ms< nly w r.t. \ wi1h

111"'":t!I 1 1t).'" Antnhg15. I.

In It:- 1 ~ I, t~..-:c n r"')C l..i.lf c:,d~ , :in.1t1on o ( field in

the i.lun:u . t t l .1. ti It t\ the d(ccl of m = I. Tiicn: i~
f\l) \ Ul O f (1dJ In the Juo.11 0 o f r·:t.\lS, II j\ lhe
cllc..t t (n c 11

ll) pl,..ittlll_~ fickh fl'f different , .Jun o( m :ind n v. c

l '-Cf\C tiut

111 = numlx r o( Jal ( c-) cle , url.a tlon or rield in th e

TToomode J ln-c1lo11 t•f '.l. -:1,.h.
llcrc m = 0 ~ n == 0 f'Llltwt• llic-.c \.11Uc 5 m the ;J l\c 11 .. numbrr or h:.tlf C} cle , riutlon or field in the
cifWt" • •· rc--:.rlt in :ill field ll mJ'<.1:\cnb tu tx- 1.crt1
dire rlon or , --u., L-..
\ ...!.X-\ ru 11 0 :1.od a =- 0 ::.re not po--ulble • in,c ti \\ ill n

'loo

·•·
-....
•• •
.....
•• •
·(
,, ·
. .
··- ·.~..: .....·.. _ ... -
.,•·
..-····

.. .
·.• . .. . .. ,.> -

. .. =·•·.•.., .• : . ,• :. :
,, . ~
.:·~.:'I!~~-<-~
(cl

p!l&)Fif, ?..E. I : Fidd lfaes for TE,. mod<! in rttutnf!lllnr 't"ft l e,!llide

_,1 SAOJL\'SIJ,,UJ lb turt

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l!b] Mhlll)V/lil/1~ f.11yl111111tlnu (f,11J H•,rfl, ·t • l'Jl/f'G)
'/ y

r('.' TffJ;t'
I ,A-..J-).
I • -
'··-:·.. . .fri,✓
,-.
~
•
'
'
,
11

•
'I
I l l
11
J/1/t ~ltl);/)II

1-t,r tllt; ·11;,•11;iui1k th~ rli H.f.:fi',J'/fP, ',l ,::,tj ·u ~~

r 2.6 Choroctorletlcn ()f TE and TM j fj1,,;tl
V 'lt;II

,1l·1J m1;11illttl '.l,(,~1:Jt, -, ((: ;;;uJ JJ,J 11! '; fil.etf. r (;.

1lr•; ;,1·11;11 1w 1J,; th•; ·1;,lty;·, 1l m ,ir,.,J n ~::,; v;,;,._

IJO, Vl, 1 IJ111iv,, ,iq1u11 lo11 lor pl1uu , V!Jlr,<,11y, wtriff CIJ/1',l,HII',, 'I bu,, Ir; d11lt1i,ir,,g 1k fr!:,qu.!.·u.y ftJ. trJ;
1r1,q1 11,n1:y, 1:111,,11 w1111,,1,,ri(JIII tJnd i1,,1if prup:1iJ1ti1m v 1fl'.r; ,r,t d1:.it1!'.!:'-, f- 1 ,r il p-or1i!:.,JI~ r.:r,g,t rl
1Jqu11tlo1111 for rr,1;11Jt1!JUlrH wtJ'l'J/JultJ,,. frn111J!:t1<:1•.:·. i•, re11l, ·11hik f,,r ,,1h1; r r;;;ng::. i:, irru:giriZ:j•,
IWll•M·l(1iu1Mmni 'l'hcrc :ire three c,s1~1 ;
'I hew Ir. 11 fllll'crc11cc wl11;11 i.:lcc1111111ag111:1ic wave1, C:1111: (IJ : At l<,w~r fr1:qucncl':',
... ... .. --,
l Z
1111vc:I 111etli11111 anti i11 hounded
r1l I"-'= ~ ( '': ) °: )
111 11 11 1111h11t1~

1111:dl11111. +(

Whc11 the w11vc1, 111 c 11 avclli11g i1111 hr11111d1:d 111crli11 r11 i11
- - .. . --
the w11vr:g11ld ·, the propc11 lc·1 ol wave d1a111~c•1.
. . COtl ~lanl (J..

Sl111ll11r to p11rnllcl pl1111c waveguide, n:.c1:1111!ular

., = (J, , .. (2.6.2)
w11vcp,11idc al110 bclr:ivcll like l1iuh pa:ui fi lter. 'l'lie11
ohvln111,ly we urc l111crci,tcd i11 li11di11g il1, c1111,ff i.e. the wave i•, completely att.cnuat.cd and there ic; no
frcq11c11cy (I~) for 1hi1, fi lter. /\long with ii we •,hall find plr:i\C change .ilong the waveguide. Hence the low
No111c olhcr ch11mc;t1;ri1,1ic'> like t:111off wavcfc111~1h 0 "<!), frcque11cy wave c:.inrwt prCJJY<1gatc in the waveguide.
ph11sc rn11~111111(11,i), pl11111c vcloeily (v11), group velo<:i1y Cu,;c (ii) : At hl~IH: r frcquencits
(v1i) 111111 11,11\dc w11vclc1111,1h (AJ!), 2 2
2 ' ( inn ) ( nn )
'" µE/,6 ~ + b
'?s 2.6.1 Expression for Cutoff Frequency
(f0 )

For wuvcs lr~ ldc w11vcg11idc we have _ _ ___

- · . , 1
l
2
I!ere attenuation J{..Jilcrn and thus the hig,h frequency
wave travels without attenuation.

~
2c ( -lll7C) Case (iii) : Al some intermediate frequency
! ( ?
h .:, Y + (H W" 1=-· k + k
J • ·]
.- +(T
n7t
," ,~ -----.:._____! ., ) ---
Lei ut !Jl = !JJc the expression under the radicaJ in
Equation(2.6. I ) is zero making the propagation
wm,tant y cquul ·10 zero. i.e.

1.t:, Y C ( -lll1t
-,
117( ) - 11>l jlG = 1/. ·I{'J~/"(2.(,.
)' + ( 'j"; . ,i') 1)
1 ... (2.6.3)

'f'l'C'li-l'lro f111l11ir111lo11~........... lf'lw11· ,l111l111r.~ i11,v11'n· i111um,1i,111 .....A SAC/1/NJ1/AII Yenturr

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 Microwavo Enginoorin

') hc ph.1-.c ll lll ' 1.1111 11, trltlll l(r. ,,.,. rh I r "rnt,,rit HI

the\\.,, cl!1111k

ll'1ll); E<JU,tt mn (1.6. I J v. c c,,n :- 1111:

fI =
11, ~ fi = ✓c,,: w= r1, ,,,

(~ } +(T}
er
=OJ~~

or (~"} +(":} ... (2.6.-1)

L!'.- = w,fµe ,FITT .. (? ( /1I

---
From the three c,i\C:~ we conclude th,ll ,ign:.il "ith
w w
frcqucncic~ Ii.:~~ than CUU)ff frequency :ire a11cnuJtcd.
"r = ~-~~
while frcqucncie-. greater than cutoff frequency travel
without anc nuation. He'ncc waveguide hcha\'cs like
I v
high pas~ Ii Iler.

a, 2.6.2 Expression for Cutoff

= ~-Fill 7-Fill
Wavelength ( Ae ) where v = I /WE
and for fret: .space with µ =~~1 and E =E r
The wavelength corresponding 10 cu1-off frequency is
v = I / ✓J4JE 0 ~X )O'(m/,) )
the cut-off wavelength. I
' We have v·=T~nd =f ;,, V

1. - )'()
f - ).
_,,/

... (2.6. l
i.e. ... (2.6.5)

~ 2.6.3 Expression for Phase Velocity Equation (2.6.8) indicate,; th.it with f > f, (the conJ1t1l,n
(vp) for propagation) the pha-.c \'C)ocity I vr) in a wa, egu1Jc
i · greater than velocity in an unboumkd medium(vl
The phase velocity is defined us :

(i) ' ~ 2.6.4 Expression for Group Velocity

VP =® I
(vg)

Let us first tlctcm1ine the ex pression for p. We ha,c for

Group \'cloci ty i,; defincd .1,

\'

i.e.

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 - -------------w
---.~"') --.:_~~--
i . MU - Sem. 7 . E&TC)
J iSl ••-'"'.....,(MU.,.__>.'
/
( Zz)
=
Expre slon for wave lmpedanct

For TMwave
Z. for TM Mode

We have Hz =OandEz-.<
Putting in Equation (2.6.9)
0f field components fro
g_w✓1-(f)2 =y '\/C(fJ
Putting values
- . (2•4 ·9) and (2.4. 12)
- dtJ ..r,;.e I. -ru;
Equauons
v,
V ~ .:.~£!!,_
:j? ox h oy =- & e ~
i.e. ... (2.6. JO) s.
Z, H, :1,£!h_~~
- h oy h ox
(Z,)TE = T ) ~
Equation (2.6.9) indicates that w,.th f > f' (the condition
.
for propagation) the group ve1oc1.ty (v•) in a waveguide
• .less than veIoc,·1y ,·n an unbounded medium (v).
,s
IB. 2.6.6(A) :z.. for TE Mode Equation (2.6.14) indicates that the,
propagating TM modes (with f > :
By taking product of phase and group velocity TE wave is characterised by Ez = 0 and Hz " 0 with a lossless dielectric is pure!
always less than the intrinsic '
. VP X V1 = v2 ... (2.6. 11) ~ ~-.!!11!
y = jtl - ti dielectric medium (TJ).
For free space For f < f, the wave impedance is
... (2.6. 12) that there is no power flow associa~
and thus no propagation is possib
B. 2.6.5 Expression for Group impedance is shown -in Fig. 2.6 .1.
Wavelength (Ag) zz(Q)

We have
ir•M~~r~i
. . '
' h 'I
-~ ·. -:
27! ~ = Intrinsic impedance of

_J
Knowing TJ =
:\. = ti
medium
21!
or :1., = ti, ... (2.6.14)
.no wave --~--------------
Using ti, from Equation (2.6.6) Tl propagation . l
~:
21t V ~, - ~ -"'·l
Equation (2.6.14) indicates that the wave impedance > 3- :
:1., = • ~2 f ~2 propagating TE modes (with f > f,) in a wavegui
•~
. , -·.. ~-· _:,~: ;;.':
if..,<• I

with a lossless dielectric is purely resistive and is

always larger than the intrinsic impedance of (lB8)Fig. 2.6.1 : Variation of wa·

dielectric medium (T)).

For f < f, the wave impedance is reactive, indicating

ta 2.7 Dominant Mode l
i.e. .. . (2.6.13) that there is no power flow associated with these waves
and thus no propagation is possible. The plot of this LQ. 2 _7 _1 Write short note on d
rectangular waveguide.
impedance is shown in Fig. 2 .6.1.

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 Microwave Engineering (MU. Sem. 7 _ E&TC)
2-17 Waveguides

~ 2.6.6(8) Zz for TM Mode J Dominant mode is the mode for which Ac is maximum
or fc is minimum.
_ For TM wave Hz = o and Ez ~ 0 2ab
We have A,(mn) = ✓ 2 2 2 2 ... (2.7.1)
m b +n a

The longitudinal components for TE and TM modes

are:

...(2.7.2)
=WE~
Thi·.E,-E
- . (~
a ·X ) cos (~
b •y ) e-JP,• ... (2.7.3)
0 1 sm
(Zz)TE = 1 1 ~ .. .(2.6.15)
- These longitudinal components determine the
- Equation (2.6.14) indicates that the wavc 1mpe
. d ance of
transverse components.
propagating TM modes (with f > fJ in a waveguide
with a lossless dielectric is purely resistive and is For a particular mode if longitudinal component does

always less than the intrinsic impedance of the not exist then the transverse components vanishes
dielectric medium (11). making that mode disappear from the waveguide.

For f < fc the wave impedance is reactive, indicating Thus a particular mode to exist the longitudinal
component must vary w.r.L x or y or both. It puts
that there is no power flow associated with these waves
conditions on values of m and n.
and thus no propagation is possible. The plot of this
impedance is shown in Fig. 2.6.1. For TE modes, either morn (but not both) can be zero.
zz(O) - For TM modes, neither m nor n can be zero.

15. 2.7.1 For TE Mode

Equation (2.7.1) indicates that for Ac to be maximum

I
I
the values of m and n should be minimum. For TE
Region of : modes, either m or n (but not both) can be zero. So for
no wave :
TJ -propagation -;--- -- --- --- ------ ------- -------· TE, the lowest order modes are TE10 or TEo 1.
I

For TE10 mode : ( m = 1 and n = O)

Ac = (TE 1o) = 2 a
0
For TEot mode: ( m = 0 and n = I)
(188)Fig. 2.6.1 : Variation of wave impedance

I~ 2.7 Dominant Mode In a Waveguide I_ As for the waveguide a > b,

LQ. 2.7.1 Write short note on dominant mode in a

rectangular waveguide.

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I Microwave Engineering (MU • Sem. 7 - E&TC) 2-18

For other modes like TE11 mode (m =1 and n =1) A given waveguide has a definite cut-off frequency far
each allowed mode. If the frequency of the imprcs~
2.ab
Ac(TE11) = - ~ <2a signal is above the cur-off frequency for a given mO(j
"JU + b c,
the electromagnetic energy can be transmitted through
Now as m and n goes on increasing Ac goes on
the guide for that particular mode without artcnuati.on.
decreasing. Here we find that if a> b then Ac (TE 10) has
the maximum value of 2a. Hence TE10 is the Otherwise the electromagnetic energy with a frequency
below the cutoff frequency for that particular mode Will
dominant mode for TE waves.
be allenuated to a negligible value in a relatively shon

15- 2.7.2 For TM Mode I distance.

The modes present in the waveguide are classified as :

For TM modes, . neither m nor n can be zero. The
(i) Dominant mode
minimum values of m and n are 1J1lity. Thus TM00,
TMo1 .TM 10 modes does not exist
.
(ii) Degenerate mode

Dominant mode : It is the mode having the lowest

cutoff fr~quency.
For TE : TE 10 mode
For higher values of m and n
For TM : TM 11 mode
2ab
).c (TM12) = ✓b2 + a2 < Ac <™11)
4 But for a given waveguide, TE10 is the dominant mode.

\ (TM21) = ✓
-
2ab
2
4b +a
2 <Ac <™11>
I 1.Q. 2.7.2 What is degenerate mode? J
Degenerate mode : Whenever two or more modes
As m and n goes on increasing ).c goes on decreasing. I
have the same cut-off frequency, they are said to be
Here we find that ).c (TM 11 ) has the maximum value.
degenerate modes. In a square waveguide, the
Hence TM11 is the dominant mode for TM waves.
corresponding TEmn and TMmn modes are always

Ia. 2.7.3 For a Given Waveguide j· degenerate.

When we compare for TE and TM

a.2.8 Examples of Rectangular
Waveguide

Hence TE10 is the dominant mode for a given

Ex. 2.8.1
waveguide.
An air-filled rectangular w~veguided of inside dimensions
7 x 3.5 cm operates in the dominant TE mode.
a. 2.7.4 Dominant Mode and Degenerate
Mode (i) Find the cut off frequency
I
,I (ii) Determine the phase velocity of the wave in the guide
It is possible to propagate several modes of at frequency of 3.5 GHz.
electromagnetic waves within a waveguide. These (iii) Detennine the guided wavelength at the same
modes correspond to solutions of Maxwell's equations frequency.
for particular waveguides.

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 Microwave En lneerlng (MU - Sam. 7. E&TC) 2-19 Waveguldoo

(i1 Soln.:
We have,
Given : a =7cm, b = 1..5 cm, f =3.5 GHz
(I} Cut-off frequency
For dominant TE 10 mode
:. {i1fJ = ~ =0.661
3 X 1010
C (i) Guide wavelength CA,)
fc = 2a = 2 x 7 = 2.143 GHz
6
0.661 = 9.1 cm
(ii) Phase velocity
f.C \Ao 2.143
f· = )..,e =3.5=0.612
(ii) Phase velocity (v.,)

and~ = 0.791 Vp =

tt
VP =
8
= 4.54 X 10 (m/s)

8 (iii) Phase constant {JJ1)

3 X 10 8
= 0 _791 =3.793xl0 (mis)

(iii) Guided wavelength

A.g =
= !Q-
\JCITT(1)2
I - \ f)
=21t 3 5 108109
X X X 0.661

tt
C. X

= 104.72 (rad/s)
8.571
= 0.791 =10.84 (cm) Ex. 2.8.3
A rectangular waveguide is filled by dielectric material of
Ex. 2.8.2 E1 = 9 and has inside dimensions of 7 x 3.5 cm. It operates
A rectangular waveguide has dim_ensions 4 x 2 ems. in the dominant TE 10 mode.
Determine the guide wavelength, phase velocity and phase (i) Determine the cut off fre{)uency.
constant~ at a wavelength of 6 ems for the dominant mode.
(ii) Find the phase velocity in the guide at a frequency of
@ Soln.: 2GHz.
Given: a=4cm, b=2cm, (iii) Find the guided wavelength at the same frequency.

Operating frequency 0 Solo.:

10 Given: a= 7 cm, b = 3.5 cm, E, = 9, f = 2 GHz
C 3 X 10
f = "f = 6 - 5 GHz
0 C .3 X 1010
Ao = ,7-= x
2 109
= 15 (cm)
For the dominant mode (TE10)
JO
For TE 10 mode
_£_ 3 x IO - 3 75 GHz
fc = 2a - 2x4 - ·
(i) Cut-ofT frequency
A.C = 2a =2 x 4 =8 cm

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 LffJ IWlr\,IUnCI.Ytf Cll~lln:::n::11111~ \IYIV -Y••·· • - -· . • ..........
/
(·.· Waveguide is filled with e, c is replaced by v) Ex. 2.8.5
An air filled rectangular wavegui~e wi~ dirncnsi0i
(cl\JE,)
2 cm x I cm internally has a 10 GHz signal propagated bii
= 2a Calculate the cut-off frequency, the cut-off wavelength, U
10 guide wavelength, the group and phase velocities cl!ld U
= 3 x lO = 0.714 (GHz)
"'9x2x7 characteristic wave impedance for (a) the TE 10 mOde at
(b) TM 11 mode.

ltf Soln.:
Given : a = 2 cm, b = I cm, f = 10 GHz
= ✓1-(0-~14y =0.934 For the given operating frequency, th~ COtTeSJ>ondit
wa~elength is
(ii) Phase velocity 10
C 3 X 10
Vp =
Ao = f = 10 x 109 = 3 cm

(a) Calculations for TE10 mode

8
: J X JO = 1.07 X 108 (m/s) The cut-off frequency is given by
"'9 X 0.934

(ill) Guided wavelength

...(1

'-o 15 For TE10 mode

A, = ~ = 0_934 = 16.1 (cm)
10
C 3 X 10
fc (TE 1o) = 2a. = 2x 2 =7:5 GHz
Ex. 2.8.4 The cut-off wavelength is given by
Show that- for a TE 10 mode a frequency of 2ab
6 GHz will pass through the guide if a dielectric with ...(2
relative pennittivity of 4 is inserted into the waveguide. The
dimensions are a =1.5 cm and b = I cm. or use the relation (A, = c / f,)

@ Soln.: ForTE 10 mode

=
Given : f 6 GHz, a =1.5 cm, b =I cm, E, =4
/

The TE 10 made will pass through waveguide if f > fc The guide wavelength is

The cut off frequency for dominant mode is ...(3

~
"g =

10 3
C 3 X 10
A,= ~ = 4.54,m
= --le, X 2 X J.5 = V4 X 2 X 1.5

= 5GHz

Since f > fc the TE 10 mode will pass.

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 Microwave Engineering (MU _Sem. 7 _E&TC) 2-21 Waveguides

The phase velocity is given by Using Equation (3)

3
... (4)

3x 108 8 The reason for this error is TM 11 mode will not

~ -=4.53x 10 m!s
propagate in the waveguide since f < fc (TM11 ). So no need
to make rest of the calculations.
The group velocity is obtained by
Ex. 2.8.6
... (5) A rectangular waveguide with size 2.5 x l cm is to operate
below 15.1 GHz. How many TE and TM modes can the
or simply by usfog the relation
waveguide transmit if the guide is filled with a medium
• characterized by o = 0, e = 4 e 0, µ,. = l. Calculate the cut-
off frequencies of the modes.
0 Soln.:

8 When the waveguide is filled with the dielectric then

= l.98 X 10 (m/s)
the cut--0ff frequency is given by
The wave impedance for TE mode is given by
n,
Z,(TE) = ~ .. . (6)
I I C C
where
V = WE= ✓J.li)J!,.EoEr = ✓µre,= 2
For free s p a ~ 8 10
= l.5 x 10 mis= 1.5 x 10 emfs
1201t
:. Z, CTE10> = ~ =570 (Q) The formula for fccan be rearranged for our convenience as

(b) Calculations for TM11 mode

fc = ;a ✓m2 +(~Y 0
2

10
Equations (l) to (5) in part (a) are same for TE as well =
1.5 X 10
2 x 2.5
✓ m2 + (2.'f:i2
-1-) n
2

' ('
as TM, only wave impedance formu la given by
,
= 3 ✓m + (6.25) n GHz
\" 2 2
Equation (6) changes for TM.
~
I"
Using Equation (I) To find which TE and TM modes are transmitted, we
have to find all possible values of m and n for which
operating frequency (f = 15.1 GHz) is greater than fc.

A systematic way of doing this is to fix m or n and

= 16.77GHz increase the other until fc is greater than 15. l GHz.

Using Equation (2) Let m = 0 and increase the value of n till fc > 15.1 GHz

, 2x2xl fc CTEo1) = 3 X 2.5 = 7.5 GHz

11.c (TM11) = ✓(1)2 + (2)2 l.79 cm

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 fc <Tf-o:J = 3 X 7.5-= 22.5 GHz

Thus for 15.1 GHz> fc• the maximum value of n = 2.

We now fix. n = O and increase the value of m till

fc > 15.1 GHz.

fc {TEjo) = 3-x 1 =3GHz

fc(I"Eio) = 3X2=6GHz
(189)rtg. Ex. 2.8.6 ·

fc ~o) = 3 x3 =9GHz
Ex. 2.8.7
fc (TE.J = 3x4= 12GHz An air-filled 5 x 2 cm waveguide has
E = 20 sin (401tx) sin (50 ,cy) e-illz V /mat 15 GHz.
z
fc (TEso) = 3 x5 = t5 GHz
(a) What is the mode of propagation ?
f0 ~ ) = 3 x6= l&GHz.. (b) Find f3.
(c) Determine Ey / E,.
Thus for 15. I GHz> f., the maximum value of m = 5.
Now we know the maximum value of m and n, we try other
[ti Soln.:
(a) The tean e- illz in the given expression indicates that
possible combinations in between these maximum values.
wave is trave!Iing in + z direction. The given el ·
fc (TEil) = 3 ✓7.25 = &.07& GHz= f0 (TM 11) field is in the direction of propagation i.e. long' . ·
component of electric field is present in this m
fc (TE21) = 3 ✓ 10.25- = 9.6- GHz= fc (TM21 )
Thus the mode must be TMmn mode. To determine
f. (TE11> = 3 ✓ 15.25 = 11.72 GHz= f, (TM31 ) values of m and n, compare the given expression
the standard E. for TM mode whlch is
r. (TE••, = 3 ✓22.25 =14.14 GHz= fc (TM41 )
. (m1t ) . (n1t ) -iPz
fc (TEs1) = 3 ✓31.25 = 16.77 GHz= f. (TM51 ) E. = Eozsm\a•X sm\b•y e

r. (TE.:J = 3 ~ = 15.3GHz Comparison gives :

m n
There is no point in. increasing values of m because for a- = 40; b =50

higher values of m. f3 the cut-off frequency will be greater

m = 40xa:. n = 50xb
than 15. l, which is not allowed.

Thus there are eleven TE modes and four TM modes

= 2 =l
which satisfy the condition
Thus the-mode-of propagation is TM21.

(b} Wehave
Only these modes are passed. The cut-off frequencies
for the fifteen modes are shown in Fig. Ex. 2.8.6.

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 Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 2-23 Waveguides .

The calculation of Pre{luires the cut-off frequency fc,· 0 Soln.:

which is obtained by (a) The tenn (- Pz) in the given expression indicates that
the wave is travelling in + z direction. For which the
standard expression for Hx is
Jx 1010
= :z (%) + (½) = 9.6 GHz Hx = H0 , sin (~7t ·x) cos (n: · y) sin (Wt- Pz)
The. phase constant pis Comparing with the given expression we get

p = 21tX 15x 109 ✓l¼Eo·~ m =land n=3

11
Also ro = 1rx 10
27tX 15X 10
9
_ ~ II
= 3 x 108 \j 1 - \15) = 241.40rad/m
: .. f = 1t x LO =50 GHz
2rt
(c) We have-to obtain E, and EYfrom the given E,.
The given magnetic field H. is present in both TE as
E = :q_CJE,_~~ well as TM. Hence the mode can be :
X h ax
h ay

and E = :q_oE,.,.~CJH1
Y h CJy h ax Consider the TE 13 mode and solve the remaining

For TM mode, we have H, = 0, then the above problem_ Similarly TM 13 solution can be obtained whose

expressions reduce· to- only answer is given in the end.

(b) The cut-?ff frequency is given by,
- v a E, - v aE
E,. = "i! ax and. Ey ="i! ~

or
s =
aEJay
E, aEz / ax. 1 l
Where V = "\JµE =✓!¼ (4 E
= Wx (5O1t) x sin (401tx} cos (50 ny) . e-iflz 0)

20 x (40 n) x cos (40 nx) • sin (50 7ty) • e-i~z C 8

= 2 =l.5x 10 m/s
= 1.25 tan (40 nx) cot (50 7ty)
10
= 1.5 x 10 emfs
Ex-. 2.13'.8
10
l.5 x 10
In a rectangular waveguide for which a
cm, CJ = 0, µ = I¼, and E = 4 E 0,
= 1.5 cm, b = 0.8- Hence fc = 2 {/J +(o~s)
H, = 2 sin (:x) cos (3 l;') sin 11
(7t x 10 t- Pz) Alm
= 2S-.5TGHz

(c) The phase constant is

Determine :
(a) The mode of propagation
(b) The cut-offfrequency
(c) The-phase-constant~
(d) The propagation constant y
(e) The wave impedance TJ = 1718.81 rad/m

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 7 KI. - - -···· . -·. -,
(d) 111e propogalion constant y for f > f, 111

(e) We have, wuve lmpcdnncc

c JP =J 171 R.KI / 111
500 II

•
n120
120 7t

( 500
tt) 1

a I - 0,56R D 0.432

or f a 7.61 0 11:r.
Where intrinsic impedance l1 for given medium Is
calculated ac;
Ex. 2.8.10
The 'JT! 111 mode i11 propug11tc<l in u recl1111gul11r wuveguide or
11 = ~ Ii = ~\J(&
-\Je 4i:~
=1202 7t =60 7t (Q)
di111e11Hio1H1 11 c 6 cm and h = 4 cm. Uy 111ear1s of II HIOlltcJ
line rhc dis11mcc hclwccn II rn11xi111urn urul minimum I~
Hence
founcl to be 4.55 cm. Find the fre<1ucncy of the wave.
ltJ Sain.:

'Ilic cut-off w11velength for T8 10 ,node is

Similarly for TM 11 mode : Ac = 211=2 x 6= 12cm

fe = 28.57 GHz, p = 1718.81 rad/ 111, y = j 1718.81 per The dislllncc hctwccn maxima und minima iH equal to one-
meter fourth of guide wavelength, that is
Only Z, (TM) value will change, given by ~ = 4.55
4
Z, (TM) = Tl · ~ 11., = 18.2 cm

601t✓1-(2~-g~
2

= = 154.7 (Q) The expression for guide wavelength is

Ex. 2.8.9
A waveguide has an internal width a of 3 cm, and carries the
dominant mode of a signal of unknown frequency. rr the
11.o
wave impedance is 500 Q, find the unknown frequency. i.e. 18.2 =
0 Sain. : ~
For the dominant mode TE 10 we have I
i.e. 18.2 =

✓(-kS-C2Y
10
C 3 X J0
fe = 2a = 2 X 3 = 5 GHz

The wave impedance is given by Solving we get 11.o = 10 cm

z,. (TE10> = tt The frequency can be obtained from wavelength a<,

C 3 X J0
10
f = Ao = LO = 3 GHz

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 Microwave Engineering (MU - Sam. 7. E&TC) 2-25 Waveguides

£X. 2,8.11 0 Soln.:

W})en the dominant mode is propagated in an air filled For the air-filled rectangular waveguide the cut-off
rectJDgular waveguide, the guide wavelength for a
frequency is
trequency of 9000 MHz is 4 cm. Calculate breadth of the
gtn"de?•
li'.1 Soln.:
For TE 10 mode
f = 9000 MHz;
9
C 30X 10
Medium is free space fc CTE10) = 2a = 2a

Toe wavelength at f = 9000 MHz is Since f = 10 GHz must be greater by 25% above the
10
C 3X 10 cut-off frequency of the TE 10 mode, then
¾ =f 9000x id; =3.33 cm
~ 1.25 fc CTE1ol
9
!Ox 10
Toe guide wavelength is given by ,
i.e. IO X 109 ~ 1.25 (30 ;alOj
i.e. a ~ 1.875 cm

The next higher mode is the TE01 mode, whose cut-off

i.e.
frequency is
9
C 30X 10
= 2b - 2b
Solving we get
Since f = 10 GHz must be 25% below the cut-off frequency
"c = 6.010
of the 'fE.o1 mode, then
For the dominant mode TE10 (assuming a> b) 9
IO X 10 $ 0.75 fc (TE.o 1)

i.e. 10 x10
9
$ 0.75 (3° ;b10j
a = 3.005 cm
i.e. b $ 1.125 cm
For the standard rectangular waveguide
Ex. 2.8.13
a = 2b
Design a rectangular waveguide with dimensions a and b
b = 1.5025 cm (a > b) that will operate in a single mode between 9 and
14 GHz. Assume free space inside the waveguide.
Ex. 2.8.12 Detennine the waveguide dimensions that will insure single
Design an air-filled rectangular waveguide with dimensions mode operation over that band.
a and b (a> b) that will operate in the dominant TE 10 mode
at f = IO GHz. The dimensions a and b of the waveguide
0 Soln.:
should be chosen so that at f = 10 GHz the waveguide not For a > b, the dominant mode must be TE 10 mode for
only operates on the single TEIO mode but also that
which the cut-off frequency must be
f = lO GHz is simultaneously 25% above the cut-off
9
frequency of the dominant TE 10 mode and 25% below the
next higher-order TE.at mode.
fc CTE10) = C
2a =30 2Xa10 9
= 9 x 10

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 Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 2-26

Thus the allowable operating frequency range under !ht

a = 1.66-7 cm
specified conditions is
The next higher mode can be Tfw or 'fEo1• But for TE.io
(1.25) f0 (TE10) ~ f S (0.95) f, C'IBw)
mode

or 8.19 GHz sf S 12.45 GHz

This frequency docs not lie in the 9 - 14 GHz band. Hence ~ 2.9 Why TEM Wave does not Exist
next hjgher mode will not be TEio it will be Tf.o 1• The cut- In a Waveguide ?
off frequency of TEo1 mode is

C 30X 10
9 For TEM wave Ez = 0 and Hz= 0.
f, <TEo1l = 2b = 2b 14 X 109 Suppose TEM wave is assumed to exist within a
hollow guide of any shape. Then lines of H must be
b = 1.071 cm entirely in the transverse plane.

Ex. 2.8.14 Also in a non- magnetic material,

Standard air-filled rectangular waveguide with dimensions
2.29 cm x 1.02 c m is to operate only in the dominant TE 10
V-H = 0

mode. The opemtjng frequency must be at least 25% above which requires that the lines of H be closed loops.
the cut-off frc{jucncy of the TE 10 mode but no higher than
1l1ercforc if a TEM exists inside the guide, the lines 0
95% of the next higher cut-off ff'C{juency, find the allowable H will be closed loops in a plane perpendicular lo the
operating-frequency range. axis.
0 Soln.: Now by Maxwell's first equation the line integraJ ofH
around a closed path must equal to axial current
a = 2.29 cm, b = 1.02cm
(conduction or displaccmeni) through the loop.
The cut-off frequency of the rectangular waveguide is given
H • d/ : r,nclosal : rcond· + rdi1p·
by
In the case of "guide.. with an inner conductor, e.g. a
co-axial transmission line, this axial current through the
H loops is the conduction current in the inner
To detennine the cut-off frequency for TE 10 mode we have conductor.

10 However for a hollow waveguide having no inner

C3X 10
fc: (fE 1o) = 2a = 2 x 2 _29 = 6.55 GHz conductor, this axial current must be a displacement
current. But an axia l displacement current requires an
To find the next higher order mode calculate cut-off axial component of E. something not present in the
frequencies for TEw and 'fEo 1 mode-. TEM wave. Therefore tbe TEM wave cannot exist ina
10 single conductor wave guide of any cross-section.
C 3X 10
= ;: = 2 _29 = 13. 10 GHz

10
C 3 X 10
fJfEo1l = 2b =2 x 1.02 = 14.7 1 GHz

Hence after the dominant mode TE 10, the mode appearing is

TEio•

(1B10JFig. 2.9.1 : Transverse and circular nature or H lintS

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 · Microwave Englneerin (MU. Sem. 7 _ E&TC) 2-27 Wave uldes

~ 2.10 Construction of a a 2.12 Circular Waveguide

Circular Waveguide
Cir , Definition of Circular waveguide·
uo. 2.10.1 Write a short note on circular waveguide. Circula~ ~w~guide is a hollow metallic tube wuh/circ~
MU· Ma 18. 10 Marks cross:section tlirougli which wave trauels. ·
X
~ Assumptions

2a ( I) Wall of the waveguide is perfect conductor.

(2) Wave is travelling in z-direction.

\
\ (3) Medium inside the waveguide is dielectric or free
,. z space.

(4) Area of cross-section is circular.

Fig. 2.12.1 shows a circular waveguide with a circular

(1825)Fig. 2.10.1 : Coostruction or circular waveguide
cross section of radi us 'a' and length 'z'.
Refer Fig. 2. 10. I.
The electric and magnetic wave equations in frequency
Circular waveguide is tube like circular conductor. domain are give,n by,

It is made from a conducting pipe which is hoLlow from V

2
E = -cilµ_e L 1 ... (2.12.1)
the center. It is polished from inside walls. It has
uniform circular cross section of finite radius 'a'. -ro2 µeH
-
... (2. 12.2)

The outer portion of Lhe waveguide is usually coated These equations are called as vectorwave equations.
with insulated paint to avoid dust and rust. The analysis is divided into two parts,
- They are available in different lengths and sizes. (i) Transverse Electric (TE) mode, and
(ii) Transverse Magnetic (TM) mode.
'
B... 2.11 Operation of Circular
Direction of propagation
Waveguide z

r
A plane wave propagating through circularwaveguide
I <
I I
resolves in TE or TM modes.. <
<
I
I

:
I
:.
I
Circular waveguide's round cross section makes it easy t z
·- ·-J :
I
I
I
I
I
to machine. It is generally used to feed conical horn I
I
<
I
: I
I I
antennas.
,,
.,. . . . .--------r-----..i-.. . ..
I : ....

TE.on modes of circular waveguides have low y

X
attenuation. There is rapid decrease in the attenuation
with increase in frequency for TMon mode. These
(1B11)Fig. 2.12.1 : Circular waveguide
characteristics of circular waveguide makes them
suitable for long low-loss communication link.

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 Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7. E&TC)

- Putting Equation (2.12.5) in Equation (2.12.3)

[ 'a. 2.12.1 Propagation of TEnm Modes
I o ( o(R<t>),

UQ. 2.12.1 Derive the wave equation for a TE wave and

pop lJ> op r _1 cJ2 (R<!>)
p2
h2 R
oq.2 + . . <l> = 0
obtain all the field components In a circular
i.e.
<t> a(
P op\P ap +-;;i
oR) Ra2a4>2<1> +h R<t> 2
=o
waveguide.
MU - Dec. 15. 10 Marks
- Dividing by R<l>
It is commonly assumed that the waves in circular ) 0( oR)
pR ap \P ap + P2 ct> a4>2 + h P
J a2 <!> 2 2
=o
waveguide are propagating in positive z direction. Then
for TE modes : 2
- Multiplying by p
E, = 0 and Hz i: 0
,. . . Q.,! ( 'iJR) ...!.. a2 ct> 2 2
R,ap \Pap + ct> a4>2 + h P = o ...(2.12.6)
The analysis is divided into following steps :
Step 1 : To express wave cquatiQn in terms of~
0 (i) (ii) (iii)
Since E, = 0, the wave equation for H is to be used. In - In this equation tenns (i) and (iii) are functions of r
tenns of longitudinal component the wave equation for
only, tenn (ii) is a function of qi only.
H reduces to

G'H,
2
= -w'µe J· Let
1
---
<l>
a2 ct>
o4>2 = - Tl
2 ... (2.12.7)

Expressing v' in cylindrical coordinates: - Using in Equation (2.12.6),

v'2_
.U
....
= l'i
~
It\_.;;,;
op)OPr.:
+ _!! ;, ~~
p: ~4>2 oz2/
- 12. a(
R op \p op
aR) 2
+ (h p - Tl ) = 0
2 2

. \ ,)

2 --- -- - Multiplying this by R

= -ul µE Hz
- - L
' 2 'iJ (
Papl__Pap
'iJR) +(hp
2 2 2
-TJ )R = 0 ... (2.12.8)
. . d' . I cJ,
A S the wave IS ID Z· trCCI.JOn, WC rep ace 'iJz2 ➔
2
y,

- This is a Bessel's equation of order n. The Bessel's

equation is a second order equation and there should be
two linearly independent solutions for each value of n.
... (2.12.3) The general solution of Equation (2.12.8) can be
written as,
where h
2 2 2
y + co µe
.-, =
. .. (2.12.4)
~,-<-....- ... (2.12.9)
Step 2 : To solve wave equation for lf.
where J0 (h · p) = The Bessel function of the first kind
Here we observe that ~ is a function of p and $. Using
th
the method of separation of variables, the solution is of n order with an argument (b · p)

assumed as and

... (2.12.5) N. (h · p) = The Bessel function of the second

, th
R = a function of only p, and <l> =a kind of n order.
I where
I
I function of only qi.
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 Microwave En lneering (MU - Sem. 7. E&TC) 2-29 Wave uldes

Equation (2.12.7) is a second order differential

equation of <I>, the solution of it is

<t> = An sin (n<)>)+ B0 cos (nq,) ... (2.12.10)

. '

Where An and Bn are constants different for different

values of n. Putting Equations (2.12.9) and (2.12.10) in
Equation (2.12.5), we get

~ = [ C" J" (h · p) + D" N.. (h . p)]

... (2.12.11)
The multiplication by e-ill• in the above expression is 11e12JFig. 2.12.2 : Nature or second kind Bessel function
due to wave propagation in z direction in a lossless Note : In case of co-axial waveguide the region of Interest
media (zero attenuation). does not include r = o. Hence in that case both
Jn {h • p) and N0 {h • p) are present in the solution of
The distinctive property of Bessel function of the
R in E uation 2.12.9 .
second kind CNn (h · p)) of all orders is that they
become infinite when the argument (h • p) is zero (i.e. By making use of trigonometry the tenn
p = 0).
A0 sin(n<l>)+B.cos(n<l>) = ✓An +Bn
2 2
cos
All functions are oscillatory in nature with amplitudes 1
[ n<t>+tan- ( ~ )]
decreasing with (h · p). The variation is shown in
Fig. 2.12.2. = F0 cos (n<)>)
In case of circular waveguide we are interested in 1
where nq, = n<)>+tan- (~)
finding field components in the hollow region inside
the metallic boundary, i.e. from p = 0 to p = a. Our ·
F. =✓
An2 +Bn2
region of interest includes'the axis where p = 0.
According to the property of N 0 (h · p), its value is Thus the field component in Equation (2.12.12)
infinite at p = 0 which will make H, to be infinite along becomes
the axis (Equation 2.12.11 ). H, = c. J0 (h · p) [An sin (n<)>) + B0 cos (mp)] e-i~ z
Since the infinite field is physically impossible, the = C0 Jn (h · p) [F0 COS (n<!>)] e-Jll, z
solution H, in Equation (2.12.11) cannot contain a N0
(h • p) tenn.
... (2.12. 13)

This means that the coefficient D0 must be zero for aJI

n. Thus for wave mode problems inside a circular Step 3 : Finding relation bet-ween If. -with other components
waveguide there is no need to concerned with the
Now, we obtain other field components (Ep, E0 , HP. H0 )
N0 (h · p).
in terms of H1 • For this we use Maxwell's equation.
- Now the Equation (2.12.11) reduces to
- jilt
- -
H1 = C0 J0 (h · p) fA0 sin (n <!>) + B0 cos (n <)>)] e 'v xE = - B = - j(l)~lH
... (2. 12. 12)
-
'v x H = D = j(I)~~
~

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 Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC} 2-30

Expanding in cylindrical coordinates Putting in Equation (ii)

1- 1- yEP = + jroµl-1 0
-a
p p a9 -a
p z
-
Vx E = . [ jµe E I ui-!i]
a,ap a1a4i a,az = + JWµ - y- P - p . y o<j>

EP pEQ El - jroµ cJH,

EP [y+ ro2;E ] = P·Y a4>
- jroµ a1-1,
EP[~] = P·Y a4>
-jooµ ). aH,
Le. Ep = h2 P. a4> •.•(Vil)

Putting in Equation (ii)

For a wave travelling in z direction and with TE mode
H... = _ y_ E - _y_ [- jroµ
2 · 1. £!!z.]
" jroµ p - jroµ h p. a~
-y .!. oH,
HQ = 7 · p. o<j> ••• (viii)
Then above expressi.on reduces to
From Equation (i)

- .(2. 12.14)
Putting it in Equation (v)
Comparing two sides we get ,

. .. (i)
-y ( Jw:} EQ - aai = jroeE->

i.e. E [-I--jroµ]
9 JWµ = £!:!.
op
y EP = -jroµH-> ... (ii)
2
1 a 1 aEP or E [y ~olµe] -
-~ap
p ap (p E~ - p a4> = -jroµHz .. . (ii.i) ,> JWµ

Similarly-from the second Maxwell equation-we get or E¢ [j~~J

-- £!h
ap
Pl £!:!.
a4i + y H9 = jroe EP ... (iv)
or E,:,
jroµ £!:!.
- --h2 ap .. . (ix)

aHz
y HP + op = - jroe EQ ... (v) Putting in Equation (i), we get

1 a 1 att
pop (p H~ - p ~ = 0 ... (vi)

From Equation (iv) i.e. ... (x)

jroeEP _l_ ~
Ho> = y - P ·Y 04>

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 Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7. E&TC) Waveguides
2-31
and we already have
Differentiating ff1 in Equation (2.12.20)
E, = 0 , and aH , -J111z
.::.:.:z - H . J (h. p) cos (nq>) • e
op - oz n

The result of step 3 gives field components

oH,1
At p = a ap p = a -
- H . J' (h · a) cos (nq>) • e-iflgz
oz n

(Ep• E,:,, HP' HJ in terms of H,, is summarized below :

This is zero if
-jooµ 1
= -h-
aH
EP 2 - =
• p. aq,
I
---(2.12.15) Jn (h · a) = 0 ... (2.12.21)

where J'n indicates the derivative of Jn w.r.t.

.
(h · a).
.. .(2.12.16)
Since Jn are oscillatory functions, the ln (h · a) are also
E, = 0 ... (2.12.17) oscillatory functions.
;;:t aH, An infinite sequence of values of (h · a) satisfies
HP = h2 ap ... (2.12.18)
Equa~ion (2.12.21). The m root of
th
J: curve is denoted
-=.:t l aH, by p .
I

nm
Ht = h2• P. aq, ... (2.12.19)
Table 2.12.l gives values of (h • a) for which J: curves
are going through zeros.
Step 4: Applying boundary condition
- For example for J~ curve first zero (m = 1) is observed

at (h ·a) = 3:832, second zero (m = 2) at (h ·a)= 7.016,

third zero (m = 3) at (h • a) = 10.173 and so on.
I I
- The first zero of J0 is addressed in the table as P
01

(value at the intersection of n = 0 column and m = 1

,1B13)Fig. 2.12.3 : Top view of Fig. 2.12.1 row). The second zero of J~ is addressed in the table as
I

- The boundary conditions require that the tangential P02 (value .at the intersection of n = 0 column and m = 2

component of E and the normal component of H at the row).

conductor surface (at p = a) must be zero. It requires I I I
Thus the value of P01 or P02 or in general at Pnm is the
(i) The electric field E9 which is the tangential to the
value of (h · a) where mlh zero of J ' curve is observed.
n
inner surface of the circular waveguide at p = a
That is
must vanish.
(ii) The magnetic field HP' which is normal to the Pnm = h•a

inner surface of p = a, must vanish.

The points, which are the roots of l correspond to the
n

i.e. E.• = o at p = a ..• aHz I

ap p = a - - 0 using Equation (ix) maxima and minima of the J0 curves as shown in
Fig. 2.12.4.

or Hp = o at p = a ••
aH,1 .
• -ap- p = a = O usmg EquatJon
. (x)

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 Seep 5 : To delermlne other rkld c:~mponenl8

Using the value of h in the expression for I I,,

H, = H0 t • 10 (h · p) cos (n$). e·JD,,
Jn(•)l 0. - t- ··· ---- ----- -----
We get 11, = 1101 • J0 ( ~ • p) cos (n4>) · c·iPa'... (2. 12.23)
, Pulling this value of H, in Equations (2. l2.t
5
I I to (2.12.19), the field components of the TEnm DlOdcs ~
l I
! i
-0·50-~-2-~3--,.-~s-s--!1=---,-----,o
circular waveguide are obtained as
x-

(1814)Fig. 2.12.4
iwun
E =-:-r-H
Php 01 • a
(P' )
-J .....0.lll , p sin (o"') · e-J·1111
"' ...(2.11.24)

' values for TEnm modes in circular waveguide are

Pnm
Eq = ~
. (p, )
l'
h Ho,·" a ·P cos ( n'f"') · e- ill11 ... (2.12.25,
.....0.lll
obtained from the Table 2.12.1.
Table 2.12.1 : The roots or derivative or the first kind .. .(2.12.26)
function I.e. J' (x)
•

...(2.12.27:
zero

3.8317 1.8412 3.0542 4.2012 5.3175 6.4156 i.e. H♦ = ~~~H0 .·Jn(~ -p) sin (n4>)•e-iPg•

2 7.0156 5.3314 6.7061 8.0152 9.2824 10.5199 ... (2. 12.28:

3 10.1735 8.5363 9.9695 11.3459 12.6819 13.9872 ... (2.12.29)

5
13.3237 11.7060 13.1704 14.5858 15.9641 17.3128

16.4706 14.8636 16.3475 17.7887 19.1960 20.5755

Ia. 2.12.2 Propagation of TMnm Modes

LQ. 2.12.2 Derive the wave equation for a TM wave and

Cir Significance of m and n
obtain all the field components in a circular
n represents the number of full cycles of field variation waveguide.

in one revolution through 21t radians of$.

It is commonly assumed that the waves in circula:
m represents the number of zeros of E0 i.e. 1: (ah) waveguide arc propagating in positive z direction. Thc1
along the radial of the waveguide but zero on the axis for TM modes :
is excluded if it exists.
For TM ➔ H1 = 0 but E, * 0
The permissible values of h can be written as
p'
h =-=
a
... (2. 12.22)

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 !!'~U • S m. 7 • E&TC Wovoguldos
2-33

OIC I 11\ .1111,n I\ !In ltlC'd 111111 r, llm, inr ,1rp,:

. 1, I :
-.1& I ll • \flt r-., "u 1 •~ uutk,n ln tn, 1" hf II
~
;\ 11 J0 (11 . Ji) •,,,,.~ o..cill:i1ory func1ion~ und lhcrc arc
S1f't r 11, 0, tlx- ,q, c cqu.111< 11 for E 1\ 10 Ii.: 11\i:d . In
1
,nfinitc: n11111hcr of rooL'i for'• (h · u).
l('llll' cif ll1nr,1udrn.1I 1;1.1m1 1ncn1 1hr ,, nH• rqn.itlnn for
·1hi: vohrc, uf lhc,~ roob for which 1. (h . 11) ::: 0 nrc
t· rcdu, r, l1l
c.illcd dpcn vuluc:~ und arc denoted by I\.,.
l
hi I" I·, ... (2 11 'OJ Tuhie 2. 12 2 1I\ C\ v, 1luc:c; of (h • 11) for which J0 curve,;

I r,tt""'"!' \ : 111 l) lm1!11c 1I r,, 1din,1tc, '"II r,·, 11 lt 111 :i ,11c i•oinp 1Jrrn11}1 h , cm,.
t'ljU.ttlN I ,111\ll.11 Ill h111,1\l(lll () I !.\) Fm ri,1111plc. (or J"1.urvc fir, 1 ,c:ro ( m = I) i,; ob,;crvcd
,11 (h .1J 2 ,105. -.cc11nd , cro ( 111 = 2) at (h · a) = 5.520,
1hi ril ,rro ( Ill - J) at (h • n) -= R.6--15 i.tnd won.

I h<" lir t 11:ro of J, " u<ldrc" cd in the rnblc lL'i Po,

(\ ,due .11 the 1111cr'<clHln of n = 0 colum n unu Ill = I
l1iC' .I "<'<'IU IH 'll'- 111u l. r111 l i11111111(.' I! 111,,111 ru .. J I he •,:~, rk.l 1c ri, o ( 10 " :idt.lrt:\\Cd in the t:ibk uc;
F, ,n,•r ..J l' I 11,. 11,c lu 11111 , 11 111,, <'qu ..111 n " .,t,,1
I' . I•, .1IUt" .:I the 1n1c:1>e"-11o n <Jf n = 0 column and 111 =2
,111ul ,
I ll~)

F, c 1:.· J.(h · p ) u ,(nc)) , c 1' - fhm tt •, aluc :11 P i· or P1,:, or in general at P,.,n i,; the
'• ~UC l r (h • a) •,. lic,c m tcro or J" curve is ob. crvcd.
S11p : I tlt.lli1;: n Ltt l'>C ' " hll I', d tli uthu cumponwh
·1I I i,
Toe rd~IJ n b c 1·, , e n , . c.: \ field cm, I ll<'lll\ ,.nd I ,
p = h.a ... (2. 12.36)
JJ't ...~;.i n I l.11l1(J hy u in~• \f J \\,cll' , lUr! Ctj UJI H II\

far..n<lmr ,\ tJblc fl r the'<! r h for ,;ornc vuluc'i of n and Ill arc

!'I\ cn 111 r.,hlc 2 I.! 2
·r uhlc- 1.11.2 : lh>oL, o( tJ1c fl r..l 1,.lnd fun l"llon I.e. J. (x)

- '( 111:,
\\'c cl F,, - - -
11· i)p
... (2.12.JJ)
'LCfO

2..10-IX J.8.l 17 5. I 3J6 6.3802 7.5883 8.77 I 5

2 5.5201 7.0 156 g_.1112 9.76 10 I 1.0647 12.3386
... (2. 12.J•I)
J 8.6537 10. 17]5 11.6 198 13.0 152 1-\.3725 15.7002
h,
.
z. -: -,,·. - ,-1-,,
- 1:.• ,4 11.7915 13.3237 1-1.7960 16.2235 17.6 160 18.980 1

Sti-p 5 : To dctcn11lr11: other field components

E
•
7 . . .. (2. 12.JS) Dy , ub'ilituling
'
. li'p 4 : pr!) lni: houndnry rondltlo11 h = ... (2.12.37)
The compcmcnt E, i~ :tlong z :ui, which i~ the u.xi, of
We gel,
the cirrulttr waveguide. It will be tangcnliul to the
guide 1.11 r = u. By applying boundary conditions i.c
E, = () 111 p= 11. we i;ct
T1tb-,'in, f'ul,liatiun ~ - ITT,rrr, futhor:f in.pm- inoor.1/ioo -A SAC/I/JVSI/All Ymrun:

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 1
l!e)
~~M~lc~rgow~av~e~En~g~ln~e:
en~·n~gJ(M~U.;·~S~
em
~ . 7~
- -34~====~===:::::::::::~
E~&~T~C~)===£2~ · ·~•cyu~

f Th are three cases similar to rectangular wavcguid,

Thus. the final field expressions are obtained using ere ·
? 35) analysis.
Equal.ion (2. 12.38) in Equations (2. 12.33) to (2· I-·
as Case 1 : ffi i'i very small.

... (2. 12.39) For small values of w, the followi ng relation exists.
2
h > cilµe
prun) - JIit
E~ =Ec,0 • Jn (- - • p sin (mj,) · e ' ... (2. 12.40)
3
Since in gcncrJJ : y = a + j~

El =EOt . Jn ( - panm . p) cos (n¢) · e- JI\'

s ... (2. 12.4 1)
so 1ha1 this case gives.

H =- - E.,o -J ( - pnm -p) sin (n¢)·c- JOs Y = a

1
... (2.12.42)
P Z, n a
Thus Jow frequencies gels aucnuatcd when they
... (2. 12.43) prop:igntc in tJ1c wavegu ide. Thal is low freq uencies 3It
not p:is.~cd through the wavt.:guidc .
H, = 0 ... (2. 12A-I )
Case 2 : w L, ve ry high.

1~ 2.13 Characteristics of TE and TM JI In this situation

2 2
11 < (I) µi;
LO. 2.13.1 Derive characteristics of TE and TM waves of
circular waveguide. and hence,

The Jaws governing the propagation of waves in

waveguides arc independent of the cross-sectional
That is, high frequencies arc not at1cnua1ed and hence
shape nnd the dimensions of the guide.
can propagate in the waveguide.
As a result. all the characteristics and defin itions
Case 3: At some inlermcdinte frequency, co<.
applied for rectangular waveguides apply to circular
waveguides, with the minor modifications 1ha1 modes Al some in1ennedia1c frequency, called as cutoff
arc labeled somewhat differently. frequency we gel,
All the equations also apply here except, obviously the
fomrnla for cutoff frequency and wavelength. TI1ese
arc derived as below:

~ 2.13.1 Cutoff Frequency

or ... (2.13.1 )

In the analysis we have come across the following

When the frequency is less than fc• it gets auenuated.
relation :
Dut when the frequency is greater than fc it passes
without a11enuation.

Thisgives y = ✓ h2 - w'2µE This behaviour is similar to high pass filter. Hence

circular waveguide also behaves like high pass _filter.

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 Microwave Engineering (MU - Sam. 7 . E&TC) 2-35 Wave u!ooo

_ Since the value of h is different for TE und TM mode,

the formula for fc is also changed.
P' All other expressions, for example, B, vi,, v,, Z,. (TEJ,
For TE : h = ...Jllll
a z, (TM ) arc same as 1hal of rectangular waveguide.
These are Iisl.Cd below.
Then Equation (2.13. 1) changes to,

re(TE. m) =
P'
DCD
.. . (2.13.2)
p = (J) ~ ~ ... (2,13.f~)

2na we

ForTM: h =~
a
= ro'/µ€ ~ ... (2.13.9)

Then Equation (2. 13. l) changes to, 21t }

, .. (2. 13. 10)
i.. = r~
... (2. 13.3)

V
... (2. 13.1 1)
When the medium inside is a free space then we can VP = ~
I s
replace. c by c (= 3 x 10 mis).
"µe
Thus for free space media : v, = v ~ ... (2.1 3. 12)

P'
=_Jim(.. £.)
a · 21t ... (2. 13.4) - For free space, v = c, then,

... (2. 13.13)

... (2. 13.5)

Ia 2.13.2 Cutoff Wavelength

and v, = c ~ (v, <c) ... (2.13.14)
V
We have, Ac = f
!l
~
C
... (2. 13. 15)
2,(TE) =
1
Where, V =
~
Substituting the value of fc from Equations (2.13.2) and ½(TM) = n . ~ ... (2.1 3. 16)
and (2.13.3) we get,

21ta
t...c (TE0 J = p , ... (2. 13.6)
where n = ~
nm

2na and for free space n = 120 1t (Q)

and Ac (TMnm) = pnm ... (2. 13.7)

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 MU - Som. 7 • E&TC 2-30 Waveguides

Above two cq1111tior11; arc very important cquutions i~

'a. 2.14 Dominant Mode In Circular
the nnnlysis of t:irculnr waveguide and cun be USCQ
Waveguide
directly whcnc~cr required.
----..
Noto : Aftor tho dominant mode the next mode present 18
La. 2.14.1 Write short noto on dominant modo In
TM01 , for which
circular wavoguldo.
2.405 2.405 X C
The definition of domi1rnnt mode in rcct1111g11l11r
fc (TM01) = 2n a WE = 2na

waveguide is cqunlly npplicnhlc to the circular The bandwidth of circular waveguide is

waveguide also. It is dominant mode is the mode for
which fc is minimum or "A.c is maximum.

From Equations (2. 13.2) nnd (2. 13.3) for cut-off

"?:s.. 2.15 Examples of Circular
frequency ii is cviclcnl thnt for !he given waveguide
Waveguide
(i.e. a. ~l and E arc constants) the cut-off frequency is
minimum for minimum values of P' nm
und Pnm· From
the P'nm and P""' tables we find the values as, Ex. 2.15.1
An air filled circular waveguide of radius a = 5 cm is to
r;,m (min) = 1.84 1 operate in the dominant mode,
For n = 1 and m = 1 (a) Find the cut-off frequency
(b) Find the cut-off wavelength
pnm (min) = 2.405
(c) Find the phase constant for an operating
For n = 0 and m = 1 frequency of 3 GHz

Substituting these values in Equations (2.13.2) (d) Determine the guide wavelength at this frequency

and (2 13.3) we get, (e) Find the wave impedance in the guide
0 Sain.:

(a) For the dominant mode TE 11 in the circular waveguide

the cut-off frequency is
10

fc
= 1.841
a
(....£...) = l.~J
21t :,
(3 X 10
27t
)

Out of these two, fc (TE 11 ) is minimum and hence the

dominant mode in circular waveguide is TE 11 mode. = 1.758 GHz

Thus for dominant mode, (b) The cut-off wavelength is obtained by using basic
relations as
8
C 3 X 10
Ac = "r: = 1.753 X 109 =0. 17 m = 17 cm
= 1.841
a
(..£..)
27t
... (2.14. 1)
(c) The phase constant is
and using Equation (2. 13.6),

... (2. 14.2)

2

= 27t X 3 X IO
9
X
3
X
I
l0s ✓ 1.758
I- ( 3 )

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 (Iv) To find lJ•ntJwldth

_n ln .. 2JD.!
11
(..!..)
1n
A, as j\ • 5ll.9.I 11 0.123 111 11 I'2J l'III
C
• - ('> ,10\ I >'• I I 1 .. 2 fl l l (l II 1
2.Jt -

Ex. 2.15.2
(i) A 10 G il, "~nnl " Ir> hc 1ran,m111_c,j ,rurk
a hollow cin:ulnr r onJ uurn1,: r•r l ►tcr m,nc rt~
= .i6s., n in,idc di:unetcr of the pipe ,uch thJI 11, loY.c\.l cut mt
frequency is W 'l- hc lO\~ 1hi~ ~•~nnl frcqucnc)'·
Ex. 2.1s. t(A) 1&\IO&tflfllt•1&m:n
(ii) If the pipe is 10 opcrntc 01 16 G Ii l . ,... tu,
An air tilled circul:\r wnvcguidc having nn inner rudi us of
l-<11l is excited in the dominant mode at 10 Gllz.. Fit (i) tJic on.: the po, siblc modes prc~nt in the " :l\cguidc. Al ">
cut off frequency of the dominant mode (ii) guide find the cut-off frcqucncie .
wn\'dength (iii) wave 'impedance. Find the bundwidlh for 0 Soln.:
operation in dominant mode only.
(I) The cut-off fn.:quency for the cin:ulur waveguide 1\
0 Soln.:

Girrn: n = Im, f = IO GHz.. dominant mode re = h (2cn)

(I) To Slnd t, of dominant mode for TE.m mode the cut-oIT frequency i

fc = lli!
a
(_£)
2n
- ~(_£)
- n 2n

= -1.8-l
1-
I ex ~
l0
1
~
= 8.790 Gllz
and for TM0 m mo<lc it is

>..g
= ~o (_£)
2n
CTQ To tlnd

C 3 X I0 10 The dominant mode for circulur wa,•c~uidc i, TE 11 •

"'o = f = !Ox I09 = 3m f rom P'.,. table we have
I
>.. 3 P11 = UW I
"'• = ~ = ✓, - (si69Y Then the cut-off frequency for the d min:tnt ~ TE 11
is
= 6.303 cm
= l....:!.l (..£._)
a 2n
Olij To find Zz
!) 377 We want 1hi f~Ut"ncy tu hc .O'i• hclth ~ the ittUl
2z (TE11) = frcqu<"ncy of 10 GIIL. l l1u~
~ ->-ft,
0
r <TE,, l "' 1.~-t i (' ~~ '') "' o • 10 • 10"
377
= 3/6.303 = 792 (Q)
u "' I. I l'III

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 J.~i§S~M::,:;lc~r~ow:a~v:e.!En~gl~ne:e:ri~ng~(M:U~-So=m~·,;,.7~-~E~&~TC~)!.:_==~2~
-(U) Those modes will be present in the waveguide for
-38~==============-W~av~
~ = )..,
'
which 2Jt x2
i.e. 3 =
C f >
r.
i.e. f >

or
9
f > (4.37 X 10) P'0 mor (4.34 X 10) P0 m
0 In order 10 satisfy the condition

Using P'0111 and P0111 t.ilile, we will find the values of n

and m which satisfied above condition. Sinning with lowest TI1e values of P'.mor P.mmust be less tllan or equal to 4.Jg
value
From P'.m and r.m table WC find these values and lbc
9
fJrE11 ) = (·0-1 x 10 ) x ( 1.8-11) = 8 Gllz
corresponding modes arc
f, (fM01 } = (-1.3-1 X IOQ) x (2.405) =10.44 Gllz TE11 ( 1.84 1) TM0 1 (2.405)
9
f, fffii 1) = (4.34 x 10 ) X (5.054) = I 3.25 Gllz
Tl3.i 1 (3.054) ™11 (3.832)
Only these modes :ire having cut-off frequencies lc~s
than tJ1e operating frequency of 16 Gllz. llence only TE 11 ,
TEu1(3,832)
TM01 and TE21 mode5 can propngnte in the pipe. TI1e previous problem could have been solved by using this
method :1l<;0.
Ex. 2.15.3
An a.ir filled circular waveguide with rndius of 2 cm is Ex. 2.15.4
carrying a signal of 10 GHL Find all possible modes which f-or the dominant mode propagated in an air filled circular
can travel tJuuugh waveguide.
waveguide, the cut-off wavelength is 10 ems. Find :
0 Soln.: (a) The required si1..C or cross sectional area of the guide.
The free space wavelength at 10 Gllz is (b) The frequencies that can be used for this mode of

C 3 X 10
10 propagation.
~ = f =10 x 100 =3 cm 0 Soln.:
For the dominant mode TE 11 in a circular waveguide, the
In general, the cut-off wavelength is given by
cut-off wavelength is
21ta
A, = P' .. . For TE mode
DID ).. = 2ml
C l.&4 1
2rta
.. . For TM mode
For the given cut-off wavelength of 10 ems
Any mode which will satisfy the following condition will 2na
10 = 1.841
pass through waveguide
10 x 1.84 I
f 2: f, :. a = - - - - = 2.93 cm
2Jt

or 2 2
Arca of cross section = rta = Jt (2.93) = 26.97 sq.cm.
Now find the critical values of P'.m or P0 mwhich makes A, The cut-off frequency is obtained by using basic relation as
equal co ~- Setting them equal 10
c - 3 xi O = 3 GHz
f, = ).., b
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 . owave Engineering (MU· Sem. 7 - E&TC) WaVOJUldea
Mier 2-39

'fhUS all frequencies which arc greater than 3 GI h: will

~trOugh circular waveguide of given dimensions.
p:1-~

-----
E•· 2.15.5
()llculatc the ratio of lhc cross sc~lion of a circular
El = 0

II = -
-jfl If . J
, ( -,,:'" ) ") ,11,,
.- · P cos (n'+' c
uidc to that of a rectangular one 1f each is to have the " h "" n ••
\\'3 vcg . .
same cut-off wavelength for its donunant mode.
If0 = jpn If J ( i<,".n)co~(n¢)c 10•'
R1 soln. : 1/ p OL n a I'

dominant mode in the circular waveguide we have

fort he •
H . J ( p:m • p) cos (n¢>) c-,/1, t
2m H, = 01 n a
A, = 1,841 =3.413 (r)

For TM waves :
Where r is the radius of the circular waveguide. Then the
area of cross section of this waveguide is - j~
- -E J I ( p p) cos (n¢>) e- JI}. L
EP = h 01 "
......D.lll.
a
2
A, = rtr j~n
Ei> = - 2-
h p
E0 1 • Jn ( --IWl
P
a
) -ill
• p sin (n¢>) c '
,

for the dominant mode in the rectangular waveguide, we

have E, = Eoz Jn ( --IWl.
p ) 1'/It
a p cos (nq>) e- s

jWE n ( p ) -Jll 1
HP = - -
h2- p E01 Jn --IWl • p sin (nq>) e '
a
If the cut-off wavelengths for these two waveguides are
same, then jWE , ( ~ ) - jl} 1
H~ = - -h- E0 , J0 a · p cos (n¢>) e g

2a = 3.413 (r)
H1 = 0
3 13
or a = ·~ (r) = l.706 (r) The variations of each of these components with time
is obtained by multiplying each by d,,. and taking the
For lhe standard rectangular waveguide (a= 2b), the area of
real part.
cross section is
2 2 The modes for different values of n and m are
a (1.706 r) 2
AR = a x b =2 = 2 = 1.46 r expressed as TEnm or TM0 111 , where

(i) The first number (n) of the mode index represents

The ratio of the areas will be
the number of half cycle variations of the field in
2
rt r ~-direction.
= 1.46 r2 = 2.15
(ii) The second number (m) repre ents the number of
half cycle variations of the field in r-din...'Ction.
'5. 2.16 Field Patterns in a Circular
By putting different values of n nnd m we get field
Waveguide
pallems as shown in Fig. 2. 16. 1.

In all these figures clo11cd lines ure rep~cnting

- For TE waves we have :
magnetic while continuous lines nrc electric fields.
.
JWµn ( p'nm ) • ( "') - illg 1
Ep = -h2- H J - a • p sin n'I' c
p 01 "

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 2-40 Wave Uldea

Ia. 2.17.1 . Expression for a Factor J

LO. 2.17.1 What Is Q factor? Derive expression for it.

Q factor is defined us

Tfo1 Wavo Energy stored per unit length

Q = w Energy lost per unit length per second ... (2.17.1)

For a wave in z-dircction, the energy propagates in the

•
I
waveguide al group velocity v1,_. Hence
.. '
Energy transmitted per second =va• x Energy stored per
unit length

Il[~::JI[ II
OR

Energy stored per unit length = -

1
x power lransm1tled
.
VV-

TE11
Side view = ~
VV-

Using in Equation (2.17.1)

w( Power transmitted )
Q = v~ Power lost per unit length · · ·<2-17·2>

According to definition of attenuation factor (ex)

Power lost per unit length
ex = . ed
2 x Power transrrutt ... (2.17.3)
(1815)Fig. 2.16.1 : Field variation in circular waveguide
Using in Equation (2.17.2) and formula for group
Open circles are used to show field lines (electric or velocity
magnetic depending on the mode) coming out of the (I) (I)

page, and full dots are used for lines going into the
Q ----
- 2exvg, - ~(!£)
_
2a.vP\jl-\f)
... (2.17.4)

page.
Equation (2.17.4) says that for small values of a., the Q
values is high.
~2.17 Quality Factor (Q) of a
Waveguide
( ~ 2.18 Coaxial Line I
For a circuit with low loss, the Q factor is high.

Waveguides have low attenuation as compared to I LO. 2.18.1 Write a short note on: Coaxial line.

transmission lines. Thus high Q is possible with The coaxial line is placed in the co-ordinate system as
waveguides. shown in Fig. 2.18. l.
It is required in applications like resonators or elements The radius of the inner conductor is ·•a• and the outer
of waveguide filters. conductor is 'b'.

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 MU - Som. 7 - E&TC)

S11lit !lt11tlnp. l 'ltU.1lion (Z. l ~.lJ int,, f;,pL'l-l111n <2. 1~. IJ.
)
I ;J ( 1l$ (I( • I' J ) I tJ ( K • I' I (J
- - j1 t I l ::,
p ,Ip 1)11 p t">

-I' -;J ( r -,JI< ) , ,--,

H ,Ii,
.. O
p Jp iJfl I' iJ,:)
1
Dividing by R.P. :ind multiplyiny by P
~y
X
I i~
n d- ( p -d R ) + -
~ r • ,,
(IBl&)Flg. 2.18.1 : ConxJol line R dp dp P JQ

11te ax_is of the coaxial line is along z-axis. Tiic inner Here part in.I diffcrcntintion i\ con,·crtcd 1nt1J ,rrr::1 !,

c0nductor is applied with voltage V = V O and at the The two terms in Equntion (2. 18.4) muu be cq-.uJ ~
outer conductor V = 0. constrults, so 1.hnt

(Q' To find voltage ♦ Q d ~ dR ) ... (2. 1' .5,

R dp p dp = - kl p

_ ActUally we are interested in finding fie-Ids in the 1

I d P
coaxial line. These can be obtained using scalar p d¢l = - k:• ... (2. 1
potential q,.
and using Equation (2.18.4) ,
_ This q, is obtained as a solution of Laplace equation in
cylindrical system. - kl,, - kl0 =0
- The Laplace equation is, l 2
or k p + k• =0 . . . (2.1 .7)
L!( d$(p, q,})+ -I a2q,(p,q>}
Pap P ap P2 a4i2
= 0 ... (2.18.1) The solution of Equation (2. 18.6) is in tlu: fonn

Since q, is not a function of z, the last Lenn ~2 is not

Now, the value of P at any value of o from O to ~
shown as it is zero.
must be same. Tbe.n k¢ = n mu., 1 be an int.ci;cr.
- This second order differential equation can be solved
The Equation (2. I 8.7) is
applying boundary conditions.
P(¢) = A cos ( o • ¢) + B in (n • Q) ... t-.1 _Q)
HP=a,q,) = V 0 ••• inner conductor .. . (2.18.2(a))
From the boundary conJitiom in E..ju.111 )(I ( ~. l ' "' ) it L-.
$(p=b,q,) = 0 ... outerconductor ... (2.18.2(b))
clear that ¢ !>hOU ld not \' .ll)' \\ ll h ¢ . nu.. i-. ('! ibk
- To solve Equation (2. 18.1) we wiU use separation of when n = 0. i.e. k,o = 0. Frum E~u.illun l ~. I '.7) then

Variable method. The potential 4> can be written as

.. .l - . 1 ' . I 0)
product of two terms a~ ,
TI1i.s rriliU::t"-S fa1 uutil'\o (:!. I ) a.s
q, (j), q,) = R (p) P($) ... (2. 18.3)
Jl .i. (1l ~ ) a Q
R Jp \. d 1,
Where R(p)= a function of only p, untl

P(q,) = a function of only <j, . - ll ( di{ )

l lp I lip
1- • 0

Ttt1i.Nc.puI"-- .
tucahon,_ . . ,nnot•ll<NI
111,,.,,.. Authon, 1m,p1rr . .
- 1.'i.lDIU'Slllll •"''"""

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 ⇒
-----=~====~======~•~•av~
I dR
p dp =C a 2.1 8.1 Higher Order Modes

dR
- -Cp
⇒

Integrating we get R as,

dp Similar to waveguide TE and TM modes arc ~
present in the coaxial line.

To avoid propagation of these modes we should ~

l
R = R (p) = C Jn p + D .•. (2.18.1 l(a)) cut off frequency of the lowest order mode.

From Equation (2.18.3) then, TE 11 mode is the dominant mode in the coaxial cabl
c.
(ff> ForTEmode
4>(P,4>) = R(p)=C/np+D ... (2.18.ll(b))
E, = 0 and H, ~ 0
- Two constants C and D can be obtained using two
boundary conditions in Equation (2.18.2) The wave equation for H, is.

At p=a ... (2.18. 17)

Atp=b 4> (b, $) =C In b + D =0 ••. (2.18.12(b)) Where,

Subtracting (2. I 8. I 2(b)) from Equation (2. l 8. l 2(a))

V O - 0 = C /n a - C /n b
and

:. C
-2_
= In (alb) ... (2.18. l3(a)) As in cylindrical waveguide, the general solution ct
Equation (2. 18.17) is
Putting in Equation (2.18. l2(b)),
h, (p, ¢)=(A sin n¢ + B cos n¢) (C 10 (kc· p} +DY. (kc· p))

... (2.18.18) ·

Vo Remember, a$ p $ b So y0 terms are not discarded.

or D = /n (b/a) In (b) ... (2.18.13(b))
The top view of coaxial cable is shown in Fig. 2.18.2,I
Using values of C and D from Equation (2.18.13) in where horizontal tangential E0 component is clearly
Equation (2.18.l l(b)) seen.

Vo
= In (b/a) [In (b)- ln (p))

V0 In (b/p)
or 4l(p,4l)= ln(b/a) . .. (2.18.14)

The E and H fields can be obtained using • (1B17)Fig. 2.18.2: Top ,iew of coa.'dal cable

e = -V1 4> ... (2.1 8. 15)

I
and h = --a
Zrui t
Xe ... (2. I 8. I6)
I

~I
I
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rd pJicro~Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 2 _43 Waveguides

~ ·bou_ndanes
1'he conducting " are present at p = a and
~ 2.19 Cavity Resonators
- p ::: b, where tangential component E9 must be zero.

E•lp=a = 0 andE9 lp==b =O ... (2.18.19)

La. 2.19.1 Write a short note on: Cavity resonators. I
gut in Equation (2.18.18) we know H,. and we require A resonator is energy storing device, similar to a
E~ to apply boundary conditions. From circular
resonant circuit at low frequencies.
waveguide,
A resonator can be constructed using sections of open

E9 =
(ft
- j
~ T-wµ P
i:) E,. i:)H ~
i:)pz)
or short circuited transmission lines or co-axial lines.

The disadvantage of the open wire line is that there can

small but significant losses due to radiation. The field
in this case is TEM mode.
.. .(2.18.20)
At microwave frequencies, ordinary lumped parameter
elements (such as inductances and capacitances)
Using Equation (2.18.18) in above Equation ,
connected by wires are no longer practical as circuit
jroµ elements or as resonant circuits because the dimensions
E. = - ( A sin n ·ct>+ B cos n. cj>)
• k2 of the elements would have to be extremely small,
because the resistance of the wire circuits becomes
very high as a result of the skin effect, and because of
_ Applying boundary conditions i~ Equation (2. 18.19) to radiation.
above equation gives ,
A hollow conducting box with proper dimensions can
CJ' 0c.e•a)+DY
0
. ' (kc·a) = 0
0
.. .(2.18.22(a)) be used as a resonant device.

The box walls provide large areas for current flow, and
CJ:(~· b) +DY: (kc· b) = 0 ... (2.18.22(b)) .
losses are extremely small consequently, an enclosed
- The only nontrivial (C =t- 0, D -# 0) solution occurs conducting box can be resonator of a very high Q.
when the determinant is zero. Thus Such a box, which is essentially a segment of a
1: 0cc •a) Y: (kc • a) waveguide with closed end faces, is called a cavity
= 0 resonator.
J:(~·b) Y:(kc•b)
Cavity resonators have the advantage of reasonable
or J: (kc· a)• Y: (~ •b) = 1: (kc· b) · Y: (~ · a) ...(2.18.23) dimensions simplicity, remarkably high Q, and very
high impedance.
- Using numerical techniques this equation can be
~lved. The approximate value is, Electromagnetic cavities arc used as resonant circuit in

2 high frequency tubes such as the klystron, for band

~ = a+b pass filters, and for wave meters to measure frequency.

- Knowing Jc,, we can determine propagation constant or When one end of the waveguide is terminated in a
cutoff frequency. Solutions for TM mode can be shorting plate there will be reflections and hence
obtained on the similar lines. standing waves as shown in Fig. 2.19.1.

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 MU· Som. 7 • E&TC 2-44 Wave uldee

y Where fl = 7, we say that cavity resonates giving

f = f0 or m = CJ>o
Prom Th:1uation (2.19.1 ),

2
CJ)o flE = C~tY + ( nb1t y + ( r; y
(111t1JFl1t, 2.19.1
or I
fo = 2n~ [(m1ty (n1tf
+ b + a (p1t)j
d
n
1

When ,111other shorting plute is kept al n distance of a

"multiple of 1/2" then the hollow spuce so formed can
support a signal which hounces back and forth between
or fo = ~ ✓(~1 Y +(~Y+(:f
the two shoring plates. General mode of propagation in a cavity resonator is
This results in resonance and hence the hollow space is TEmnp or ™mnp· For both TE and TM the resonant
called cavity und tJ1e resonator as the cavity resonator. frequency ls the same In a rectangular cavity
resonator.
r;;r Expression for f0 In Rectangular Cavity Resonator

For a rectangular waveguide a 2.19.1 Field Expressions for TMmnp

Modes in a Rectangular Cavity
1/ = f+cu2µe =k: +k: =(n;t/ +(nbn/ Resonator

:. olµ e = (':1t Y+ ( nb1t Y-y2 LQ. 2.19.2 Derive the field expressions for TM modes
a rectangular cavity resonator.
in

For wave propagation , y

y = jp or y2 = / p2= - p2
or ciµe = (ma1t)2 +("b1t)2+A2
.., ... (2.19.l)

The phase shifl constant corresponding to a given guide

wavelength is ,
(1B19)Flg. 2.19.2

For TM wave, Hz = 0 and E1 "# 0

The wave equation is

p11., "',
Herc we have used d = 2 which is multiple of
2 . a2E, a2E, 2
a?° +ayr+y Ez =
or '.l2 2
uE,. c)E,. 2
i.e. a?" +ayr+ h E1 = 0 ... (2.19.2)
Where, p is a constant = I, 2, 3,..... that indicates half
wave variation of either electric or magnetic field along Where ll = y2 + oi µ e
the z-direction.
Let the solution of Equalion (2.19.2) be
d = Length of t~c resonator.

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 (MU · Som. 7 . E&TC VIIJ'IO( uidoo
2·'15
rutting E, in Equalion (2. 19.2).

iX + X.
, ,. ~ I
ct\
dy
1
+ h XY = 0
v:<

Dividing this equation hy (XY) und laking cons1nn1 on t'ir Applylng forth boundnry condlllona

• side we gel,
0t1C•
2 E, = 0 at .x ::a ti, we eel
iX I d Y
I ~ _ 2
+-· 2 = 11
or x·
di y dy
2

tel -X1 . d X2 = -kl

l
... (2.19.3) This is 1.,cro if
dx
, mn
I d"Y 2 kl = a
y d/ = -ky ... (2. 19.4)

2 2
Then the new expression for E, i
Then - kl -ky = - h2

2 2 E, = A -C • sin ( m; · x) -sin ( ";; · Y)

i.e. k1 + ky = h2

r::ir For a wave travelling In + z direction

Let the solution of Equations (2. 19.3) and (2. 19.4) be
E, = A • C • sin ( 7
mn •x) -s1n
. ("m
b · y) · c:-,.,. • e- yr
X = A sin (k1 • x) + B · cos (k1 • x)

Y = A sin (ls,· y) + D · cos(~• y). r::ir For a wave travelling In - z direction

Then E, becomes, . (7
E, = A • C • Sin mn · .x) . (b
·Sin
mt · y) · c-_,u • eTl

E,:: [A sin (k. . x) B . cos (k•. x)] [A sin Cky. y) D ·COS Cky. y)] We know that when the wave propagates.

<Jr Boundary conditions

(i) E, = 0 for y =0 and y =b, we get D =0 Adding the fields of two travelling wave . i.e. one in
(ii) E, = 0 for x =0 and x = a, we get B =0 positive 'z' direction and the other in the neg:itivi:. •z'
direction we obtain
rJr Applying first boundary condition

El =
E1 = 0 for y =0 gives D =0
.,.(- . 19.5)
rJr Applying second boundary condition

E1 = Ofor x =0 gives B =0 Where. A• ➔ It is the amplitude con t:1nt fort~ w:m~

propagnting in the positi,·e z.-direction nnd
Therefore, E1 becomes
A- ➔ It is the amplitude const:lllt the wm"e
E1 = A . C . sin k., - x · sin k, · Y propagnting in the ncgntive z-ilirectjon.
(fr
Applylng third boundary condition Now from the boundu111 conditions the nonn:i.1
component of the electric field is l'l11llim10lis "incc the
E1 = 0 at y =b, we get
short cin:uit is plnl·l'd in Jil"('('tion of prop:ig:ition.
E, = A. C. sin k•. .x sin ky . b
tJ1cn:fure

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 / oE, This field expression can be used to find other r~
az = 0 at z = 0 and z = d
components by using Maxwell's equal.ions as
cm,
c:. Oz =
m7t · x) ·sin ( b.
sin ( 7 n7t Y)
a .)
E, = Eo, . cos ( m1t X
. (b
·Slil
n7t . y) . sm
. ( p1t
d . z)
r.::
. [A•. e-ill•. (- jf3) + A- •iPz (- jf3)] A ·C
a .)
Ey = Eoy . sin ( mn X
. (b
·Sill
nn . y) . Sill
. ( d.
p1t )
z

= jf3 • sin ( ~7t · x) •sin ( nb7t · y)

H, = H0 , • sin ( mt · x) -cos ( n: ·y) · cos ( r;; ·z)
Hy= H0 Y -cos ( x) ·sin ( n: ·y) · cos ( r;; ·z)
oE,,
dz z=O
= jf3 sin ( ~1t • x) •sin ( n: ·y) ~1t ·

@" For TE Mode

· [A- ~A•] A· C
2
This is zero if A+= A- = A'
We have, = - (J) µ E H,

Expanding V H 2 and putting a2 / oz2 ⇒ y2

2
Putting this in Equation (2.19.5),

E, = (A' e-ifl' .+ A' ei11') A · C

a2H l
i)2u
' Lz 2 2
a;z-+ayr-+YJ\ =-wµEH,
. sm a.
. ( m1t X
) . (b
•Sm
n7t . y) Jwt
. C"

i.e.
The term A' e-i~' + A' ejp, = A' 2 cos Pz

E, = 2A' AC jf3 sin ( n~1t · x) •sin ( n: •y). cosf3z the solution of this equation be ,

H, = X · Y
= E0 , •sin ( ~1t · x) ·sin ( "; · y) · cos(f3z)
= [A sin (kx · x) + B cos (kx • x)]
The second boundary condition is [C sin (Icy • y) + D cos (ky • y)]
clE,
az =Oatz=d We have
- jw µ clH,
E• = ----:--r- -
- jw µ oH,
.E =~ -
h oy ' Y h clx

~:• = E0 , • sin ( ~1t · x) ·sin ( n: ·y) · sin (f3z) ·P Boundary conditions

(i) E, = 0 at y = 0 (ii) E1 = 0 at x = 0
(iii) Ex = 0 at y = b (iv) Ey =0 at x =a
Applying l ' and 2nd boundary condition, we get
1
This is possible if
p1t
sinf3d = 0 or f3d = p1t _or f3 = d

. ( m1t
E, = Eo, . sm a. X) . ( b.
·Slil
n1t y)
rd
Applying 3 and 41h boundary condition, we get
p1t )
. cos . ( <l .z . c:_jWI

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 ~ MiCrowave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 2-47 Waveguides

The wave travelling in +z direction

Hx == B •D · cos( ":rt x). cos (:rt. y). e-illt

For TEmnp modes : Either m or n (but not both m and

The wave travelling in - z direction n) can be zero, but that p cannot be zero.

lfx == BD · cos ( n: x) •cos ( nbrt. y). e-illt mn . x)

H, = Ho.z . cos ( 7 ·COS
(b
nn · y) · sm
. ( ct ·z
prt )

Let, A• and A- be the amplitude constants. Then for a The modes of the lowest orders are
total wave

:. ~ == [A+ e-jflz + A-d13' ]cos ( n: x). cos ( nbrt. y)

The resonant frequencies are ,

The boundary conditio ns is H, = 0 at z =O and z =d c_U,I_

(a) f110 = 2 . -\J 7 + 7
~lz=O
mrt X)
= [A+ + A- ] · COS ( 7 • COS
(b
nrt •y)
Therefore TM 110 is the dominant mode.

This is equal to zero if A• =- A- (b)

~ = A+ [ dflz - e-illt] · cos ( ":1t x) · cos ( :n ·y) Therefore TM 101 is the dominant mode. .

= A + . 2·JSIDtJZ
· A . cos ( 7m1t x) . cos ( bn1t . y) (c)
C
f110 = _r,;-:_
-v 2 a
Here all three of the lowest order modes (i.e. TE 110,
l"Eo11 , and TE 101 ) are dominant mode.
This is equal to zero if
Ex. 2.19.2
Explain rectangular cavity resonator. Find resonating
frequency of the cubical cavity of dimension 2 cm.

~ = H0 , • cos ( 7mn · x) · cos ( b

nn · y) · sm
. ( dpn · z) @ Soln.:
For rectangular cavity resonator, refer section 2.19. For
Remaining field components Ex, Ey, Hx, Hy can be cubical cavity all three lowest order modes are dominant
evaluated by using Maxwell's curl equations. modes for which,

Solved Problems 10
(e"" C 3 X 10
fc = \{2.a = \[2 X 2 = 10.61 (GHz)
Ex. 2.19.1
Determine the dominant modes and their frequencies in an The mode with the lowest resonant frequency for a
air filled rectangular cavity resonator for given cavity size is referred to as the dominant mode. The
(a)a>b>d, (b)a>d>b and(c)a=b=d, resonant frequency increases as the order of the mode
Where a, b and d are the dimensions in the x, Y and z becomes higher.
directions respectively.
0 Soln.:

·For TM
·"~p
modes : Neither m nor n can be
.
zero but
that P can be zero
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 l§l Mlcrowovo En11lnoorlno {MU - Som. 7 - r:11-rci
,,,(?i,?,IIA)
a 2.20 Quallty Factor (Q) of Covlty
Resonators Wl u1111 I(., lt1 1h11111<111 1\1'1'1•111 l.1 ' 11111 1'11110 f'l1HIHllll)l11; 11r 11~
1'1111011111111',

LO. 2.20.1 Doflno tho qunllly lnclor (0) of cnvlly

Thu11,
rosonotors.
Whun, 11 1 111 1h11 111'111< v11h111 111' lltll IIIIIH'lllllul 11111J!t11•1j,
J\ cnvity rcso11111or stores onergy i11 1111' ,ikctrll: 111ul
l11tllllNl1y. Putting l!q11111lrn111 O,?.O.'. I) 1111d (?,,'l,0,5) Ii
mngnetic Ileitis for nny pnr1 k 11l11r mndll p111t\'l'II,
Hq11111l1111 ('J..?.0,2) µ,lv1:11
In nny p11rtic11lnr cavity tho w11lls h11vo II l111ltu
conductivity, i.e. 11 11011 :t.ero s11rforn r\lsls11111rn, 11ml tllli f 1
rn,1 1· ,, I I! 1 !Iv
V
resulting power loss c1111scs 11 <h:cuy uf lhu stored 0 ;::,
energy. The q11111i1y foclor Q is de lined us,
M1Lximum energy stored per cycle
Q = 27t • E· ncgy lI'1ss11l1e1
. I for eye Ie . .. (2-~
'>() . I ) t7r Tho Domlnnnl TE 111 1 mo<1fl

'l'hl do111ln11n1 111odli 111 11 rccf1111µ, 1il11r 1111vlly ,l

If W = Maximum energy stmcd
dl111c11si11ns
P = Avcrnge power loss (or dissipnh.: d powor) 1111d (11 x h x d), d > 11 >h, Is '1'1!101.. 'l'ltc llclcl ox prc11slo11n flJ:
th is 111ndll nrc
co0 = Resonant frequency.

Now energy dissipated per cycle is ohtuincd hy (P/f:,). Ey = n.. sin ( ~ • x) sin ( j. 1)
Then Equation (2.20. 1) becomes
n..
1-1, = j(llll" ( Jn ) · sin ( ;n • x) • coll ( Jn •z)
(I)" w
Q = - p- ... (2.20.2)

We know thnt in II reson11nt circuit the electric nnd

mngnetic energies nrc cqunl nnd in time qundrntun:.
The pcnk uncrgy stored is Hivc11 hy
When the electric energy is mnximum, the magnetic
energy is zero nnd vice versa.

The total energy stored in n resonntor is cont nined hy II h 11

integrating the energy density over volume of the

= ½e ., ff J1 E/dx •dy • d1,
resonator. (I (I 0

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 Modu1e ·2

Microwave Passive Devices

Syllabus

Tees, Hybrid ring, Directional couplers, Phase shifters, Terminations, Attenuators and Ferrite devices
such as Isolators, Gyrators, and Circulators.

3.1 Waveguide Tees ............................................................... 3-3 3.7.2 Why E.H. Plane Tee is Called as Magic Tee? ....•.......... 3-12
La. 3.1.1 What Is waveguide Tees? .......................................... 3·3 3.7.3 Applications of Magic Tee ............................................... 3-12
3.1 .1 Flelds In TE10 Mode .......................................................... 3·3 3.7.3(A) Measurement of Unknown Impedance ......................... 3-12
3.1.2 Plane of the Waveguide .................................................... 3·3 LC. 3.7.2 With the help of diagram explain the Magic
3.2 E·plane Tee ...................................................................... 3·3 Tee used to measure the Impedance . ..................... 3·12
La. 3.2.1 Explain the construction and operation of 3.7.3(B) Magic Tee as a Ouplexer .............................................. 3-13
E·plane Tee.·-·-···-···-·-..········...... _ ............_..... _. 3.3 LO. 3.7.3 Write a short note on : Magic tee as a duplexer ··-- 3·13
3.2.1 Construction ...................................................................... 3·3 3.7.3(C) Magic Tee as a Mixer ..... .............................................. 3-14
3.2.2 Operation .......................................................................... 3-4 LC. 3.7.4 Write a short note on : Magic tee as a mixer........... 3-14
3.2.3 Properties of E·plane Tee ................................................. 3-4 3.8 Hybrid Rings .................................................................... 3·14
La. 3.2.2 Explain properties of E·plane Tee. UC. 3.8.1 Explain the wor1<ing of hybrid ring.
Also state its scattering matrix................................... 3·4 MU'.•·Dec,:._16: S.Marks ··············· ........................... 3-14
3.2.4 S•matrix ............................................................................. 3.5 UO. 3.8.2 Write a short note on : Hybrid ring
3.3 S·matrix of E· plane Tee .................................................... 3-5 MU'=Oec:.18;·-7, Marks ··············............................ 3-14
La. 3.3.1 Explain S matrix representation of E·plane Tee ........ 3-5 3.9 Direction Coupler ............................................................ 3-15
3.4 H·plane Tee ...................................................................... 3-5 UC. 3.9.1 Explain the working of Directional Couplers.
LO. 3.4.1 Explain the construction and operation of MU~ Dect,17; 5 Marks ·················......................... 3-15
H·plane Tee. .............................................................. 3-5 3.9.1 Symbol of the Direction Coupler ..................................... 3•15
3.4.1 Construction ....................... .............................................. . 3.5 3.9.2 Operation of the Direction Coupler ................................. 3-16
3.4.2 Operation .......................................................................... 3·6 3.9.3 The Property of Directional Coupler................................ 3·16
3.4.3 Properties of H·plane Tee ................................................. 3-6 LC. 3.9.2 Explain property of directional coupler..................... 3-16
LO. 3.4.2 Explain properties of H·plane Tee. 3.9.4 Practical Mode of Operation ........................................... 3-16
3.9.5 Applications of the Direction Coupler .............................. 3·16
Also state its scattering matrix................................... 3.5
LC. 3.9.3 Explain applications of the direction coupler. ........... 3-16
3.4.4 S·matrix............................................................................. 3.7
3.9.6 Performance Parameters of the Direction Coupler ......... 3-17
3.5 S·matrix of H-plane Tee .................................................... 3.7
LC. 3.9.4 What are the performance parameters of the
LQ. 3.5.1 Explain S matrix representation of H·plane Tee ........ 3.7
direction coupler? Explain . ....................................... 3-17
3.6 Magic Tee (E·H Plane Tee) .............................................. 3.9
3.9.6(A) Coupling Factor (C) ...................................................... 3-17
LO. 3.6.1 With the help of diagram explain the Magic Tee.
3.9.6(B) Directivity (0) ................................................................ 3.17
Give its applications................................................... 3-9
3.9.6(C) Isolation (l) .................................................................... 3-18
3 .6.1 Construction ...................................................................... 3.9
3.9.6(0) Insertion Loss ............................................................... 3•18
3 .6.2 Operation .......................................................................... 3-9 3.9.7 $-parameters .................................................................. 3-18
3.6.3 Properties of Magic Tee .................................................. 3·10 3.10 $-Matrix of a Directional Coupler ......................... :....·...... 3-18
3.6.4 S•matrix ........................................................................... 3· 10 UQ. 3.10.1 Explain S-matrix of directional coupler.
3.6.5 Applications of Magic Tee ............................................... 3-10 MU- Dec. 15, Dec: 16, 2 Marks ........................... 3-18
3.7 S•matrix of a Magic Tee·-··- ·······-······-········-··-··--·-· 3-1 o 3.11 Types of Directional Coupler........................................... 3-23
LO. 3.7.1 Explain scattering matrix of a magic tee.................. 3·10 La. 3.11.1 List types of directional coupler...._ ...........·-·········- 3.23
3.7 .1 Magic Tee with Different Input Conditions ...................... 3·11 3.11.1 Single Hole or Bethe Coupler ......................................... 3-23

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j

~ Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 • E&TC) 3-2 Microwave Passive Devices

LO· 3 . 11.2 Explain the construction and operation of single 3.16.S(A) Construction ................................. .............................. 3·37
hole directional coupler............................................ 3_23 3.16.5(8) Operation .. .. ....................... ......................................... 3-37
. 11 .1(A) Construction ............................................................... 3 _23 3.16.5(C) S-matrlx ...................................................................... 3-38
3 3.17 Isolator ............................................................................ 3-38
. . (8) Operation of a Single Hole Coupler ........................... 3 _23
3 11 1 LO. 3.17.1 What is Isolator? Explain In brief with Its use . ......... 3-38
. .1(C) Disadvantage of Single Hole Coupler ..._. ......... ........... 3. 24
3 11 3.17.1 Definition of Isolator ........................................................ 3-38
LO. 3 .11 .3 Whal are disadvantage of single hole Coupler 7 .... 3 _24
3.17.2 Symbolic Representation ................................................ 3-38
3. 11 .2 Two Hole Directional Coupler ......................................... 3 _24 3.17.3 Use of Isolator ................................................................. 3-38
3.11 .2(A) Construction ............................................................... 3-24 3.17 .4 Construction of Isolator ................................................... 3-39
3.11.2(B) Operation ......... ............... ............. ...... ························· 3-25 3.17.5 Isolator using Faraday Rotation ...................................... 3-39
ua. 3.11.4 Explain the operation of 2-hole directional coupler. UQ. 3 .17.2 Explain working of isolator using Faraday
MU • Dec. 15, Dec. 16. 3 Marks rotation. .........••... 3-39
························ ... 3·25
.
31 12(C) Separation between Holes .............•...................·-·-·· 3_25
3.17.5(A) Construction ········-·--·········-········••·•• ....·- ·····-··- ··..- ··· 3-39
3.11 .2(0) Effect of Frequency .................................................... 3_26 3.17.5(8) Operation .................................................................... 3-40
3.11.3 Multihole Coupler ............................................................ 3 _26 3.17 .6 Applications of Isolator ............................................•....... 3-40
LO. 3.11 .5 Explain the construction and operation of LO. 3.17 .3 Give applications of isolator..................................... 3-40
multi hole directional coupler. ................................... 3 _26 3.17.7 S-matrix ..~ ........................................................................ 3-41
3.11.3(A) Construction ............................................................... 3_26 3.18 Other Methods of Isolator Construction .......................... 3-41
.11 .3(B) Operation .........................................................._.......... 3 _27 3.18.1 Using Ferrite Resonance (Resonance Isolator) .............. 3-41
3
3.12 Phase Shifters ........... ....... ..................................: ........... 3_27 3.18.2 Isolator using Circulator .................................................. 3-42
ua. 3.12.1 Write a short note on : Phase shifters. 3.18.2(A) Isolator using Single Circulator ................................... 3-42
Mu ·s Ma .18; 5·Marks ·············............................. 3-27 3.1B.2(B) Isolator using More than One Circulators ................... 3-42
3.13 Terminations ................................................................... 3-28 3.19 Circulator ......................................................................... 3-43
LO. 3.19.1 Explain the concept of circulator with Its symbol
ua. 3.13.1 What . Is need of termination In microwave systems?
Explain any two types of terminations. and types.................................................................. 3-43
MU -:- Ma l 16;1f0 Marks ........................................ 3-28 3.19.1 Definition ......................................................................... 3-43
3.14 Microwave Attenuators ................................................... 3-29 3.19.2 Symbol ............................................................................ 3-43
LO. 3.14.1 Write a short note on microwave attenuators 3.19.3 Types of Circulator .......................................................... 3-43
and its types ............................................................. 3-29 3.19.4 A Four Port Circulator Using Magic rs ..........................• 3-43
3.15 Ferrites ............................................................................ 3_31 ua. 3.19.2 Design circulator using magic tees.
LO. 3.15.1 Explain ferrite materials and their properties . .......... 3-31 MU • Dec. 15. 5 Marks ··················· ······················· 3-43
3.15.1 Ferrite Composition ..............................................., ........ 3-31 3.19.4(A) Construction ............................................................... 3-43
3.15.2 Characteristics of Ferrite Material ................................... 3-32 3.19.4(B) Operation .................................................................... 3-44
3.15.2(A) Magnetic Moment ....................................................... 3-32 3.19.5 S-matrix of a Circulator ................................................... 3-44
3.15.2(B) Effect of de Magnetic Field ......................................... 3-32 3.19.6 Applications of Circulator ................................................ 3-45
3.15.2(C) Effect of ac Magnetic Field ..........................,,............. 3.33 LQ. 3.19.3 Explain applications of circulator in brief .................. 3-45

LQ. 3.15.2 Why interest is in circularly polarized wave§ ? ........ 3-33 3.19.6(A) Circulator as an Isolator.............................................. 3-45
3.15.2(0) Effect of Circularly Polarized Fields .......................... 3-34 3.19.6(B) Circulator as a Duplexer ............................................. 3-45
3.19.6(C) Circulator as a Phase Shifter ............................... _ _ 3-45
3.15.3 Faraday Rotation Principle ............................................. 3-34
3.15.3(A) Effect of Linearly Polarized Wave (LP Wave) ............ 3.34 3.19.6(0) Circulator as a Diplexer .............................................. 3-45
3.20 Other Types of Circulator ................................................ 3-46
UQ. 3.15.3 What is Faraday rotation in ferrites ?
LO. 3.20.1 Explain types of clrculators commonly used
MU • Ma .16;,5 Marks ·········································· 3-34
in practice . .............................'................................... 3 -45
3.16 Gyrator ...................... ...................................................... 3-36
3.20.1 A Compact Form of Circulator ....................................... 3-46
UQ. 3.16.1 Describe operation of Gyrator devices using
3.20.1(A) Construction ·
faraday's rotation principle. 3.20.1 (B) Operation ....................................::::::::···········............. ~
MU a Ma .17, 5 Marks ·········································· 3-36 3.20.2 Y-junction Circulator ···········
3.1a.1 Definition of Gyrator ..................... ................................... 3-36 3.20.2(A) Const · ........................................................ 347
ruction ........ .............. .. ...... ...... .. ...... -4
3·16.2 Symbolic Representation .............................................. .. 3-36 3.20.2(B) Operation.................. ................... 3 7
3•16.3 Types of Gyrator ............................................................. 3-36 3.20.3 S ecifications . ................................... 3 -47
p ........................................... 3-48
LQ. 3.16.2 Explain types of Gyrator.......................................... 3-36
3.21 Scattering Matrix of a 3-Port Circulator ....•:::::::::::::::::::::: 3 -48
LO. 3.21.1 Explain scattering matrix of a 3 .port ci 1
3·16.4 Gyrator with a Twist. ....................................................... 3-36 u . . rcu ator.•....... 3-48
3.22 nivers1ty Questions and Answers ................................. 3 _50
3·16·4(A) Construction ......... ...................................................... 3-36
Chapter Ends ................... .. .. ...................................................... 3-51
3.16.4(B) Operation.................................................................... 3.35 .
3·16·5 Gyrator without a Twist ................................................... 3-37

Tl'.tb-Neo Publications••- ...... Jnere Authors inspire innonJtion .-A £4CHIN SI/All J'mture

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 1§1 Microwave Engineering (MU - Sam. 7 - E&TC) 3-3

¾
C.
"" I 11 3.1 Waveguide Tees I The magnetic field component.! fix and Hz
combine resulting in closed nawr,e of magnetic lir.ci~
the horiwn_tal plane.

[ LQ. 3.1.1 What Is waveguide Tees?

Thus plane of magnetic field is horizontal. The r~
distribution in a waveguide for TE10 mode is ~ ~
Waveguides tee junctions arc used to split the input
Fig. 3.1. l.
signal into two or combine the signals from two inputs
with proper consideration of the phase.
f a. 3.1.2 Plane of the Waveguide
In microwave circuits a waveguide or coaxial-line
junction with three independent ports is commonly
It is a plane containing a.xis of the waveguide i:/c
referred to as tee junction.
parallel to the broad side. It is shown in Fig, 3.1.2.
For simpler interconnections T-shaped junctions are
!Alis
used. The junctions that are widely used in the I

microwave technique are :

I(i) E-plane tee (ii) H-plane tee I

For more complex situations junctions used are

(i) hybrid T (ii) hybrid rings.

Ia. 3.1.1 Fields In TE10 Mode I Plane of

waveguide

(a) (b)
In order to understand the definitions of E plane tee and (1C2)Fig. 3.1.2: Plane of wavegn:ide
H plane tee, the knowledge of field distribution in TEio
For a horizontal waveguide the plane is horizontal as
mode is must.
shown in Fig. 3.1.2(a). But for the vertical waveguilie
In the dominant mode i.e. TEio mode the field
the plane is vertical is shown in Fig. 3.l.2(b).
components present are
Field components : Ey, }\ and Hz.

The electric field Ey is vertical and perpendicular to the

1~ 3.2 E-plaoo Tee
I
broad side a. Thus electric field always appears in
LO. 3.2.1 Explain the construction and operation of
vertical plane or the plane of electric field is vertical.
E-plane Tee.

I 'B.. 3.2.1 Construction

y It is formed by cutting a rectangular slot along the

.I broader dimension of a long waveguide and a side ann
is attached to it as shown in Fig. 3.2. I.
I b - - - - · Magnetic field
- - Electric field
The side arm attached is caned as auxtliary arm and the
long waveguide is the main arm.
(1C1)Fig. 3.1.1 : Field distribution in TE10 mode

Tech-Nco Puhlir.ationa."'""'" Where Authora impire inntmttion

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 MicroWSV8 En ineering (MU - Sem. 7 _ E&TC) Microwave Passive Devices
3-4

_ It is called as E-plaoe tee because the plane of auxiliary

arm is parallel to the plane of electric field of the
dominant TE10 mode ·m the main waveguide.
Fig. 3.2.l(b) shows the actual photograph of E-plane
tee.
m. . . . .___._.....1.-_._~___._iC•l'J i l - ( 2)

A,uxiliaryarm--~ (a) (b)

(E- ann)
(3)t

--+-

- (2)

(1C3}Fig. 3.2.l(a): E-plane tee (c)

(tCS)Fig. 3.2.2 : Operation of E-plane tee

Conversely, if the fields of opposite polarity are fed

into two arms I and 2, the fields in arm 3 are added as
shown in Fig. 3.2.2(b).

lf the fields of the same polarity are fed into the two
side arms these emerge out of arm 3 in opposite phase
and therefore cancel out as shown in Fig. 3.2.2(c).

1 B. 3.2.3 Properties of E-plane Tee I

La. 3.2.2 Explain properties of E-plane Tee. Also state

(tC4)Fig. 3.2.l(b) : Phot.ograph its scattering matrix.

Ia. 3.2.2 Operation From the operating principle we summarize the

properties of E-plane tee as :

- Consider a dominant TE 10 mode is incident at port 3. (i) When the dominant TE mode is incident in the
The electric field lines in this mode are perpendicular symmetrical port 3, fields of opposite polarity
to the broad side. emerge from the main arms 1 and 2.

.- These electric lines of force travel towards the junction. (ii) When powers entering the main arms l and 2 are
While passing through the junction these lines bend as in phase opposition, maximum energy comes out

shown in Fig. 3.2.2(a). of port 3 or E-arm.

- After travelling some distance these lines will become (iii) Reverse, when powers entering the main anns l
vertical so that at the time of coming out E field is and 2 are in phase, minimum energy comes out of
port 3.
perpendicular to broad sides of port 1 and 2.

- The bending of lines is such that fields of opposite

polarity are out from two arms l and 2.
.....A SACIJJNSHA:// Jmtftt'e-

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[ii Mlcrowavo En9inooring (MU · Som. 7 • E&TC) 3.5 Micro-Na·, o Pan:we ~
~
[ 'a. 3.2.4 S-matrlx I ,, I ⇒ S1, a
I
,{2 ...(3.3..S)

Using properties of E-plnnc tc-c the following \C:ittrring Fmrn L:tJuation, (3.3.11·•· J (3.3.3)
matri x is <'htniOC'\I.
...(J.)~,
I/ .!
The 1cro property give,
ISi = [ 1/2

1,-.Ji

Ia 3.3 s-matrlx of E-plane Tee I ...0.3.11

LQ. 3.3.1 Explain S matrix representation of E·plane Pulling Equations (3.3.7), (3.3.5) in Equation '3.3.2J
Tee.

[SI is 3 x 3 matrix since there are 3 ports.

I
⇒ S Ii - 2 ...(3.3$J

Thus we have S11 = Sn

Since outputs at ports I and 2 are out of phase by 180° S11 = S12
for an input at port 3, therefore I
·~
I Su = - Sn
Sn = ,{i

lf port 3 is perfectly matched to lhe junction, Su = O

gives
Substituting rhe values of S p:tramelerS 0
Equation (3.3. 1).

1/2 In
From the symmetry property of S matrix, S-I) = sJI.. gives
ISi = [ l/2 1/2 _( ).J.9)

1,-fi - 1,-fi
New [S) becomes

... (3.3. 1)
I a 3.4 H-plane Tee I
La. 3.4.1 Explain the construction and operation ol
H-plane Tee.
From lhe unitary property,

R1 R~ ⇒ IS~
11
2 2 1
1 + 1s 12 1 + 1s 13 1 = 1 ...(3.3.2)
~
Ia. 3.4.1 Construction

Rl u
' "2• ⇒ I S12 12 + I Sn I2 + I Su I2 = I ...(3.3.3)
1 It is fom~ by cutting n rect:i.ngula.r I t along tlx
2 2 width of a long " avcguidc anJ a ~idc m11 i • att:ichl:-J 10
R) ·,
R• ⇒ I SI) 1 + I SI) I = I ... (3.3.4)
ii as ~hm, n in fig. 3.4. 1.
Tedi- "° Publiation• 111,,-,r ,4ur/,or, in.pirr int»• Afiorr
_ 4.f l OIH SH.fH l f"'MWI'

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.....--

~ Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 • E&TC) 3-6

Microwave Passive Devices

But if two out of phase waves are fed from ports 1 and
2, these . are cancelled at port 3. This is shown in
Main arms
Fig. 3.4.2(c).

(1C6}Fig. 3.4.1 (a) : H-plane tee

Electric field
-+-----'o
0 0 O
·:~:L
O O O 0

0 0
O O O O ®
G) 0 0 0 0 O O O O 0

+- 0 0 0 0 0 ooo-
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

(a)

t@
o O 0
•••
0 0 0
•••
0

G) • • •
• •••
•
• ~ 0 ~.
0 0 0
~®
• O' 0 0

• • • ••
-+ • • • 0 0 0 O+-
0 0 0 0
(1C7}Fig-. 3.4.1 (b): Actual photograph
•••• 0 0 0 0

g~i~L
- The side arm attached is called as auxiliary arm and the (b)

longwaveguide is the main arm.

It is called as H-plane tee because the plane of auxiliary

arm is parallel to the plane of magnetic field of the
dominant TE 10 mode in the main waveguide.
_J
CD1
O
o
O
o
O
o
O
o
0 0 0 o
0 O O O
O O O
O O O O

00

O
o

00
o
0 0
o
0
o
0
o®
Fig. 3.4.l(b) shows the actual photograph of H-plane -+ooo o o ooa.-
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
tee. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Ia. 3.4.2 Operation I (1C8)Fig. 3.4.2 : Operation or H-plane tee

(c)

Consider a dominant TE 10 mode is incident at port 3.

The electric field lines in this mode are perpendicular
Ia. 3.4.3 Properties of H-plane Tee

to the broad side. The electric field of this mode travel

LQ. 3.4.2 Explain properties ot H-plane Tee. Also state
towards the junction.
its scattering matrix.
- While passing through the junction the electric field
does not suffer any bending and thus input wave splits From the operation of H-plane tee, properties of it are
summarised as :
into two equal waves as shown in Fig. 3.4.2(a).

- This is the top view of structure in Fig. 3.4.1(a). In this (i) When the dominant TE mode is incident in the
symmetrical port 3, fields of same polarity emerge
view electric field lines appear as dots.
from the two main arms.
Similarly, if two waves are fed from ports 1 and 2,
these are added in the auxiliary arm 3. This is shown in
Fig. 3.4.2(b).

Tedt~Neo Publications"..--- Where Authon inspire innoration .....A SAC/I/IV SI/All Yeatun:

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 M1c;ruw1:1vtt r-ass1ve 08111,,.
~~~JM~l~cr~o:w:av~e~E~n~g~ln:ee:ri~n~gJ(M~U_;·~S~em~.7~-E~&~T~C~)===~3-~7==========""""======,:;;;;j-=-~
(ii) When powers entering the main arms I und 2 nrc in from the unitary property,
phase opposition, minimum energy comes out of port 3 2 2 I 2
R1 R~ ⇒ I S11 I + I s,2 I + S13 I = I ...(J.s,l j
~ or H-nrm.
1 2 2 IS 2
~ ~ ⇒ I S12 I + I S22 I + 11 I = I ...(3.S.Jj
(iii) Reverse, when powers entering the m:iin nnns I and 2
are in phase, maximum energy comes out of port 3. ...(3.5~)

1a. 3.4.4 S-matrix ...(3.s.si

Using properties of H-plane tee the following From Equations (3.5.2) and (3.5.3) :
scattering matrix is obtained
...(3.5,6)
1/2 -1/2
1/2
11,fi]
11,fi The zero property gives
[SJ = - 1/2
[
11,fi 1r,,p. 0 R1 ~ ⇒ S11 • s~J+ S12 • s~l = 0

1'!!t.. 3.5 $-matrix of H-plane Tee I ...(3.5.7)

LQ. 3.5.1 Explain S matrix representation of H-plane Putting Equations (3.5.6). (3.5.4) in Equation (3.5.1)
Tee.
2 2 I
I S11 I + I Su I + 2 =
[SJ is a 3 x 3 matrix since there are 3 ports.

...(3.5.8)

Thus we have

Since outputs at ports I and 2 are in phase for an input

at port 3, therefore

If port 3 is perfectly matched lo the junction Substituting the values of s parameters ill
Equation (3.5. I),

1Ap]
[
1/2 -1/2
From the symmetry property of S matrix, [SJ = - 1/2 1/2 )~ ...(3.5.9)

S12 = S21; S13 =S31: S23 =S32 tk/2 lk/1,

New [SJ becomes, Ex. 3.5.1

S12 S13 A signal of power 20 mw is fed into the one of the collinC3f
[ s,,
[SJ = s,2 S22 S13
S13 S13 0
] ... (3.5.1)
ports of the H-plane Tee. Determine the powers at the
remaining ports when other ports are terminated by means
of matched loads.

Tedi-Neo PuJ,licalions......,__ Where Aut/101'!1 in.vpirc 1iinon1tion .....ASAO/INSIU/I J'entart

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 Colinear b3 = 'V12 a 1 ➔ P3 =1b3 1l = 2f 1a1 12

1
!!
➔
(arms
\b~ ®+-
=
1
2x20= IOmw
a1 a2
H-arm
a3t +b3 Ex. 3.5.2

3 In an H-plane Tee junction.. 30 mW power is applied to port

(tC9)Fig. Ex. 3.S.l 1
3 that is perfectly matched to the junction. Calculate the
power delivered to the load 75 .Q and 60 .Q connected to
Let signal is applied to port 1
ports 1 and 2

\ :. a1 * 0 ltJ Soln.:
Other ports are perfectly matched
CD
b1 b3.
~;.. =75 n ➔ +'
._ z;::600
•• ~ = l¼=O ' a, ;
a2

Since a1 * 0

8 at @
Matched
To find signals coming out of all 3 ports we can go for
(1C10)Fig. Ex. 3.S.2
s-matrix of H-plane tee.
Given : P3 = 30 mw ➔ I l¼ 1 = 30 mw
2

Since impedances connected to ports I and 2 are not

matched (;t: 50.Q). there- reflection occurs. Reflection
coefficients are,
We have Zi.1-Zo
75-50 1
r, = ½.1 + Zo - 75 + 50 - 5

Zu-Zo
r2 = Zu + 2o =60-50 1
60 + 50 =11

We have

[b]. = [s] [a]

1
=
4 x20mw=5mw
P 1 = Smw

b2 = - 21 a 1 ➔P2 =1b2 12 =41 1a1 12 =5mw

These signal are equal, therefore P I and P2 are equal.

Tedi-Neo PublitatioM.--- Where-Authors inspireinnoralion ·-·.A SAC/JIN SI/All Vtt1t~

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~ Microwave Engineering (MU • Sem. 7 • E&TC) 3-9 Microwave Passive ~
~
The arm attached lO Lhe side (Port 3) is H-arm and~
ann aruched to top (Port -i) is E-arm.
ReOcctcd powers from pon 1 and 2 arc
1 I
P,, = r , P1=25 X15=0.6mw

Tot.~ power coming out of ports I und 2 urc :

P01 = P1 - P, 1 = 15 - 0.6 = 1-t..t mw

Pei: = P1 - P,:= IS - 0.12-t = l-t.876mw

I
;;;
a. 3.6 Magic Tee (E-H Plane Tee)
Sil_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _. .
I .-I -a -3-
(IC11)Fil!, J .6. l(b) : Actlllll p hococraph
.6-.2--0-p-e-ra_t_lo-n--,

LO. 3.6.1 With ttio help of dlllgrnm oxplo1n tho Mog,c

Tee. Give its applications. A rn.1g1c tee 1\ ' ) m111etricaJ about an imaginary plil!X
h1-.cct10g jrm, 3 and -t . and has !>Orne very useful an1
A nugic tc-e is :in inlC'~ting v:ui:11ion 10 tc-e junction\.
in1crc~110g propcm~. l1le plane of :.ymmetry is sho111
It i the rombi n:it ion of E and 11 pll.OC tc-e .
in Fig. J .6.:!.

I 'a. 3.6.1 Construction TI1c electric field for the dominant mode TE 10 when
e, i-.tcd in :um J ...,;11 be symmetrical about the planc ol
Herc rectangul3r ~lots :ire: cut :ilong the ,~idth and ymrnctry. Dut ..., hen excited in arm -i is unevenly
brc.1dlh of :i long waveguide and i.ide anns :ire a.tUchcd i.) mmctricll bout the plane.
as MlO\~n in Fig. 3.6.1. TI1e actu:il photograph is !.hown
in Fig. 3.6.1(b).
Plane of symmetty

Port,
(1C11)Fig. 3.6.J(a) : Magic ttt construction

Pons I and 2 arc ends of a long waveguide are

collinear arms. (1C13)Fig. 3.6.2 : Showing plane of symmetry

Ttdt-NN Puhlicatio~-- Jrhcrr. Auth«-, itl!'pl're ~

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 ~ 11lll'l'II ' 1,n ' "''" '-'l' 'l't'lllh, in t.imili. ,,, 1111 r,,J,tt
in 11-rm~ I an,I 2
n,;11 I I))("(' t'h'{l11 fich1, IHt' •n p ,:.v , 1i,1 :.nn 4 "' t If ,. w. n ·, , , f1rJ ,-, • r,,. ,,, ,,,. ,,,r., " ,,. _,,,.,-: 1' r,-,,. I
f1'!\lllin 111'("{'11tplr,l ~ ~IJ"(' ~ , f ,d,I r,, ""' I ,,, I II' Pt $' .,,,] 11 ,'1 r, c •;~,, ir ,., , ., , 1 ,,, •,·/" ·,• ,,. 1rn ,r
11nmi w t11nlCO'-IOfl "C ( IIC'd 11'1 lll'lt\ ,1

\\11en th~ inp111 " ~phr,I ,,~ I ~,, ,1, ,hir 10 uric, , n
1
~mmclf) nn I 1h , 11\n ''"'""' In 11111 111 1, ,11 ,,e f,tl " ,:i J .6.4 S•ml\ttlx
J''ilt I :md 1
al'l\1 °'' ftdJ in n11n ~
h t<-n th: r r ' ~f ~l!C1 t ... l .1•••t ~ , • 1•: t I C: : • .....
WllCf'I tn ph!\'-" ,,rn:ih nrc :ipphru 10 IIJ1Tr\ I 11.-,j 2
&l1\ -CJ J.,l
f"('\\l)t, in m:u.1mu111 "fn:tl in :um 3 :mJ tlllmmum tn
:um 4

WhC'n nut ( ph:i'C ''J:nah :uc: applied

f"('t,ull~

umd.
,n nu:i.imu111 1o.1rn:il in arm J
111 ['11n\ I mJ !.
and minin um '"
I I •
I
0

{:
1;-.fi
0

!
·~
I/'I •

u
:
.
~ ,~ ..•
0
•
w

- I/'\{: I) ()

a 3.6.5 Appllcollons of Mnglc T~

◄

i
__ • s ,~nru 1n10
E arm

Port -4
la) for n~ i,urcmcnt u( 1mrc,lui.,c
6
•, _,.."'-.,..1-- -- - --
•

I a. 3.7 $-matrix of o Mogle Tee ]

j ta. 3.1 .1
[ a. 3.6.3 Properties of Mogle Tee
~l"i.:C Ith .1 f '-:! f" 'I'\ l'Si •
Some of the 1m ,um pru pcmo .!.ft" :
s. ') ! ~ I :')

1) lf Ii v.· , c ,~ kJ 111h.l I ,n 4 ctJic ll :1IT11l, 11 ,U be

\ ~ s. ..
collmc~r wnh .md ~ 1ll 1 1 .1ppc.i! 1 pun ) llhc L ..:ml ', ·- .. '>

(ai) If t~ o v.a,n of n1ual 111:irnHu~k .:111J 11.c t.Qt1 t•hallC' '· ' ~ .. ~

!lie fed inw I 111 I 11nd n 2. 1hc 11 u1pu1 111 1< /CJU ,.1

pon) taJ1d ?Jddati,c 1&l J•<>11 4.

'

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 ~ Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC)
3-1 1 Microwave Passive ~
~
This means that ports 1 and 2 are also perfC(:i,j
From the symmetry
matched.
- Thus we have five unknowns as
1
Sn= -../2
Port 3 and 4 are perfectly matched
I
S14 = {2

Ports 3 and 4 are perfectly isolated ports

Substituting the values of S parameters
Equation (3.7.1)
Combining above results
0 0 11\P- 11..[i
Su S12 Su S14
0 0
.S12 S22 Su - S14 [SJ=
. .. (3.7.1)
[SJ =
Sn ~13 0 0 Jf\P. lf\P. 0 0

Sj4 . - S14 0 0 11\P- - 1/\P- 0 0

Using unitary property : a. 3.7.1 Magic Tee with Different Input

. I 2 2 2 2
_R1R1 = JS 1~1 + I S12 I I S 13 I + 1S 1~ = (3.7.2)
Conditions

. 2 '2 2 2
R2 R2 = 1S121 ;+-1S22 1 IS 13 1 +)S 141 = ... (3.7.3) From the scattering matrix the outputs of magic tee car
. 2· 2 ... (3.7.4)
be obtained for different input conditions .
R3 Rl = IS 131 + I S13 I = 1
.
R•R• = I S14 + 1s1l = 1 r ... (3.7.5)
The inputs-outputs of the magic tee are related by,

[b] = [ S ]Ia]
From Equations (3.7.4) and (3.7.5) 0 0 11'[2 IN2 al
bl
l
⇒ S13 = {2 b2 0 0 1A[2 -1N2 82
=
I
b3 JN2 1/\[2 0 0 83
= {2 b4 1A[2 - 1A[2 0 0 84

From Equations (3.7.2) and (3.7.3) we get, Solving,

⇒ )S11 = S22 1
I bl = {2 (a3+a4)
I • •
Putting above values in Equation (3.7.2)
' ' 1
b2 = {2 (a3 -a4 )

1
b3 = {2 ( a1 +az)
I
b• = {2 (a. -az)

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 c1 vo Engineering (MU• Som. 7 • E&TC) 3-12 Microwave Passive Devices
~ lcro'llll
. JC .
IJY pulltll&
different input conditions, the outputs are J
_
~ 3.7.3 Applications of Magic Tee l
_
01,wined
Applications of magic Ice are :
CtL~C l •• Input is applied only to port 3.
(i) Measurement of unknown impedance

(ii) Magic lee as a duplexer

(iii) magic lee as a mixer

_ Cusc JI : Input is applied only to port 4 a 3.7.3(A) Measurement of Unknown

Impedance

LO. 3.7.2 With the help of diagram explain the Magic

Tee used to measure the impedance.
_ CtL'lC IJf : Input is applied only to port I

Known X1 X2
--+
standard 1--._-0----1 · Unknown
⇒ t>, = 0; 1 . 2 Impedance
Impedance
b1\ /b2
83 t 3
Microwave
source
a 3.7.2 Why E.H. Plane Tee is Called as (tC15)Fig. 3.7.l
Magic Tee?
Circuit arrangement for measuring unknown
- There arc two rea,;ons for this impedance is as shown in Fig. 3.7.1. Four ports of
magic tee are connected to
(i) In the derivation of S-matrix we initially assumed
two lll.lxiliary port are matched Port I ⇒ Known standard imJ>Cdancc

Port 2 ⇒ Unknown impedance

The resultant scattering matrix then shows that Port 3 ⇒ Microwave source ( a3 )
two input ports are also getting matched
Port 4 ⇒ Null detector
i.e. S 11 = S22 = 0 When a3 :t: 0 results in
Tn other words, in a magic tee which is a fourport
and
network when two ports are matched then
remaining two ports are automatically matched
But ports 1 and 2 are not connected to matched
(ii) When power is applied to port J (i.e. a1 :t: 0), impedance Z-o, it results in reflection.
nothing is coming out of port 2 (b2 = 0) even The reflected signal are x 1 and x •
2
though they are collinear ports.
- This is like a magic, hence E-H plane tee is also called
X1 = Ii
b1 and

~ magic tee.
X2 = b2!2
'fttl,-Nt<1 J•u 11' • ........,_ '1'1tt:n:
1 1cat11mJJ rrn Autnors
t • • mnora
1nsp1n: • t,'on
--.A S7lCHllYSHAH l'catare

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 ~ Microwave Engineering (MU - Som. 7 - E&TC) 3-13 Microwave Passive Oevfcea

Wl1crc, fT and 12 arc the reflection coefficients al f a 3.7.3(8) Magic Tee as a Duplexer J 4q

port 1 and 2, given by

LO. 3.7.3 Write a short note on Magic tee as a
z,-2'.o
fT = z,+Zo duplexer.

Zi-Zo Antenna
and 12 = Zi +2'.o 84! 4~

Now inputs for magic tee arc x1 and x2• The signaJ out 1 ~
Receiver 1---0----1 ~agic tee 1-----0--1,Transmftter
2
of port 4 (y) is proportional to difference of x1 and x2
3
I¼
applied to null detector

1
= {2 (x 1 -x~

= {2" (b1 IT - b212) (1C16)Fig. 3.7.2

Four ports of a magic tee are connected to

= {2" {2" (IT -12)
X 113 Port 1 ➔ Receiver
Port 2 ➔ Transmitter
When [T -:f. f"1 results in y -:f. 0. Thus null .detector
Port 3 ➔ Matched load
connected to port 4 shows some deflection.
Port 4 ➔ Antenna
The standard known impedance is now varied such that
Duplexer is a circuit used to isolate transmitter from
null detector shows zero defection, that is y = 0. This
receiver and using it same antenna can be used as a
happens when
transmitting and receiving antenna.
fT When the transmiller is on, the input to a magic tee is
<½· This signal comes out of port 3 and port 4 as x1
and x4•

The signal coming out of port 3 (i.e. x3} is absorbed by

or Z1 = Zi
a matched load connected to port 3.
The signal coming out of port 4 (ic. .x4) is transmitted

Or using antenna. No part of the power from transmitter

reaches receiver at port I.

In the receiving mode, the antenna receives the signal

It means value of unknown impedance is equal to that which enters into port 4 (a4 -:f. 0).

of known standard impedance. This signal is divided into ports 1 and port 2 equally.

The receiver connected to port 1 receives it The other

half goes into the transmitter.

Tcch-Neo Publications..,_,._.. W/,ere Au/hors inspire innornlion _.,.A SAC/I/JVSI/AH Yen1arr:

I I

I.
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 Mu • Som. 7 • I:& TC} Mlc:rownvn P110,.,lvo OovlcM
3· 1'1

r111,, lfllll'-llliller ii. ii.(11.,tcd f10111 rccc1

·vcr cluii11g Jlyhrld iillH I\ fnur porh j1111ctlo11. The (11111t h p:111 IP>
11d1kd h }\et1crn l thr ee p:trl T1:c j 1111ctii>r1.

~
Mogle Too oo O Mlxor ,t

Wnto o chart noto on : Mogle too on a mlxor.

rn 11,i, applicati on. four 1x,n, of II mui:lc Ice urc

conncc1c<l 10

Port I > .M111chcd loutl

Port 2 ; Mi,cr

Port 3 , Antcnnu
t1Ct4J Fl1t, .1.H. l(n) : llyhrld ri111t

There :11e 1,\n input, for the mnric tee. The , irn ti
m:ci, ctl hy 1hc ,11llt1111,1 ,111d the u111p111 11 f lhc lnc:d
0 -.cill.,tor enter, 11110 1lor1 J .11111 IXll t ·1 r C\ l'CC II\ CIy

II rc,1111, in llillf 1he loc,11 o-.cilla1or 1><,wr1 und hnll uf

the r<-'" er rccch ed h) an .1111e1111., 10 enter rn1<1 rnl\ cr.
·nu:-.c l \\(l [)<l\\Cf ', ,ire rni,cd Ill 1hc nm.e r IO rcncr,tlc
JnicrmcdiJtc Frc:quc ncy (IF). pai,Fl1:. J.H. l(hJ : l'u~ rr n<M In h) lirltl rln1:

Antonnn The four pom ;,re cor111cc1ctJ in angul11r rin g f;i, hion.

3
Pon, ;uc nl rcg11l,,r in1crwal~ in 1hc rini.:.
·111c-.e port, arc \cpar.ilcd hy appropriale electrical
lcng1h,. Due 10 th i, ii c.tn ,u,111i11 \ lllntling wave~.

ll i\ irnportanl fo r the , ini; lO have lhc rnc :111

circurnrcrcm:c equal 10 1.5 }.g in orrlcr 10 achieve
pro1!\:r opcr.11io11.

Each por1 m11, 1 he ,cpar,1tcd from the neighbouring

11cmFIJ!. 3.7.J port hy a di, 111ncc of },/ 4

rr Opera tion
a 3.8 Hybrid Rings
(i) When powi:r ii, fee.I 10 pon (I)
The power ic; split in equal nrnounL'l into port (2)
UO. 3.8.1 Ex.plain tho working of hybrid ring.
nntJ port (4).
•M•B❖tfi,.1-1&®11 /\I port (2) a11d pon (-1) power is combined in
ua. 3.8.2 Wri10 a s hort note on : Hybrid ring
phase bul power i~ cancellcc.l at port (3).
fM'd •14-MF-fitrfflfl
Refer Figs. 3.8. I (a) :wt.I (b). .....AJAl.ll/NSIIA/1 l'rfll11m
't1.rr1irr innoration
Trth-, !"ti PuLliration•-·--- II /,rrr , uth0 ~
1
r
'

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 Cancellation occurs due to the fact that, path
difference = Afl..

(ii) When power is fed to port (3)

It is equally divided into ports (2) and (4).

At port (2) and (4) power is combined and at
port (1) it will be cancelled due to path difference
of')..1 /2.

rr Scattering matrix for Ideal hybrid ring

(1C18JFig. 3.9.l(a) : Stripline direction coupler
0 S12 0 S14

S21 0 Sn 0
s =
0 S32 0 S3,1

S41 0 S43 0

c:r Applications

{l) It can be used for combining two signals or dividing a

single signal into two haJves.
(2) When two unequaJ signals are fed at port ( I) the sum of
the signal appears at port (2) and port (4) whereas
difference signaJ is obtained at port (3).

Ia 3.9 . Direction Coupler i

(b) Wa,-eguide direction coupler
(1C19)Fig. 3.9.1 : Two forms or direction coupler

Photographs of the direction coupler are shown

UQ. 3.9.1 Explain the working of Directional Couplers. Fig. 3.9.1 .
MU,• Dec; 17,·s Marks

c:r Definition of Direction Coupler Ia. 3.9.1 Symbol of the Direction Coupler]
A deuice used to couple a known portion of the power to Through
the measuring circuit is a direction coupler. lnput pon pon,

ln radar applications the continuous monitoring of

1

,-
t :r 2 '1

'
power transmitted is required. 4
- _.C ,~ 3
I -
Isolated
Coupl~
The power involved in measurement is large which pon port
requires high rating of the wattmeter.

In this situation instead of measuring all the power only

a known portion (for example 1/100 or 1/1000) is
coupled to the measuring circuit.

The low watt wattrneter can now measure this small

power. The reading of the wattmeter is calibrated to (1C20)Fig. 3.9.2 : Symbol or the direction coupler

measure the actual power.

Tecb-Neo Publications.._ ..,_Where Authors inspin: innoration ..._4 S.4CHl!VSHAH Yeatart

• • I

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 Microwave Passive Devices
~ Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 3-16
~
The termination can be internal to the device and port 4
?t- 3.9.2 Operation of the Direction
Coupler is not accessible to the user.

Thus, it results in a 3-port device. It is shown in

Direction coupler has four ports, where one is
photograph Fig. 3.9.3. The alternative symbol in this
regarding as the ''input" (pan I ). one is regarde<l as the
mode is shown in Fig. 3.9.4.
•'through" port (port 2) (where most of the signal
e~sts), one is regarded as the coupled port (part 3)
(where a fixed fraction of the input signal appears,
usually expressed in dB), and one is regarded as the
"isolated" port (port 4 ) which is usually terminated.
_ Symbol of the direction coupler shows that the input
signal can also be applied to other ports.
_ If the signal is reversed so that it enters "through"' por1.
(1C21JFig. 3.9.3(n) : Direction coupler will, isolnted port inside
most of it exist the "input" port, but the coupled port is
now the port that was previously regarded as the
•'isolated" port.
_ The coupled port is n function of which port is the
Incident port.

a 3.9.3 The Property of Directional

Coupler

LO. 3.9.2 Explain property of directional coupler.

The property of directional coupler can be explained (b) Coupler with isolated port outside but not accessible
from Fig. 3.9.2 it is {1C22Jfig. 3.9.3 : Direction coupler with three ports

(i) Wave incident in port I couples power into ports 2 and

3 but not into port 4. 1 2
(Input) (Through)
(ii) Similarly. power inciden_t in port 4 c~uples into port 2
and port 3 but not into port I. Thus ports I and 4 are
isolated. 3
(Coupled)
(iii) For waves incident in port 2 or 3. the power is coupled
(1C23)Fig. 3.9.4: Symbol or a three port direction coupler
into port I and port 4, so that port 2 and port 3 are also
isolated. 8. 3.9.5 Applications of the Direction
(iv) Also all four ports arc matched. Coupler

Ia. 3.9.4 Practical Mode of Operation I LC. 3.9.3 Explain applications of the direction coupler. \

_ The device is not normally used in reverse mode and ( I) Power measurement
port 4 is usuall y terminated with a matched load (2) As a power divider
(¼ = 50 Q).
'

T~..1..-N _...A SACIIIN SI/All l'enturc

n:n I eo Puhl'1ca1Jons---·-
• ITT,cn: Authors iTL<pire inno1,:ition

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S1 Microwave Engineering (MU. Sem. 7. E&TC) 3-17 Microwave Passive 0

1)
- ~
Power measurement in radnr
Input power ' through or r~
The ct·1rcct1on
· co~pler is used in measurement of the
power transmitted by radar to an antenna. The
'vVV
(P1)
.1
t Direction
I

.
2,
~ P<lwor 111

Ba~r coupler 3 ~ughor1o~

4
connections arc as shown in Fig. 3.9.5. In the (P) Power
(Pb) ~ .
Fig. 3.9.5,
(1C25)Fig. 3.9.6 : Power notations in direction coupler

I
0 Transmitter is connected to port I (input port)
o Antenna is connected to port2 (through port) "B.. 3.9.6(A) Coupling Factor(~} J
I •
-..
o Matched load is connected to port 4 (isolated port)
It indicates ·rraction of the input power that is coupJCd
o Crystal detector is connected to . port 3 (coupled
port) to the output port given by

C = IOlog(~.)(dB) = lOlog(~) ... (3.9,l)

It is the primary property of a direction coupler.

It cannot be less than 3 dB, it results in more P<>Wc• t

output from the coupled port than power from through
port.
Transmittod port
Typical value of C = 20 dB, for this
(1C2.f)Fig. 3.9.5 : Power measurement in radar - ~-=-=-=-- p
C = 20 = 10 log.¥
Crystal detector is used to sense the power coupled to 3

port 3. If the wave is reflected from the antenna enters

Or ·P3 = 100
.!i.
into port 4 where matched load is present to absorb it.
It _does not enter into measuring circuit. Hence the
That 1.s I ,i,.of the mput
' .
powens coupled to port 3.
detector ~monitors only the power _output of the 100
transmitter, not the reflected power.
, ~ 3.9.6(8) Directivity (D)
2) As a power divider

When the coupling factor is 3 dB, it couples half of the It indicates ctirection coupler's abiJity to isolate forwaro
power to port 2 and half to the port 3. Thus it ctivides and backward waves. It is given by
., .
the input power equally into two circuits. Then it is
D . = 10 ~og (~)(dB) = 10 log ( ::) ... (3.9.2)
called as power divider i •

The directivity should be as high as possible.

'B... 3.9.6 Performance Parameters of the
Direction Coupler Typical value of D =-60 dB ; for this

D = 60 = 10 log ( :: )
LQ. 3.9.4 What are the performance parameters of the
direction coupler? Explain.
Or p
!J. = 10
6
⇒
P,
P1 = - -
4 • 106
Different powers used in defining these parameters arc
shown in Fig. 3.9.6. The ideal value of D is infinity then P
,,4
=0

Tcch-Neo Publicatinn~........... Where Authors inspire innomtion .....A .£4C/lliYSIWl l'cntrttr

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 ~ Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 • E&TC)
- 11tus back power is very small as compared to
paw~r. coupled
3-18

1 &._3.9.7
'-·_ _ _ _$-parameters
_ _ _ _ _ ___,
Microwave Passive Devices

Isolation (I) The S-matrix of an ideal directional coupler is,

_ It is the dif~erence in signal levels in dB between the

[S] = [ {: ~ - .•. (3.95)

_
input port and the isolated port when two other ports
are tenrunated by matched loads.
It is given by,
~ J
Where T = Transmission coefficien~ and

I = IO log (~)'
pb . (dB)= 10 log (P.')
i;! ... (3.9.3) k = Coupling coefficient
'
It can be rearranged as We observe the diagonal and anti-diagonal elements
are zero. The zeros on the main diagonal are due to all
I=lOlog(~) = lOlqg(~ x ~) ports are perfectly matched. The zeros on the anti-
diagonal are due to perfect isolation between the input
= l~log(~);tolog(~) and isolated port.

:. I = ___
+
C D....,..._ ... (3.9.4) ~ 3.1 0 5-Matrix of a Directronal

- For typical values of C =20 dB and D =60 dB Coupler

- • I

I = 80 dB
ua. 3.10.1 Explain s-~ ot direction~Lcoapler.
MU• Dec. 15, Dec. 16, 2·Marks
80 = 10 log(~)
A directional coupler with port notations is shown in
⇒ Fig. 3. I0.1.
lnpuf'port
Through port
- Thus a very small fraction (almost negligible) of input 1 ,:_ -

Directional 2
power is going in back direction. 4. coupler
3
lsolat~d port coupled-coupler
- The ideal value ofl is infinity, then P 4 = 0
{1C26)Fig. 3.10.1 : Directional coupler
For Ideal dl.ktion coupler
r:r steps for deriving _S-Matrix are
D = l=oo
Step 1:

[a 3.9.6(0) Insertion Loss It is a 4 x 4 matrix, since it is a four port network.

S11 S12 S13 S1 4

It is the loss of a signal while travelling from port 1 to / S11 5-zi Sn S24"
[S] = . .. (3.10.1)
PD!12. It is P1 - P2•

In dB : L; =-10 log(~) dB

T'tb-Nco Puhlications.H_.. Where Authors in$f1ire innoY1tion Ho..A S.4GIINSIWI Yeature

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 Sh'p 2: c ,,11,p~linJ! li 1u:11i(,ot (]. I flf,(a I) ..-1th fJ lfl u•.,,
PJ'l(I ( \Ill f>( h)I ~ llh ( l IO M1 )I £iH •.

'
1 .. 1,.1o n
Str-11 J: (J IO 7fh11

Slrp 6:

.. . (l 10.)) l l 1e 1cm pn11 tty of a loHlcH c1rcu11 " ·

The dot pmJu t of any 1.olumn ..,. 1111 the tr>0Ju7,..~ ,.(
any other olumn i ,cro.

ing column\ I and 4 :

... (3. 101$1

Let u assume that S 1! i real nnd po,ithe.

for :tn idc.31 directional couplc:r. the back powc:r i, zero
i.e.
Thu.
Then using Equation (3. 10.7(b))
s,. c: s., = 0 and
,..(J .10.9)
. .. (3. 10.4)
Since conjugate of a real number i snmc.
Nng Ecju:uions (3.10.2) 10 (3.10.4) in Equation
U ing in Equu1ion (J. I 0.8)
(3.10.1). the new S-M:.itrix is

... (3. I0.5) as; +s 11a

.4
= 0

i.e. as;. + SH u = 0 U\i ng (3. 10.7(11))

Slep 5: i.e. a (S:~ + s;~) = 0

The: de, ice i aisumcd to he lo. ~1e~s lhu folio" ing a i.e. S 24 + s;~ = 0
unit.:i.ry propctty.
This i possible if SH i~ an imagin.iry number
TI1c do! producl of any column " ith the conjug:11e of
i.e. S: 1 =jP=Sn ('.'Equation3.107(a)) .. (3. 10101
th.1t give unity.
Slt'p 7:
From colunms I. 2. Md 3.

l
ing Equation~ (3. 10.9) and (3. 10 10/ in 1- 1 c,l
__ (3.10.6(a)) Equruion (3. 10.5). Ilic firwl 11wtri, i~

... (3.10 6(b)) o u JII o

oi o u Jll
!SJ "'
... (3. 10.6(c))
[ 111 o u u
0 JI\ u 0

Trrtt-Nro l'ul,lir•lium- - U/,rrr l ut/,or, i 11•1•irf' ;,,,..,,~,;.,n _ IS.I nil\ VII II frr1h,IT'

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 -- --
Mlcrowrwo EngIMm1ng {MLJ , Bflm, 7 • EP. TC Microwave Passive Devices

,,, 111 rhl ~ 11w1 rl x

In w:.itl.ll,
(/, "' ~,2 .. Tr;,1111111lHtii1rn l1cfwcc11 r><>tt I a11il port 2
p
J
= 1</1 x I x I r,4 = 0.02 (W)
'Jla.1Hft IH 11 trummi~~ion cocffic:icm,
The directivity ii; given by
jfl ,., S1,1a O-,urli11y,nctwccnro11 I .111dport3,
D = JO log (t) =P,(dBm)-P.(dBm)
.. Thu~ ii iii a c<mrli11v, coefficienl.
We ob;-.erve 1he di1Jeo1wl :mcl :mti di:Jv,r>n:.il clement-'> :ire :. P.(d8m) = P~ (dBm) - D
v:,ro. The rJ;rtJti 'HI the m:Jin diae<>n:il lJrc due to 1.tll
r,ort.11 ;ire pcrfoc1Jy rr1:1Ji.;)lC(l, = 13 - 25 =-12(d0m)

.. 11,e r.uo~ on the :ir11i diiJgonlJl :Jre due t..o perfect In watt~.
j;,Qlalion h<:twccn the input and i},c,)111.(;tj fl')rt.

Et, 3.10.1
Ex. 3.10.2
A 2 W power r,ourcc iH C{,nneclJ_;d t..o the input of a
A 1>eattcring matrix of a direcLionaJ coupler is
directifm::,I coupler with C = 2/J dB, D = 25 dB and an 0.05 L30 0.% LD 0.1 L90 0.05 L90
im.ertion lm1i of fJ.7 dB. Find the ,,utput p<>werli (in d8mJ at
0.96 LO 0.05 L30 0.05 L90 0.1 L90
the thm1.1;!)1, e<mpl.cd and iw lw..ed port,;, AJ.,t:-Ume all port,; to (SJ=
be rw.J.chtd. 0.1 L90 0.05 L90 0.04 L30' 0.96 LO

0 Sofn. ; 0.05 L90 0. 1 L90 0.96 LO 0.05 L30

Cr,nv<:rt 2 VI input p<Jwcr in dBm IJ;,ing Find
(i) Directivity, (ii) Coupling factor,
P = 10 Jc,g( p ,)
I I / J() (iii) Lsolation, and

2 (iv) Return Joss at the input port when the other ports are
= 10 Jog ( _.-J = 33 (dBm)
~ I /. 10 J terminated in matched loads.
@ Soln.:
The im1;rti<>n 1%~ i1i given by
(I ) Dlrt:Ctlvlty
IL = - 1(J /<Jg (t) = P/df3m)- P~(dBm)

:. P (dBm) = P (dBm) - IL
~ I

= 33 - 0.7 =32.3 (dBm)

P1 = J<f x-.:,,; I /. Hf'' = J.1<XVI) = 20 log ( 00.1

_05 ) = 6 (dB)

'frtG Ct11.1 plinz factt,r ii gj 'len b-J, (IIJ Coupling factor

C = J()log ( f )= P,(dBm) - Pi (dBm)

C = 10 log (f;-) = 10 log(-½)
1 IS I 11

., P:JdHm) = P, (df3m)-C
= - 201og 1Sn 1=-201og(0.1)=20(dB)

= 33 - 2/J = J3 (df3m)
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 (lll) lsolaUon o = tOlog (i ~w)
r = IOtog(t) =IOlog(~)
4 1S 1 14

= - 20 log 1S 141= - 20 = log (0.05) = 26 The directivity is,

(dB) ·
D = tOlog(~) = P3 (d8m)-P4 (d8rn)

Or I = C + D = 20 + 6 = 26 (dB)
PidBm) = P3 (dBm) - D
(Iv) Return loss
= 0-40=-40 (dBm)
RL = - 20 log I n
To convert in watts,
= - 20 log I S11 I
- 40 = Io log (i ~w)
= - 20 log (0.05) = 26 (dB)
~ = 10~ ⇒ P4 = I X 10-3 x ,o~
Ex. 3.10.3 ! mW
A IO dB dirccl.ional coupler has a direcl.ivity of 40 dB. If the
For a lossless case, the input power is equal to lhc
input power P1 = 10 mW, Whal are the power outputs at
ports 2, 3 and 4 ? Assume that the coupl.c.r output power.

(i) is lossless and

(ii) has an insertion of0.5 dB for all three ports.
0 Soln.:

= 10 - I - 0.0001 ~ 9 (mW)
(() For a lossles.'> case
The input power in dBm is In dBm

P 1 (dB) = 10 log ( Pi -l)

I X 10 P2 (dBm) = 10 log ( I ::w)
0
= 10 log ( \ : : : ) = 10 (dBm) = 10 log (9) =9.5 (dBm)

A 10 dB directional coupler means (ii) For an insertion of 0.5 dB

When all ports have an loss of 0.5 dB, the power

C = IO (dB)
coming out of each port is reduced by 0.5 dB
C = 10 log ( 1;) =P (dBm)- P3 (dBm)
1 P2 = 9.5 - 0.5 = 9 (dBm)
0.9
P3 (dBm) = P1 (dBm)- C = IO x I mW = 7.9 (mW)
P3 = 0 - 0.5 = - 0.5 (dBm)
= IO - IO= 0 (dBm)
- 0.05
= 10 x I mW = 0.89 (mW)
To convert in watts,
P4 = - 40-0.5 = -40.5 (dBm)

10~.05
= X I mW = 0.089 (mW)

Tech-Nco PuLliaition!-- Where AutfwrY i11!ipire inflOt'ltion ,_.A SACIIINSJ/All Yent11rt

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 ~ - ------------------
t#!.r,He.ve En Jnoer1 MU • Som, 7 • E&TC 3-22
2. Sine< lb<: mcjdeot Po'"' and ,.n,c,ed pawet are

~,.10-' . . coupler ha.1 an infinite d' related by,

"'--11ic direcuonal
A .,rw•-- . . .
iredJvity
~A , fc,r1tard attent.ta1JOn of 20 dB. Tum coupler . 1iCd
P- == r• Irr
•• •oar ,i,, Po"" delivered IO a load 7'-'L ,as, 1'hU
,tY)lll"' s own byin Where p• = Incident _power and P- == Reflected power,
c:
rff e~• 3,JOA(a). Bolomcter
, I introduces a VSWR ....r 2,0 VI
,.,,,, I t,olomct.er 2 is matched to arm 2 If bol then
oll ~ 1•· '
rea,d59mW and bolomcter2 rcadJ13 mW.
• omcter I

(i) rind the amount of power dissipatc.d in the load Zi_.

- --
lrl - 3 - 1-J~ f__
p•- _f_
8+P-

(Ji) pct.ermine the VSWR on arm 3.

1
The incident _power to _port 4 is r: =- JO mW, and the
~2 'VSVIR•2.0 ~ reflected power from _port 4 is P; = 1 rnW,
:1
3. Since port 3 is matched and the bolometer at pert 3
reads 3 mW, then 2 rnW rnust be radiated through the

holes.
2t. 4. Since 20 dB" is equivalent to a _power ratio of 100: 1, the
power input at port 1 is given by
.....~n t by diiredlonaJ P :: 100 P+ ::-1000 mW
(IC%1)fig. Er. 3.10.4(a) : Powtr measur6- 1 4

rouplu
and the power _reflect,ed from the load i.s
[ti Sofn.: P = 100 x (2 mW)= 2-00 mW
2
The wave propagation in the dircctiona! coupler iii

shown in Fig, Ex. 3.I0.4{b) 5· The power dissipated in the load is

• SWR=2.0

Port2

= 1000- 200 =800 mW

b. The reflection coefficient is calculated as

□
,r, = - ~
'\./rt
- ~ 1
10mV'I--+
2 mW --''---+--__) -- \J 10CX) = to

Then the VSWR on arm 2 .IS,·

SWR=2.0
P = 1+1r1
... -r~
(1C2S)Fig. Ex. 3.10.4{b): W1JVc - &y-on m
0
. t he directional 1-1 rl
coupler I
I +10
a. Power dissipation of Zc• p = - - 1 = 1.22
I-IO
I. The reflection coefficient at port 4 IS,
.

Ttdi-11,...,
--p--u• . - - l'1iere Autl,orr iMpirc intJM'ltion -A SAOUNSI/All 1-eDture-
auncallom

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 a 3.11 Typ~s of Dlrcctlonal Coupler

! LO. J 11 .1 lJIJ t)'j)(' I of d,rc;

,:1.,\t, nr ~ I.lot k 11 mun l ) J'C' ll l J 11l"\ IIL 1n.1l

. 1. ,vnn:, •.:illn • Ill th<' f"111 UI) ):\JiJ,c ~
" " ' lc-1 l'hc 11.,. "'"" ,-· •· • ··
11\rrc I,c W•" '"1' 1t1Cnt '

I II llllt' tu:n \ ((~ C ln"tn, hdJ r f<''l ~nJ~-ulu

U,c l•v~ .ill

3.11 .1 Single Hole or llctho Co uplC'r (llt) 1 ,,.·u •rtloC tru; :...t h dJ II, r .:.ul kl Ill the
.. .L.11
,--
LO J '1 .1 r-:-~"' fl•~ c ,rul 1 ,r de 1, -1, ~~ ... er.rt.'. "o.""r'cJ I llhc l.')
, '•'"' '- ':'' t,'
"'1,c;-..:..c an I.lie n nu1 n ~ All 1)11,,.
, ...
1
r .J r c' J ''-"' f\1fr"1 •cJ ti>
J.11 .1(A) Cons truction ( 11 l ,.. , ~n. •:, f,c' J I", o lt'j'"t''< t''cd l 1) J n-'t.

J f, 1111 i,!_,, .... I ._:rl.r h ., .!.m,11 ,·.;.J • •• , I h

v-:,.i!> ,J , ,..,, " • 1 -r;. '<• I ...: :.iJ "' ••!~J
i •\ ;:-, t (\u.J \o ~ , 11(1 • f'UI l ' IC " a,(' f-~•

J .11 . l (B) Operation of n Single Hole

Coupler

h lH!ct i., _ Jcr\!.1:-J ll,c, t.J1 '.I re k t" .JJl pcnurt

,. ,th C"l1.1 • .1 u.( ~ ·n •••fN"tn_' l f ck,tnc .Ll\l
l!:.J:'I)("!:, J11 Jc l l). :i c r.b

m ..vrrll: J ~ k 1!).\IJ'Ctil I ..Ju!(.' ... ,th (.' \ en ) mmctry

I ti lhc ll Uj !cJ p .: 1J.c nU( Ilic tr.:1.tb \ (.'r),(' flU ~

J11 •le 11~•1:-cn1 r ;)Jr_!(.' " 11h uJJ )~ rnmcl!)

II \\ t' , , 1rm1 l 1hc rel.iJ1, c .in liruJc:) of the-.e ,.,.o

~u,, .:1lcn1 "'Um: then C.l!lC'Cllll1 n of th<' r::iJ1311on Ill
the J11n1i.1n uf '"'' IJtcJ r-1n JM enh3r cmc:01 in !he
J1ft'(U1•n of n1"..lplcd ix n c.1n he J h,c, cJ.

11ic :u11pl11uJc 3'1Ju,1mcnt CJ.11 1->c done t" o "l) u

(b l Slno rd "••t-rwdc-
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 M~~wa~v:i=e;En.iailn,_ee
...nso=~MaaU•••S•o•m•·•7••.;E;,;:&.:;TC~--_.2;3·~2!4--~------~M~l~cr~o:w::a:::;vo:.:.;,P:o~::;.;.;;".,.o..""-~~•
- -llcl waveguide sJngle hole coupler
.,.,_.- 11.c 5l11gle hole coupIer wort.•
,._~ p,u,,c:rly
, only al the

O) _,,., wnvcguidcs arc parnllcl and the coup!' 1 dcNlr,11 frequency.

flelt: 1 " " rng II . (acror (CJ oti<l the
- conttOUcd by the position of npcrturc. llic npcrturc Is 'l11e Jc11iijncJ vnlue• o( coupI ,ng
11
the dc(lgn
not 111 the center but is at a distance •s• fmni the dircctivlry (I)) ore otl1i1lned rmly '

sidewsll, frequency.
11 will nffc:.Cl 1hc
'fhC distnnce 's' is determined so that the cancc11atmn
. When 1he opcraling frequency cJw11ge,
' 3.kCS place in the isolated port. The radius of the values of C and 0 .
I •
npertUre (ro) detcnnmes the coupling factor . . f n .,,·on o( (rcqu~ncr
The directivity is more ~ns111 vc u c.:
• o f two wave
si.e"'ed waveguide single hole coupler since it depends on tt,e cancc II ar,on
(II) components.
fkre axis of the two waveguides are not parallel but . . b ucry small amount
But the coupling factor vanes y a •
[hey are making an angle 0.
over the band of frequency.
_ 'fhe hole is present at a distance s = a/2 i.e. exactly at
the center of board wall. ~ 3.11.2 Two Hole Directional Coupler
_ The angle 0 is adjusted for cancellation at the isolated
This directional coupler makes use of two holes to
part.
achieve the required coupling and isolation.
_ The angular geometry of the skewed Bethe hole
coupler results in the difficulty in fabrication and
1~ 3.11.2(A) Construction J
application
Fig. 3. I 1.2 shows a simple two hole directional
-z,. 3.11.1 (C) Disadvantage of Single Hole
Coupler coupler. It consists of two parallel waveguides haring
a common broad wall.
r
LQ.3.11.3 What are disadvantage of single hole Two small apertures are present on the common wall
coupler ? exactly at the centre of common wall and arc spaced
Ag/4 apart along the axis.

Upper waveguide
Common wall
>.J4

['\_
Port 1 -
(Input port) "
"\
I
I
I
l - Port 2 (Through port)

Port 4
(Isolated port)
- " ,.._
Port 3 (Coupled port)

" Hole 1 Hole 2

•
I
Lower waveguide
"'
(1C3l)Fig. 3.1J.2 : Two hole dircclionol coup!cr

r;:Neo Puhl'IO!ltons
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[i} Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 • E&TC) 3-25 Microwave Passive De~,
~

[ °&. 3.11.2(8) Operation I 1 '0

Secondary
{ Waveglude
Q_..J-_~:.....:--------
UO. 3.11 .4 Explain the operation of 2-hole directional
: -1b nc;L __ . ______________ M~----
Po~4 _ ----f-----+-------,-+-------- ~ort3
coupler. MU - Dec. 15. Dec. 16. 3 Mnrks
\.: ~ ti:- --t--
. - ).~4-.;
The dominant mode is excited in port I which results in
---...i------"-----
: I
Port 1 P01t2
the electromagnetic energy travelling in a primary
\
guide. Refer Fig. 3.11.3. ---C Primary
Waveglude
This wave entering at port I is mostly transmitted
through to port 2. But some power is coupfed through (1C31)Fig. 3.11.3 : Operation of two hole directional coupler,
the two apc1to1es.
1 ~ 3.11.2(C) Separation between Holes J
This energy is coupled from the primary guide to the
secondary guide due to the field radiated by the excited
The aperture may, in general, have directive propenies,
electric and magnetic dipoles generated at the holes by
i.e., radiate a field with different amplitudes in the
the propagating electromagnetic wave in the primary forward and reverse directions.
guide.
With a wave of unit amplitude at port I (refer
Each aperture will radiate a forward wave and Fig. 3.11.4), let the field coupled into the second guide
backward wave component into the upper guide. have an amplitude Br in the forward direction and Bb in
Note that a forward wave is a wave in the direction of the backward direction.

coupled port and a reverse wave is a wave in the a b

'I
direction of isolated port.

Due to spacing of 1/4 between the holes~ the forward

components of both the holes travel a same distance of
Port4

~
~~:r::Bi
:
I -
___e_b(: /'B1e--!Pd
-1 f_
~
Port3

' J'4 to the second hole. Port 1

-
1 , 1e-Jlld Port2
I
-
I
d
i1nce the distance travelled is same these components I
I
a b
are in phase and are added at port 3. This is the coupled
power. (1C32)Fig.3.11.4 : Schematic for obt.aining sepm,rtjon
However backward waves at holes l and 2 arc not in between holes

phase. The back wave of hole 2 travels a distance Since Br and Bb are the amplitudes of the coupled fields
(~/4 + 1/4) of,/2 to reach hole I. for a unit amplitude of an incident wave they are called
This distance makes back wave of hole 2 to go out of as aperture coupling coefficients.
phase with back wave of hole I . If the amplitude of the wave at port I is A then fields
Thus back waves are cancelled resulting in no wave at. coupled are Br A and Bb A.

port 4. Consider both apertures couple same amount of power

into the second guide.
This is how coupling and isolation is achieved.

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 3-26 Mlcrowovo Poaslvo Oovtcoa

_ But due to difference in path length of 'll' there Is a When II frequency i,1 changed the b11ck components will
phase difference between two coupled fields of not cnnccl nnd tho directivity change11.
PhllSC difference = - ~d Thus, this cnnccllntlon is frcquc11cy 11ensillve, making
tho directivity n sensitive function offrcquency.
_ Sin~c both the forward waves trnvcl II same distnncc
'd', these arc in phase and the total forward wave in the How much signal is coupled to the secondary guide i,
upper guide at the plane bb is decided by the sire of the hole.

Br c-JPJ + B,. e-JllJ = 2B,. e-JPd The coupling is less frequency sensitive because both
forward components.
_ The total backward wave at the plane aa is -JBd -J2 Bd
B1 e and B1 c
B b+ Bbe-JlPd = Bb (1 + e- J2P d) arc always in phase. When frequency is changed then ~
This will be zero if in both terms will change by the some amount and f:ld
-JlPd product remain same for fixed d. The variation in C
.e = -1
with frequency is very small.
Or 2~d = (2n + I) 1t, n = 0, I, 2, .... .. The drawback of direction coupler which is D is the
{2n + I} 1t function of frequency is removed in multi hole
i.e. d = 2~ direction coupler where number of holes are increased.

Using ~ = 21t/A.9 ,
A,
we get
Ia. 3.11.3 Multlhole Coupler f
d = (2n + 1)
4 LQ. 3.11.5 Explain the construction and operation of
mullihole directional coupler.
- Thus, the directional -coupler will work for
separation between the holes which is odd multiples - In case of single hole coupler nnd two hole coupler the
of).J4. drawback is the directivity changes over a range of

Ia
frequency band.
3.11.2(0) Effect of Frequency - This is removed in case of multihole coupler.

- The two hole directional coupler is designed for a Ia. 3.11.3(A) Construction f
particular value of coupling factor (C) and
directivity (D). It consists of two parallel waveguides with a broad wall
common between them.
- The Separation between two holes 'd'.
On the common wall there are numbers of holes which
d = !:&
4
(2n + I) , n = 0, 1, 2, ..... are equally spaced along the length. Refer Fig. 3.11 .5.
In the Fig. 3.11 .5 there are N + I equally spaced
is adjusted such that two backward waves Bb and
-jlBd apertures which couple energy from primary guide to
Bb e cancel each other. secondary guide.
- It is possible for a particular frequency when d is fixed.

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 ·,

Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 3-27 Microwave Passive Dev~

(Isolated Port)@ @ (Coupled Port)

'-------~
>----~~-
~ n=O
c,_--~~ ~~--~c-,--~c ~
~f_-.,;:___:::____;d
n=1 n=2
_ _ _7 f
n=N

(Input Port) G) ® (ThrOJJgh Por.t)

(1C33)Fig. 3.11.5 : Multihole coupler

, ~ 3.11.3(8) Operation Load loss

, - - - - - - - ~ . . , . , .......- - - - r - - - - -,
Due to separation d which is odd multiples of ).g/4, all I
J
backward wave components are out of phase and ' - .......
I
I
I
cancel each other. ' ' I
' I
', I
\ -I
The forward wave components are in phase and add to \ I
\ I

give coupled power out of coupled port.

The amplitude of the incident wave in the lower left

-----a-----
--a--•
I
'
guide is A and, even after coupling through holes, is (1C69JFig. 3.12.l(b) : Electric field distribution
essentially the same when it comes out of port 2 (lower
The phase shifter consists of cticlectric slab or vane.
right part).
czr Dielectric slab or vane

Ia 3.12 Phase Shifters ' In order to minimize the reflection effects, diectric slab
is given unique sha[>e.

UQ. 3.12.1 Write a short note on: Phase shifters. A longitudinal slot is _cut along the wider dimension of
a waveguide. Through this slot vane is inserted.

(if" Construction w Opera.tlon

Refer Figs. 3.12.l(a) and 3.12.l (b). This v~e is made up of low _loss mat~rial ha:ving
Dielectric slob or vane E, > I. Generally piayfoam is u~. If dielectric
Locking constant of the medium is higher, microwav~s travels
slowly through it.

As E, > 1, micro~ave signal travels slowly as the slab

gets closer to the center of the waveguide. This is
because, most of the microwave signal is carried
through the center of the waveguide. /
Adjusting
knob
Dial
(1C68)Fig. 3.U.l(a) : Dielectric vane (variable) phase shifter
~ - -
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 0 10
~ Microwa~ !
vEe~E~n~g~in:_;;e;en;,;;·n~gr:::l(~M~U~-~S~e~m~._;;7,;-~E~&~T~Cb)==~
3-~28==========~Mlc~ro;:w;;;_n;;v~o,;P~oiao!l""lv...o_.D.,,.~......
c _,

P:ti"on of the dielectric ~lab changes lhe electric

'fhe p0s1 ., . . . . .
- field d'istribution m wider
. d11nens1on
. . of the
. waveguide.
the wave gets distorted.
Bence . .
~ane is inserted more deeper. there will be more
Jf the . . . .
- · e in the medium. As a resuJL more phase shift will
cbJlllg . . . .
occur. (c)
amount of phase shift is maximum when the vane

____
:ahP
'Jl)e .
- . kept at the center of the waveguide. And it is
1s · -
. •mum when it is adjacent to the wall of the
~ru •
waveguide. Permanent plale al end
rr Analog phase shifters (d)

When the phase shift is variable, the corresponding

phase shifter is known· as anal?g phase shifter. They are
used in bridges and antennas.
(c)
<r Digital phase shifter

(1C70to 1C74)Fig. 3.13.l : Tcrminnlions

_ When the phase shift is fixed, then the phase shifter is
known as digital or discrete phase shifter. They are Use of fi xed resistive loud as a terminution is not
used in phased array antennas. possible in waveguide system.

I a. 3.13 Terminations /I
Hence specially designed 1ermina1ions arc used.
Refer Fig. 3.13. I (a) graphited sand is placed at the end
of the waveguide. It can dissipate energy and is ab le to
ua.3.13.1 What is need of termination in microwave achieve SWR < I .0 I .
systems? Explain ~ny two types of
Refer Fig. 3. 13. I (b).
terminations. ·MU,?;May.16:41 o·Marks
Instead of graphitcd sand, a resistive rod is placed ut a
- Refer Figs. 3.13.l(a), (b), (c), (d) and (e) point in waveguide. Where: electric field strength is
maximum. 11 can also dissipate energy to achieve less

!"''";,- ~.______I I
SWR.

Refer Fig. 3.13.l(c).

Waveguide Graphited sand
Tennination here is made of wedge of 1he resistive
(a) . ·'
material_in the form of ta~r. Resis1ive 111111erial used is
powdered iron or carbon mixed wi1h a hinder deposi ted
on a dielcclric strip.
~nergy_ ~ -
;
i ,. Refer Fig. 3. I 3. 1(d) und (e).
Waveguide Resistive rod
Pem1ancnt mclal plate welded at the end of lhe
(b)
waveguide can also be used
(1C70 to 1C74)Fig. 3.13.1 contd... termination
(Fig. 3. 13.1(d)).

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~
ic, Microwave Engineering (MU- Sem. 7- E&TC) 3-29 ~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~==~~===========M=lc=ro=w=a=ve=Pa=s:sl~ve~oe~-

This can be made movable by adjustable plunger

It consists of short section of waveguide. 1\
waveguide is with tapered plug of absorbi~g maten~
(Fig. 3.13.l(e)).
as shown in Fig. 3.-14.1.
All of the terminations shown _provides almost no
reflection.

- Microwave
~3.14 Microwave Attenuators
- Power

LQ. 3.14.1 Write a short note on microwave attenuators

and its types. Dielectric slab

1. Need of attenuators In microwave communication

The microwave power in a waveguide to be

absorbed completely for obtaining perfect
matching. There should not be any reflection.
---a---
It should be insensitive to frequency as well. (1C76)Fig. 3.14.1 : Fixed attenuator
Hence microwave attenuators are used.
The tapering provides gradual transition from
2. Use of attenuators waveguide me<lium to the absorbing medium.

(i) It is used to measure power gain or loss in dBs. Thus it reduces reflections at the media interface.

(ii) For providing isolation between the-instruments. In the Fig. 3.14.1, dielectric slab is used. This dielectric

(iii) For reducing the power input to -particular stage, slab consist of a glass slab coated with carbon film. Jt is
this prevents overloading. used as plug.

(iv) It is also used for the purpose of the calibration of U such a fixed attenuator absorbs all the energy
I

signal generators. This helps in improving entering into it, it becomes a terminator.
accuracy of instrument. (b) Variable attenuators

3. Classlficatlon of attenuators
It provides variable attenuation either on continuous
Microwave attenuators basis or step wise.
I (I) For rectangular waveguides
i
Fixed attenuators
i (i) Flap type
Variable attenuators
(ii) Vane type
(1C75)
(Il) For circular waveguides
(a) Fixed attenuators
(iii) Rotary type
Refer Fig. 3.14.1.
(i) Flap type attenuator
- There are used to achieve fixed attenuation.
Refer Fig. 3. I4.2. It shows nap type attenuator.

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~ Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 _E&TC) Microwave Passive Devices
3-30
Resistive cord
(II) Vane type attenuator
Locking
Refer Fig. 3.14.3.

Boll
IB~
Maximum attenuation Minimum attenallon

(tC78JFig. 3.14.3 : Movable vane attenuator

It consists of glass vane. This is coated with

carbon. It is similar to fixed attenuator.
When the vane is made movable; it becomes
variable attenuator.
The vane is kepi at the center of the waveguide. It
is moved laterally from the center to edges.
Hence at the center it provides maximum
Maximum attenuation Minimum attenuation
attenuation; whereas attenuation is reduced highly ·
(IC77}Fig. 3.14.2: rlnp ottcnuntor
at the edges. This is due to the fact that electric
Along the center of the wider dimension of the field lines are always concentrated al the center of
waveguide, a longitudinal slot is cut. the waveguide.

Resistive clement or disc is inserted into this slot. The vane is tapered at both ends for matching the
attenuator to the waveguide.
The nap is mounted on hinged arm. This allows
the nap to descend into the center of the The taper length should be equal to 1/2 for
waveguide. adequate match.

The depth of insertion of the nap determines the Qr Disadvantages

degree of attenuation. The amount of attenuation is frequency sensitive

rr Disadvantage
It needs to be calibrated against the reforence
Flap attenuator dial needs to be calibrated with respect attenuator.
to standard one.

(lI) (Circular waveguides) Rotary attenuator

Refer Fig. 3.J 4.4 Resisitive vanes

CD @ @

Ecos2a
(1C79)Fig. 3.14.4 : Rotary wave precision attenuator

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~ Microwave Englnooring tMU • Som. 7 · E&TC) 3-31 Mlcrowovo Pooriivo Dovb.J,
~

Precision altenuntion is provi1kd hy 1hc rolnry vnnc Formed by fctro11utg11c1ic purticlc\ cr,rnprc,t.c,!

allenuntor. \I pmvidc.~ accumcy of ± 2. 1% of lhe 1ogc1hcr with bondi11g 11gc111s 11si11g \inlcring prix:c,
1
indicated n11emu1tion over opcrnting frequency range. Due IO this process 1hc final malcrial i~ very hi1rd iifltJ

ll comprises of three vanes. brilllc.

One is placed 111 the center and other two vnncs arc These arc also called as fcrritcs.
placed al both ends. The magnetic moment in ferri1es is weaker than in !ht
In the circular waveguide, rotating ccnlcr vane is base ferromagnetic material from which ferrite~ a1,
placed. It is tapered at both ends. made.
Other two vanes arc placed in rectangular sections as Ferrites have low conductivity and being made of srna11
shown in Fig. 3.14.4 particles (powder), can be made into almost any shape
When all the three vanes arc aligned properly, their required.
plane.~ arc al 90° to the direction of electric field.
Ferrite cores arc used in coils and transformers where
Therefore there is zero al\cnuation.
the operating frequency is high. The low conductivity
Vane I : II prevents horizontal polarization. Therefore (normally below 10-s Sim) is an advantage resulting in
electric field at the output of vane I is vertically
lower losses.
polarised.
The relative permeability and pcrmillivity lies between:
Vane 2 : It is rotating type. If it is rotated by an angle 0,
the component E sin 0 is auenuated. Only E cos 0 µ, ➔ !Oto 10,000
components is retained.
E, ➔ IO lo 15 or greater
2
Hence final output obtained is E cos 0.
It has square magnetization curve.
This output wave has the same polarization as that of
input wave. In many of the passive components these arc used
whose properties can be varied electrically to control
Advantages
the propagation characteristics so as 10 obtain the
(I) The attenuation obtained in independent of frequency. desired properties of the components.
(2) It is precise attenuator hence calibration is not needed. The magnetic properties that make ferrites useful in

Ia. 3.15 Ferrltes I microwave applications, arise from the internction of

the dipole moment of an electron associated with its
spin with the propagating electromagnetic wave.
LO. 3.15.1 Explain ferrite materials and lhelr properties. The low conductivity or high resistivity cnuscs nn
elcctromugnctic waw to penetrate 1he mntc.:rinl nnd
\ a. 3.15.1 Ferrite Composition \ enables the 111agneti1: field component or the wa\'C to
interact with the magnetic 1110,nent of the.: ferrite.
These are cernmic like materials having general
These nmterials have.: different pc.:m1eahilitic~ in
chemical composition MO-Fc,0l where M is a divalent
different directions. Thus 0/H is not a scalnr qunntit)'
metal such as magnesium, manganese, nickel. iron,
but a tcn~or (matrix).
etc., or a mixture of lhese.

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 Microwave En ineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) Microwave PaSSive ~

z = Axis of precession In the ferromagnetic material. they are related by,

i3 = [µJ H
f (Torque)
where (µ] is a tensor (matrix). 11 is given by.

+
in (dipole moment)

[µ] = [ j~ : ] · .()15~

lliis relation is valid for H0 applied in z-dircction. litrt

µ nnd K are the elemcnL5 of the tensor. For bia.~ applie11
in - vc z-dircction µ remains positive but k bctoll'ts
- \'C.
(tClS)Fii:. 3.15.l : Spi.nnini: tl«-tron In a de DUIJ:ll<'lk field
Now con~idcr an ac field is al o applied along with bi~
In tlie horiz.ontnl plane the projection of m give. , H0 in 1.-<.lircction.

Let the nc field applied is fi. llic total field is given by,

m, = constant = de field + ac field .

As,
.
2
m + m)
2
= /\ 2
It produce · a total mngncti1. a tion in the ferrite material

This is the equ:uion of J c.ircle of r:u.lius A in the

horiz.ont:il plnnc.
Also,
~1, = DC snturation magnetization, and
2 2 2
= m +m +m
' > ~1 = Jdditional ac magnetization in the xy
l l
= A +m plane due to H.
t

The angle of precession Ois given by, We an: especially interested in interaction of
fcrrom:1gnetic m:1terial wi th circularly polarized fields.
sin O = A
... (3.15.4) LO. 3.15.2 Why interest is in circular1y polarized waves?
1in1 1ni1
To obtain the non reciprocal behaviour of the
Herc the dipole is precessing freely making this angle.
component, the ferrite material is used in it. It will be
a 3.15.2( C) Effect of ac Magnetic Field in the path of linearly polarized (LP) microwave signal.
ll1e LP signal can be split into circularly polarized
In an isoLrOpic medium Band H are related by, waves, namely

s = µ H (i) Right handed circularly polarized (RHCP), and

(ii) Left handed circularly polarized (LHCP)

where µ is a ~aJar and thus B and H are in the same
direction. This is shown in Fig. 3.15.3.

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 3.34
Microwave Passive Devices

-
£:.a. t ,,.,
~

-~
z
(\IVave
propogati0n)
The clements o f tensor[µ) are directio n dependent. The
RHCP wave resu lts in s ign of µ and K elcmeats to be
·······;;' • : .••. ••· ►y c:> ►
positive. Thus for RHCP,
,, y
,,
AC applied -) fr = fr (;:: - j a;.>
LP
RHCP
Pcnncability-) µ = + vc
...X

0-(B., (r LHCP field

K = + ve

+ '
UiCP Con<;idcr the npplicd ::u: field i!i LHCP with rTUg nctic
r,c:,t; ns:. J . 15.3: Rclu1io11 lx-t>1<Tu LP nnd CP " n, 1:
field if•. Thi, c:tu"<:, prccc.,,;io n w hich is in the
){no~ ing bcb.,, io ur u ( ferri te for rhc-.c
W,1 \ C.~. \ \C
oppo,ite direction o( prccc"ion due to de bias (H.J.
u.nJcr-1J11J the !"Ch.I\ k,ur for LP \\ .I\ c. 11,i, ,,.1vc rc,ull\ in , ign., o( µ ~ind K to be posit ive :ind
nq~.lli\'c rc,JlCCll vcly. Thu, fo r LI ICP.
billJ!OCtic fichh to r t\\ l) type, of ci rcul:u ly pol:tri,.cd
field, .ire · AC npplied - \ f( = fr (:i'; + j ~)
/, r n),!hl h.:JJ1J drcul.trly f'l l:ui1.:11fo n ( RHCP) _
Pcnnc.1bility - • 11 = + ,c

... (J. 15 . 6 ) K = - \'C

Fa ki t l1.1r1J ..:in:ul.,rly pobriL..<lion ( LII CP) Pha.-.c con,1an1 - > fl = P. = w ✓e ( µ - K)

... (J. 15.7)

Ia 3.15.3 Faraday Rotation Principle I
Tb,: dcmcnh u( the tcn'-O r IµJ JJl:! n:1!1.led "ith
pn p.,_t.!;ttl l'II l.'.on,r..1/lt f3 .1.\,
a 3.15.3(A) Effect of Linearly Polarized
Wave (LP Wave)
... (3. l 5.8)
UO. 3.15.3 Whal is Faraday rolalion in ferrites ?
s.,, there :m: 1,, o fX)\\ iblc prop:igJtion constanL<;,
MU- May 16, 5 Morks
~- 1.-iJ fL
- Cons ider a linearly polarized wave e nters into ferrite at
~ 3.15.2(0) Effect of Circularly Polarized z = 0 say, thi s wnn: is pol.:uized in x direction as (Refer
Ff elds Fig. 3. I 5.-l).

r RHCP Freid
El, . 0 = E., a..
When the :,c field ;~ RIICP (ii"). 1hc m::ignc1iu1ion i.s
- This can be cxprcsscd as tbc sum of an RHCP and
U ·ICP WUVI! :
al~ RHCP. This field cJu<..c, precession which i in the

<..1me direction of pn.-cc<.~ion clue 10 de bin.s (H,J.

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 Microwave Passive De,
3-35
Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC)
Note that this is not a circular polarization. Jn Whic
The first term on right hand side represents a RHCP time increases polarization changes as shown
wave while the second term is a LHCP wave.
Fig. 3. 15.5.
As discussed before,

For RHCP ➔ f3 = fl+ and

For LHCP ➔ f3 = '3_

Since both these waves are travelling, we write

-E ( ) .=ll.
E ( - • - - i.,t-1.·n E -
.=ll. - + j(l...r.
z = '1x - J ay) e + 2 ( llx + j ny) e z= O plane
2

=t ~ (e-ill..z + e-ill-z )- j ~ (e- iP+z. -e-jll-2)

(1C38)Fig. 3.15.5 : Circular polarization

But here in z == 0 plane the field E is along x-axi.

(<I> == 0), and as wave propagates (z- increases) the fiek
changes its angle cj>. It is more clear in Fig. 3.15.6. This
effcct is called as Faraday rotation.
This is a linearly polarized wave but not in x-direction
+
(.t: E .Ix) but making some angle with x-axis. z
0
(Wave
The angle is given by, propagation1
·-. j
j --·

z = z1 plane
,,' t
,,
:. ___ I
r--11o-y
Some of the observations are : z"" 0 plane j.
(i) At z =0, the angle q, =0 i.e. along x-axis I

(ii) As z increase (i.e. wave propagates), the angle <I> (1C39)Fig. 3.15.6: Fnradny rotation in ferrite material
increases, i.e. polarization rotates. This is shown in
[n the Fig. 3.15.6, the angle <I> is increasing negatively
Fig. 3.15.4. with increase in z, meaning that the polarization
X
X ... (direction of E ) rotates counter clockwise as we look
....
X .... '

E
--------- z
1
0

-- - ---- ►
y
E
0

------
~

z
:
.'
- - - --- ►
y
- ~:~~t...
z
Z= 22 plane
y
in the direction of wave (+ z direction) .
If the bias is reversed (in - z-direction), it changes the

sign
Z= z1 plane of K, which changes the direction of rotation to
Z== o plane (z2 > z1)
(z1 > 0)
clockwise.
(tC37JFig. J.15.4 : Rotation of field vector ns z changes
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 vices
3-36 Microwave Passive De

111111:tr!Y, (or -+I t,rn,. a wn, c tr.i,·clli ng in the - l.

~ 3.16.2 Symbolic Representation
, ;0n ,, 111 rntl\lC I ~ rolnrir..ntil"n 11., we look .
di«<'" in the
d~ u II of \\ J \ ' C pm p:1 ·oli r n (- 1.).
if \\C "c.:c le •king an lhc +7 direction
fl:'I , 1lOWcvc:r,
(ICA.?)1-1~. J~ I : Sym~ oC JQ"l'1ltor
., ~,,n.tJl\11 o f fl'\IJt1c,n " 0Uld he: count 1 1.
II... u ere oc..:wi '-C .
...,. , ,~ !<,.\ IIK :1, l u ,1\'C pm('JSJt1ng in the +, d'
l 111 •
.
l~CIIOI\, 1 ~ 3.16.3 Types of Gyrator ]
, " n •n, 1ckr 1hc " .1, e II J \ cl, fr,lm 1
,,

rc ,ul! ph.11,(' of E l\•l.1IC\ hv

-

Ul
(l 10

•1n I
_
1 - 1~ nnd
A .
I LO. 3.10.2 Explain typos of Gyrntor.
]
:1' J ' • !t C 't'I 11)

.,1101r ,d< t ,, 1'< d1t1X l it n . 'll1cre .11e 11-H) rx>"•hlc configur.ition'i based o n
COll\lnJClll' O .
•o,i.• 1f 1hc: ":i, c , W1, 11, return J(1t.1mey (1\1111 ,. c: I. 10
(1) G) r.iltir with., medunic.il twht
1 • O. the . 11tk further ch.'ln1'c,
•
lw
J
"'' I 10
· I 1le

, ,X1n1cn.· h, I.\ \ 1'(' Jut'\. th n. l l 1u, the I t t.il " t;illo n o f I:

,, l•} ~->. \\ C -.cc th I. r nmd!lr nll :t ll(lll I, " non 3.16.4 Gyrator with o Twist
rrclpro<":11 dT t, H hlch I, u,«t :1, :n1 ud, antitJ!c In
rnsn~ 111kro,q1, <' Ct•OIJ)( 11 n 3.16.4(A) Cons truction

It Ll'tlW •l\ 0 ( 1luc-c: -.c-.:tsi;., n, . Input :ind ou tput -.c:ctions

:in: recu ngubr ".i, c:~ 1~ h...1, ing ~ me oricnt.alion
.111J the uuJ<lJc \Cl.tton 1, J c1rcub!e w:i, eguidc.
1111 Cin.ul ' P r-
Ilic input rC\..~ •ul.1! \\ l ' qu idc is t•.\ is led by 90" and
•~ J 1t:ichcd 10 .1 CII\.-U lJJ guid::.

3.16 Gyrator
n ,c cirL-ul.1r guide :11 the other idc i L:lpcn:d gr:idually
10 t·o1u1«1 "1th output n:.:1JJ1gul:u -.cction.

Tik: cin..·ub.r " n,cguidc L"Ont:titn :i thin cy lindrical rod

UO. 3.16.1 De#..cf' ~m:.x:,n of Gyrator devices u~rng
of fenite 1, 1ll1 the end t:ipcrcd 10 rcdu~c n:Oectio ns.
lnroc.1)1'l rc !.at..on p·inctp!o.
1nt.a!,rttirlft 1Eti!tl A ~,:.uic :1.:<i.1I m:ignc:lic lidd i, .1pplicd 1D magnetize the
fenitc rod ~o th:.u it produces 90° ro1111ion fo r the TE 11

3.16.1 Ocllnltlo n of Gyrator wa,c in the cin..'.ul:ir guide. This is · hown in

Fi~. J. 16.2(:i).

h I\ J ' " , 1 r rt dc\l ·e UWI lw, .I rcl:111, e ph.i.-.c of 180°

B 3.16.4(8) Operation
f,u tr.m,11u\\1t n (rum pon I 10 P"'rt 2 :i., comp:uui with
ph.t',(' ,hil l for 1r.1n,1111,'1n n Imm p.111 2 10 ron I or In t11e Fig. 3. 16.2 vcrlic:il dotted lines arc used to show
~ 1:su, c ph.tc.c d111crcnce in 1r.m,m1,,ion in two po,ition of signal at different poi nts.

d1recucw. 1, 18'1 •

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 Mlcrowovo En~lnoorlnu MU. Som. 7. E&TC 3.37 Microwave Passive DeViees

C.:onlildcr u Nignul upplic<l r.o port I . Refer Since there is no rotaling mechanism here it has ~
Pig. 3. I 6.2(h). A do111in1111t TEw mode iii excited which orienwtion at plane,4-4'.
has E vcctr,r vcriticul as ~hown 111 plune 1-1'. Th~ signal now enters tJ1c ferrite rod. When it comes
Ir ir1 111ill vertical before it enrcrli the twist 11/i .~hown in out of rod _it is rotated by 9?
0
in anticlockwise
plane 2-2' . dir&lion, makin¥ E vector horizontal as shown at plane
3-3'.
Thill liiB11al p:L',hC.~ through a mc.cha11ical twi.~L of 90°,
the ~ vector follow,; tlli li rota1io11· and it becomes When tJ1is E vector pass ~ough a mechanical twist it

horizont:11 ,u1 shown al pl1111c 3-3'.' is rotated by 90° in cloc.kwise direction, thus cancelling
- - ,. -
90° rotation by ferrite rod.
-
The Higrrnl now enter~ irito ferrite rod where it i~ further
rolatcd. Here the orienLation of E vector is vertically up. Now it
. . .
comes out of port I with same orientation.
When the Nignal comes out of ferrite rod it is roiatcd by
90'> in anriclockwiliC direction. The same orientation of E vector at port 2 and port I
indicates there is no phase shift while signal travels
111c horizontnl E now becomes vertical in downward
from port 2 to port l.
dircc1io11 as show11 al plune 4-:4'.
Now there iHno further mccha11isrn to rotate ii cmd thus f 'B. 3.16.5 Gyrator without a Twist f
liignul comes out of port 2 with E vector _down us
shown ar pl:111e 5-5'.
Ia 3.16.S(A) Construction
Roct11naular Wavo0uldo
rt consisL~ of three sectio ns. The input and output
Aoct;in{Jl1t,1r Port 2 (•)
wavr;outdo sections are rectangular with a 90° change in
orientalion.

As shown in Fig. 3. I 6.3(a), the input rectangular

I (b)
I waveguide has broad side horizontal but the output
Plano 1:
guide has broad side vertical.

The middle section is a circular waveguide where a

ferrite rod is placed inside. It is magnetized by a
(c)
external magnetic field so that it rotates the signal by
90° in clockwi se direction.

~ 3.16.5(8)
PCM
,.rJ'J 1' J Operation

(1CCl)Fig. 3.16.2: Operating principle or II gyrntor

Consider a signal travelling from port I to 2 as shown
'lnuli while entering port I the E vector is vertically up in Fig. 3. I 6.3(b).

but while coming out of(port 2 rhe E vector is vert.icaJly The dominant mode TEIO is excited at port 1 which has
down. 11 irulicatcs a J:hase shift of 180° betw.ccn two E vector vertical as shown at plane I -I'. It remains
signals. same at plane 2-2'.
Consider now a signal applied lo port 2. Refer ;'

Fig. 3. I 6.2(c). The E vector is vertical at plane 5-5'.

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 ['1 Microwave Engineerin (MU - Sem. 7. E&TC)
Mlcrowavo Ponolvo Oovtcod

I a. 3.17 Isolator I
(b)
If'4'U' LO. 3.17.1 What Is Isolator 7 Explaln In brfof with Its uoo.
pa,11 :
pja/l8 11
I
I
Ia 3.17.1 Deflnltlon of Isolator f

The isolator is a device which passes signal in the

forward direction without loss but totally auenuates the
signal propagating in the reverse direction.

(a 3.17.2 Symbolic Representation f

(100.)Fig. 3.16.3

0------1 L----o
This wave is now passed through fenite rod where it is Port 1 Port2
rotated 90° clockwise, making E vector horizontal in --+
+-lf-
right direction as shown at plane 3-3'.
(1C43)Fig. 3.17.1 : Symbolic representation or an isoWor
This right polarized wave comes out of port 2 as shown
Fig. 3.17. I shows, almost unattenuated transmission
at plane 4--4'. Thus there is a 90° phase difference for a
from port I 10 port 2 i.e. P2 = P 1, but no transmission in
signal from port 1 to port 2.
reverse direction from port 2 to port I .
_ Let us now apply the signal at port 2. The dominant
This is the property of an ideal isolator. For practical
mode in port 2 will have E vector in right direction as isolator the most important specifications are
shown at 4-4'. ft is same at position 3-3'.
(i) The isolation, whic~ is lhe insertion loss in lhe
.Now it is passed through fenite rod where it is rotated reverse direction, and
by 90° clockwise, which makes E vector vertically
(ii) The forward insertion loss
down at2-2'.
The isolation should be high, and the forward insertion
The same E vector comes out of port 1 with vertically
loss should be low. Typical values are :
down orientation.
[solalion (reverse loss) = 20 dB
- There is a 180° phase difference between signals at
port I in Fig. 3.16.3(b}and Fig. 3.16.3(c), which is the Forward insertion loss = 0.5 dB
property of gyrator.
Because of propagation is only from por1 1 to port 2,
isolator is also called as uniline.
j B- 3.16.S(CJ S-matrix f
a 3.17.3 Use of Isolator
For an ideal gyrator the scattering matrix is

It is used to isolate the generator from the mismatched

Joarl. Conside·r a microwave source con nected 10 a load.
Which shows that gyrator is a lossless, matched and When it i~ not matched it reflec~s the s ignal back to lhe
nonreciprocal two port device. generator. Refer Fig. 3. I 7.2(n).

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 This reflected signal if enters into generator it causes a_ 3 _17.4 Construction of Isolator
(i) the generator output power varies, and

(ii) the output frequency of the generator changes There are many ways isolator can be constructed, t

causing frequency instability. following are the frequently used methods.

To avoid this, isolator is placed between the load and (i) Isolator using ferrite rotation and a mechanic
generator. twist (ferrite isolator).
The isol~tor will pass the signal from generator to the (ii) Using terminated circulators
load without attenuation.
(iii) Using ferrite resonance
Any reflected signal from load are absorbed ~y the
isolator preventing the reflected signal entering into a. 3.17.5 Isolator using Faraday Rotation
source and output power and frequency stability of the
source is maintained. Refer Fig. 3. l.7.2(b).
ua. 3.17.2 Exp_lain working of isolator using Faraday
Incident wave rotation. MU - Ma 16, May 17, 5 Marks
Microwave
source Load One of the way of constructing an isolator is by usin!
Faraday's device.
Reflected wave
(lC-4-4)(11)
Ia. 3.17.S(A) Construction

Load fl consists of three sections :

No reflection The input and output sections are standard rectangular

(b) waveguides and the middle. Section is a circular
(1C45)Fig. 3.17.2: (a) nnd (b) showing use or isolator waveguide.

Actually the output power and frequency of the The input rectangular waveguide 1s twisted
generator remain stable as long as the load is matched. mechanically by 45° and is converted into a circular
But the generator appears to be matched all loads in the waveguide.
presence of isolator.
The circular waveguide at the other side is gradually
This can be proved very easily as, with no reflected
tapered into rectangular waveguide.
signal into the source.

(r.....___
:n -~ The resistive card is inserted parallel to the broader
wall in both rectangular waveguides.
The input impedance at the isolator is In the circular waveguide a ferrite rod is placed which

= '.lo~
I +r.
='.lo is tapered at both ends to avoid renec_tions.
I -I in
It is shown in Fig. 3. I 7.3(a). The ferrite rod is
Thus microwave source will always see the impedance magnetized by using external magnetic field.
connected to it as '.lo i.e. matched load.

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cl Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 _E&TC)
l!ffi ~~:::::~::~~===:::;;:==_;;~~b==~3~-~4~0=====~=====M~
~ --------,
-z,. 3.11.s(B) Operation
ic~ro~w:a~v~e~P~a~s~s~iV~e;£D:e~vi~c!e;s

Port 2 (•)
I
I
the property of resistive card that allows s:
It is I
unattenuated propag~tion if the electric field of the I Po
4'I
wave_ is perpendicular . to it arid absorbs the entire / (b)
energy if it ~s parallel to the ca.rel. I
I
I
The orientation and availability of the signal at Plane 11I
I

different locations in the isolator is shown in

fig. 3.l7.3(b) and (c), which explains the operating
I
principle. I (c)
I
I
Consider a wave travelling from port 1 to 2 as shown in I
I
I
I
fig. 3.l 7.3(b). I
I
I
The TE 10 mode is excited in the input port with E I
I
5'
vector vertical as shown.
The vertical E vector is not absorbed by the resistive (1CC6)Fig. 3.17.3 : Operating principle or ferrite isolator
card at the port l, observe _plane t -1 •.
Consider now the dominant mode is excited in port 2
The vertical E vector now enters into mechanical twist with E vector vertical and the signal travels from port 2
as shown in plane 2-2'. to I, as shown in at plane 5-5' .
This E vector enters into mechanical twist and gets This vertical E vector at plane 4-4' is now enters into
rotated by 45° in anticlockwise direction as shown in
ferrite rod.
plane 3-3' . ...
The ferrite rod rotates this signal 45° in clockwise
This rotated E vector ent~rs the ferrite rod and due to direction as shown at plane 3-3'. This wave now enters
ferrite rotation gets · rotated by 45° in clockwise
into twist.
direction. The twist rotates this signal in clockwise direction
Thus this clockwise rotation cancels the effect of 45° further by 45°, making E vector horizontal when it
anticlockwise rotation in the twist, which makes E arrives at port 1. This is shown in plane 2-2'.
vector again vertical as shown in plane 4-4 •:
The horizontal E vector is absorbed totally by a
Now there is no mechanism to further rotate it and thus horizontal resistive card at port l and thus no signal
vertical E comes out of port 2 without attenuation in
appears at port I as shown in plane 1-1 '.
the resistive card at port 2. This is sho~n in pl~e 5-5'.
'
This action makes signal entering at port 1 comes out a 3.17.6 Applications of Isolator
of port 2 without attenuation.
Note that the dominant mode in a rectangular I LO. 3.17.3 Give applications of isolator.
waveguide is TE 10 which becomes TEi1 when it enters
Isolators find wide applications in microwave systems
into circular waveguide. eliminati ng interactions between components.
Consider now the wave travelling from port 2 to I as
shown in Fig. 3.17.3(c).
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 ~ Microwave Engineering (MU. Sem. 7 · E&TC) 341 ~
nrc-i~~~~~~g~~~~~~~~~b==~;:::::::::::::::::::::~=)_;M;i;i:.Cf=O=W=a=ve=P=a_ss_iv_e;;:O;;;e~v~
Some of the applications are : I~ 3.17.7 s-matrix J

AppllcaUons of Isolator
An ideal isolator is represented by the folloWing
scattering matrix,
(I) Isolating transmitter from antenna
. . I
(ii) Isolating two stages of an amplifier s =

(iii) Isolating local oscillator from mixer 1

It indicates that ideally the devices is also perfectly

(100)Fig. 3.17.J(A) : Applications or isolator

matched at the input and output ports.

(I) lsolatlng transmitter from antenna

'B.. 3.18 Other Methods of Isolator
Construction

Transmitter Isolator a. 3.18.1 Using Ferrite Resonance

(Resonance Isolator)
(1C"8)Fig. 3.17.4: Applicalion(l) or isolator

As shown in Fig. 3.17.4, the output from the amplifier

It uses a ferrite material mounted inside a waveguide,
is transmitted with loss to the antenna.
and it is magnetized by an external magnetic field,
But energy reflected from the antenna is absorbed by
supplied by the C-shaped pennanent magnet as shown
the isolator.
in Fig. 3.18.1.
Thus isolator isolates the transmitter from reflected
signal from antenna. If the external magnetic field and the magnetic field of
the microwave signal are oppositely directed then the
(ii) Isolating two stages of an amplifier
ferrite has no effect and the microwave signal is
unattenuated.
MAGNET
Amplifier 1
Waveguide
(1C49)Fig. 3.17.S: Application(2) or isolator

While cascading amplifier stages care should be raken

so that amplifier 2 should not load amplifier I.
Using isolator this can be achieved as shown in
Fig. 3.17.5.
Ferrite
{Ill) Isolating local oscillator from mixer
(1C51)Fig. 3.18.1 : Resonance isolator

~ Oscillator
1 1 soator
Mixer
However, when the microwave signal travels in the
opposite direction through the waveguide, its magnetic
field is aligned with the external magnetic field
(ICSO)Fig. 3.17.6: Application(J) of isolator
resulting in strong attenuation of the signal.
Interaction between oscillator stage and a mix.er can be
This action makes the signal travel from one port to
avoided by using isolator between these two devices as
other without attenuation but in reverse direction there
shown in Fig. 3.17.6.
is a total attenuation.
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-
,Alcrowavo EnrlnotJr1 MU• Som. 7. E&TC
3-42

AIM> the power ii atxorbcd ouwde the cimil.;t.o(' ia a:,

cxt.emal tmnination ra.lher than absorbed in the ferri'.e
lhi>l:,wr can he conMructcd U\ ing ~ingJe circull11Qr or itscl f, a~ with isolator.
,,i;,.,,y circulatJ,r~.
a 3.18.2(8) 1-solator using More than
--z,. 3.18.2(A) Isolator using Slngl{3 One Clrculators
Circulator
If we want more isolation than achieved with isolator
1w lator can be conMructcd using a 3-port circulator using single circulator then many cimrl~ a..-c
with a 1.erminatcd port. ft makes a circulator a 2-port connected in series as shown in Fig. 3.18.3. This
device. arrangement increases the isolation of an isolator.
_ Jlig. 3. 1ll.2 hhows how a circulator is converted to an The increased isolation is obtained at the expense of
iwlawr hy the addi1ion of a malclied termination on the
insertion Joss.
third port
For example, a single cimllator might ha,·e 0.5 cfB
_ Microwave power passing in port I goes out of port 2
insertion loS-S and 2D dB of isolation.
and any power rcOcctcd from the output transmission
line reenters the circulator at port 2 and leaves port 3 When two such ciroJ.lators are cozmea.ed in s.cries. the
inlO the termination. resulting isolator will have 40 dB isolation and I dB of
insertion Joss.
Since it is a matched terminati.on all of the signal from . Cirru1ator 1
port 2 is absorbed by it.
IN OUT
- Tiius signal travels from port 1 to 2 but no signal goes
from 2 to I.
- No matter how bad the VSWR of the port 2
termination, the input VSWR at port I is always unity.
- If there is a fo ur port circulator then two port isolator is
oblained by terminating port~ 3 and 4 with a matched
(1C53)Fig. 3.18.3 : Isolator using tw o ci.rculators
load.
Ex. 3.18.1
The isolator has an insertion loss a,_ of )dB and an isolation
a, of30 dB over the operating bandwidth
(i) What is the output power P2 at port 2 if the input power
at port I is P1 = JO mW ?
(ii) What is the output power P 1 if the input power at port 2
(1C52)Flg. 3.18.2 : Jsololor 11~ing single circulator isP2 = JO mW.
@ Soln.:
- The advantage of using the circulator as an isolator is
that Y junc1ion circulator is easier to fabricate in micro P = 10 mW = 10 log(\~ dBm = IOdBm

strip line than the isolator. (i) P2 = P 1 -o,_ = 10-1 =9 dBm=7.94 mW

(ii) P 1 = P2 -a, = 10- 30 =-20 dDm = 0.01 mW

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Ex. 3.18.2 - In counter clockwise
An isolator has an insertion Joss of 0.5 dB and an isolation 2➔ I
of 30 dB. Detennine the scattering matrix of the isolator if
the isolated ports the perfectly matched to the junction.
@ Soln.: 2

Given:
Insertion loss = 0.5 dB

Isolation = 30 dB (a) clockwise circulator (b) Counter clockwise circulator

(1C54)Fig. 3.19.1
Isolation loss= 0.5 dB= - 20 log I S21 I
= 10- o.sno = 10- om.s
S21

Isolation = 30 dB= - 20 log I S12 1

I ~ 3.19.3 Types of Circulator

:. S12 = 10-)MO =lO-l.5 Following are the types of circulators which are
f requently used.
For perfectly matched isolator
(i) A four port circul~tor using magic T's.
S 11 = S22 =0
( ii) A compact form of four port circulator
The s-matrix is
(iii) Y-junction cir~ulator
[s] = [ S11 S12 ]=[· 0
10-0.025
100-1.5]
S 21 S 22 ~ 3.1 9.4 A Four Port Circulator Using

·I 11 3.19 Circulator I Magic T's

UQ. 3.19.2 Design circulator using magic tees.

LQ. 3.19.1 Explain the concept of circulator with its

1 ~ 3.19.4(A) Construction
symbol and types.

I~ 3.19.1 Definition I - It consists of,

Add ideal circulator is an n-port device, which passes a (i) Two magic, T's, and (ii) A gyrator

signal applied in Port 1 to only port 2, a signal applied - The operator principle of magic T is revjsed here. The
in port 2 to only port 3, and finally a signal appli_ed in magic Tis show~ in Fig. 3.19.2 has four ports.
port n to only port· 1. - The main arm has two ports, port 1 and i.
Although there is no restriction on the number of ports, There are two auxmary arms E arm and H arm the
a circulators with 3 ports are commonly used. signal flow is as follows :

f ~ 3.19.2 Symbol (1) If signals are applied to port 1 and 2 in p~ase ii

results in no signal is E ai:m and maximum in

Fig. 3.19.1 shows two configurations possible. In H-arm.
clockwise circulator signal flow is
1 ➔ 2

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J:fl:'i~_:u~ o row_o_vo.P.o.a111n1v_8_0e,~,_
l c. ~
In the opcrutlon, the output of II lran,mitter J, C-Ol.i
' ' ., _,. ' . ~
a. 3.19.6 Appllcatlons of Clrculotor 10 1111 untenna where 11 111 U/ICU M 1ran.~m11t,ng anten~
In the receiving mode, nny slgnal8 picked up by O,
LQ. 3.19.3 Explain nppllcotlons of clrculalor In brlol. untcnna are fed to the n:ccivcr via a circulator, h ~
MJown in fig. 3.19.5.
TI1e circu!ntor is one of the building blocks in rudio
frequency nnd microwave circuits. Circulator All11ffin3
It is used extensively in making ba~ic devices for 2
Transmitter ._.____,
communication nnd radar systems. Some · of the
applications arc
3
(i) as an isolator, (ii) as a duplexer,
Receiver
(iii) as a phase shifter, and (iv) as a multiplexer l
(1C68)Flg. 3.J9.5 : Circulator a._, a dupion-

Ia. 3.19.G(A) Circulator as an Isolator

~ 3.19.6(C) Circulator as a Phase Shifter

Circulator
The circuit shown in Fig. 3.19:6 can be used as a ¾d
or variable phase shifter.
By adjusting the length I of the transmission line in~
2, one can introduce a phase shift of 2~/ between JlOl1I
I and 3. The length I can be adjusted by using a slidmi
(tunable) short.
(1C57)Fig. 3.19.4 : Circulator as an Isolator
1 2
At microwave frequencies, generators are vulnerable to Short or
tunable short
frequency shifting due to load variations, therefore
isolation is needed between source and a load. 3

- This is done by using circulator as an isolator. When

(1C5'.l)Fig. 3.19.6: Circulator a.~ a pha.'iC shinu
one of the port of a circulator is connected lo a matched
termination then it can be used as an isolator. In is
shown in Fig. 3.19.4.
I~ 3.19.6(0) Circulator as a Dlplexe~ I
Any reflection from a mismatched load enters into port A multiplexer is a device that carries many channels cl
2 which is circulated to port 3 where it is dissipated in signals in a given bandwidth.
the matclled termination. Thus no part of the reflection
The simplest one is the diplexer of two chnnncls as
is coupled into port I. This is how the source is isolated
shown in Fig. 3. 19.7.
from load.
The signal output from the low pass filter is directed by
f a. 3.19.6(8) Circulator as a Duplexer I the circulator from port 3 to port I,

- TI1is signal is rejected here. The reflected waves 111t

A duplexer is a device that allows a single antenna.~ Lo then forwarded to the common channel with the outi-
serve as a transmitting a,; well as receiving antenna. of the high pass filter via the same circulator.

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 lneering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) Microwave passive Devices
3-46
S ) used have the
Total three phase shifters (S 1, S2 and 3

following properties :
. 900 phase change
(i) S 1 is a dielectric slab provides a
in both directions.
hen signal travc 1s
(ii) S2 provides 90° phase change w . .
hangc for a s1gna1
in left direction but not phase c
,C(,O)Fig. J.19.7: Circulator ll'i II diplcxer
1 in right direction. .
for a signal in
nel multiplexer can also be obtained using (iii) S.1 provides 90° phase change on 1Y
N..chan .
~ r connections. right direction.
propC
The construction details arc shown jn Fig. 3.ZO. I.

LO- _20.1 Explain types of clrculators commonly used

3
in practice.

This section explains two types of circulators

ly used in practice.
conunon_ _ _ _ _--::-----::--:--:---,
A compact form of circulator
(i)
(ii) Y-junction circulntor (IC61)Fig. 3.20.1 : A compact form of circulator

'I,. 3,20.1 A Co mpact Form of Circulator

I B.. 3.20.1(B) Operation

Construction Consider a signal applied at port I. It appears at point a

where there is hole I coupling. This signal splits into
_ It consists of two components W I and W 2 •
(i) A two hole directional coupler The components W I travels towards right in branch I ,
(ii) Two 90° non-reciprocal phase shifters. and while travelling it passes through phase shifters S 1
and S2•
(iii) a dielectric slab for 90° phase shift.
The phase shifter S 1 adds a phase shift to 90° but S 2
- Two 90° non reciprocal phase shifters arc biased, with
add nothing. The total phase of W 1 is changed by 90°.
oppositely directed static fields using permanent
magnets. This signal appears at point d where there is hole 2,
here signal further split into two components ~ I'
- Each branch in the directional coupler uses one of these
phase shifters and the second branch contains
and w';.
additional dielectric slab for 90° phase shift. The component W. travels right towards port 4 with a

- Two holes in the direction coupler provides 3dB phase of 90°.

coupling and whenever the signal is coupled through The component w'; passes through hole where its
hole there is a 90° phase shift of the signal coupled. phase is changed by 90° resulting in a 180° phase. This
component travels towards port 2.
Tedi-Nco Puhl·1ca1Joru;.
• ______ ""-
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. . ..-.A SA[J//tVS/IA/1 Yentu.re

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 ~ Microwave Engineering (MU - Som. 7 • E&TC) 3.47 Mlcrowavo Pasalvo ~

The component W2 enters through hole 1 into hrnnch 2.

While passing through hole its angle is changed hy 90°,

"
and it starts travelling right.
It passes 1hrough phase shifter s., where its nnglc is Grounds
plonos
further changed by 90°.
Thus a signal appearing ut poinl C has a phase of 180°.
The signal at point C is divided into two parts w:
and w: .
The component \V: travels towards port 2 where it is (1C62)(n) Stripline circulator

added with w7 .

Since both arc in phase they add, resulting in maximum

signal out of port 2.
The component W'-i when passes through hole 2 its
angle is changed by 90° making total phase of 270°.
This component travels towards port 4.
Two components travelling towards port 4 are W~ and
vi2 , are having a phase difference of 180° between (b) Wnveguide circulator

them, resulting in total cancellation at port 4. (1C6.3)Fig. 3.20.2

Thus signal applied to port I travels only to port 2. Three slripline conductors arc attached to the pcripbCT)

Ia. 3.20.2 Y-junction Circulator

of the center disk at 120° intervals, forming the Ihm
ports of the circulator.

Ia. 3.20.2(A) Construction j

The de bias is applied so that magnetic field B0 i
produced along the axis of ferrite which gives th
junction the required nonreciprocal property.
Two types of Y-junction circulators are shown in
Fig. 3.20.2. A circulator in Fig. 3.20.2(a) is fo r use with
coaxial transmission lines, while in Fig. 3.20.2(b) is
, ~ 3.20.2(8) Operation I
used with waveguides. The principle of operation of the Y-junction circulate
Three port circulators usually involve the symmetrical is shown in Fig. 3.20.3.
junction of slripline type of transmission lines When any of the port is excited two modes .ii
(Fig. 3.20.2(a)) or of three identical waveguides generated. One will travel in clockwise direction !Ill

(Fig. 3.20.2(b)). the other in anticlockwise direction.

Fig. 3.20.2(a) shows two ferrite disks fill the spaces The magnetic field is adjusted so tlrnt the phase shift '
between the center metallic disk and the ground planes the signal is clifferl!nt in both directions.
of the stripline.
IL is done so thnt the microwave signal m,w
clockwise at twice the velocity ns in the unticlod:wi:
din.:ction .
Ttth-Neo Puhliatiorut".___ W/,crc Authorw ,iupiro 1i1110n1lim1 ..•..A .\'.llJl/1VSIWl 1'tnhtfl

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 t.4lcrowavo En lnoorlng (MU - Som. 7. E&TC)
3-48 Microwave Passive Devices
·iclcr now the signal enters part 1 it .,. .
cons , u1v1dcs into
.,, cqunl pans. One pnrt travels in a . . (II) The dlrectlvlly : It is the loss of signal as it
tWO n1tc1ockw1se
. ction from part I lo part 2 cxpcricn travels in the wrong direction.
cJ1rc . ccs a 360 o
phnSC shift. - Typical values arc:

'fl c dimensions of the circulator arc selected Insertion loss = 0.5 dB

1 • such that
rhiS)60°phnsc shift occurs.
Directivity = 20 dB
The other half of the signal travels in clockwise
direction to go from part I to part 2. aa.21 Scattering Matrix of a 3-Port
While cloing so it travels twice the .,. t Circulator
uts ance as
cornpurccl to distance in anti clockwise direction.
Because it travels with twice the velocity 11 . LO. 3.21.1 Explain scattering matrix of a 3-port
1e signal
also experiences a 360° phase shift. circulator.

Two signals reaching port 2 add in phase and the total In general the scattering matrix of a three port device is
power comes out of port 2.
SI I S12 S13 ·]
_ Now sec how port 3 is isolated. The signal that travels [S] = 521 ½2 S23
[
clockwise from port 1 to port 3 experiences a 1800 S31 532 S33
phase shift.
When all P?rts are matched :
_ The other half of the signal travelling in anticlockwise
direction from port I to port 3 experience and 720°
phase shift. It gives :
_ The two signals reaching port 3 are 180° out of phase
For a non-reciprocal network :
and cancel, so no power comes out of port 3.

Port 3 Port 2
The give a new matrix
/
/

I
I
0 S12 S13 ]
I
I [s] = ½1 0 Sn ... (A)
180° I
I
[
I
\
S31 S32 0
''
' ........... Applying unitary condition :
Input 2 2
signal RR*
l I ➔ 1s12 1 + ls131 = 1 ... (i)
Port 1 2 2
~R; ➔ 1s21I + 15231 = 1 ... (ii)
(1C64)Fig. 3.20.3 : Y-junction circulntor operation
* ls31 1 + ls321 = 1
2 2
R 3 R3 ➔
... (iii)
'&. 3.20.3 Specifications
Using zero property :

.. The important specifications of a circulator are : .. . (iv)

(I) The insertion loss : It is the loss of signal as it
. .. (v)
travels in the direction that it is supposed to go.
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liJ Microwave Engineering (MU• Sem. 7 • E&TC) 3-49
Microwave Passive ~
~
... ( vi)

There arc two ways Equations (iv - \·i) arc satisified

(i) s12 =su =s31=0, and ...(vii)
...(viii)
(D) clockwlst! circulator (b) anticlockwlst! circulator
Using Equation (\•ii) in Equations (i) - (iii) results in (1~f1g. J.21.1

... (ix) Using input output relation with Equation (c)

Using Equation (viii) in Equations (i)- (iii) results in (b) = (s) (a)

.. .(x)

From Equations (ix) nnd (x), su -,. s,, for i -,. j

Thus the device is nonl"C'Ciprocal.

Since Equation (\'ii) results in Equation (i, ). combinins
these conditions in Equation (A)

OO1]
[s) =
[0I O1 00 .. . (B)
It is u anticlockwise circulator shown in Fig. 3.21.l(b).

Since Equation (viii) results in Equation (x), combining Ex. 3.21.1

these conditions in Equation (A) Pro,·e that it is impo ible to conslruct a perfectly matched
lo:.~lcs , reciprocal 3-pon j unction.
OI O]
(s) = 0 0 I .. .(C) 0 Soln. :
[
I O0 A 3-pon circulator can be obtained by a 120° H-plane

Using input-output relation with Equation (D), waveguide with a central ferrite pon. A axial magnetic field
is applied along the axis of this post for proper operation of
[b) = (s)la) the circulator.

For perfectly matched, lossless non-reciprocal 3-port

circulator, the [SJ is

The phase angles of S 13 , S21 and S32 can be made zero if

the terminal planes are properly chosen.
It is a circulator in clockwise direction shown in
Fig. 3.2 1.l (a).

Trcb-&o Puhliatiom- Jrhcre AuthorY in.¥Ji~ in.ooratioo -4 SAO/INS/Wl YeatUJt

 ve Engineering {MU - Sem. 7 • E&TC) Mlcrownvo Posslvo Oovlcoe

0 0 1]
3-50
0. 11
IO_,.,,]
[ O.JJ
:. [SJ =
[ 01 01 O0 :. (SJ =
IO. oo:.., 0.33 0.1

0.1
,o-oou 0.33
for a perfectly matched 3-port junction, the [SJ is,
For n perfectly mntchcd, non-n:ciprocnl, losSlcu 3-port
0 S 12 S 13 ] circulator, the [SJ is gh·cn by,
[SJ = s12 o s~
~
[
S13 S23 0
1s1 = [ s~. s~) ]
For a Ios.sless junction, the [S] is unitary. 0 S3, 0
.
· S .s• + S,.3S1J
• • 1. 1.2
= 1 ...(1) The tennin:tl planes are so chosen as to rnnkc the phn.sc
angles ofS 13, S21 nnd Su zero .
. 5 .s•. + S23S23 = 1 ... (2)
••
.
•- 1-

, I3 + 5 23 S23
•.• 51.S
.
= l ... (3)
i.e. S13 = S:1 = S 32 = 1

.
~]
0

= S 12S~ =S 12 S:3 =0 0
:. S13S:J ...(4) [S] =
[!
If 5 1:? -tc 0, Equation (4) gives S 13 = 0 = S23• But this
Practically 30-40 dB isolation, less than I dB insertion
does not satisfy Equation (3). Hence a reciprocal lossless 3-
point circulator cannot be perfectly matched. loss and a VSWR of less than 1.5 can be achieved.

Ex. 3.21.2 a. 3.22 University Questions and

l)etermine the [SJ of a 3-port circulator given insertion loss Answers
of 0.5 dB. isolation of 20 dB and VSWR of 2.
@ Soln. : 11
• Dec. 2015

[S] =
[s., S12
S21 S22 Sn
s.,] a. 1(a) Design circulator uslng magic tees.
(Ans. : Refer section 3. 19.4) (5 Martes)
S31 S32 S33
a. 1(c) Explain the operation of 2-hole directional coupler
Insertion loss= 0.5 dB = - 20 log [S2.J
with S-matrix.
or 1S211 = 10- 0.YlO = 10-0.02.S (Ans. : Refer section 3. 11.2(8) snd 3.10) (5 Martes)
. O.OlS
Similarly. IS21I = 1S321= 1S 131= I 0 11
• May2016
Isolation = 20 dB = - 20 log IS 121
a. 2(b) What is need of termination In microwave systems?
S121 = 10·
2000
= 10· 1=0.1 Explain any two types of terminations.
(Ans.: Refer section 3. 13) (10 Martes)
Similarly, 1S 121 = 1S311= 0.1
S- 1 2- 1 t a. 3(a) What Is Faraday rotation In ferrites. Explain working
p = s + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3 = 0.333 of isolator using Faraday rotation.
(Ans. : Refer section 3. 15.3(A) snd 3. 17.5)
1S11 1 = 1S221= 1S331
(10 Martes)

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 Microwave Passive De~
Ii] Microwave En lneering (MU -Sem. 7- E&TC) 3-51

11
• Dec. 2016 11• Dec. 2017
the working of Directional Couplers.
a. 1(b) Explain the working of hybrid ring. a I i
1(a) expan )
• (Ans. : Refer section 3.9 and 3.9.3 (5 Ma11ta)
(Ans.: Refer section 3.8) (5 Marks)

0. 1(c) Explain the operation ·of 2-hole directional coupler

with S-matrix.
11• May2018
(Ans. : Refer section 3. 11.2(8) and 3. 10) (5 Marks) a. 6(A) Write a short note on : Phase shifters
(Ans. : Refer section 3. 12)
11
... May 2017

a. 2(b) Describe operation of following devices using

11• Dec. 2018
faraday's rotation principle. a. 6(8) Write a short note on : Hybrid ring
(i) Isolator (ii) Gyrator (Ans. : Refer section 3.8)
(Ans.: Refer section 3.17.5 and 3.16)
(10 Marks)

Chapter Ends...

OQQ

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~ Microwave Engineering (MU. Som. 7 • E&TC) 4·2
Microwave Tu~

UQ. 4.7.1 Exploln Travelllng wavo tubo ns on nmpllllor.

MU• Dec. 15. Dec. 17. 5 l\lmks ........................... 4-20
ua. 4.9.1 Wrlto O ohort noto on backward wovo oocillator.
MU· Doc. Hi. 5 Mnrks ........................................... 4-39
"
4.7.1 Construction .................................................................... 4-20 4.o.I Un oar M•Corclnolron ...................................................... 4.39

4.9.2 Circular M•Cnrclnotron .................................................... .i..,.

'"'IIJ
4.7.2 Slow Wove Structure ...................................................... 4-27
UQ, 4.7.2 What ore slow wove structures. Drow various structures 4. 10 Cyllndrlcol Maonotron ..................................................... 4-..1
and give their slgnlllcanco. uo. 4•10. l With O noot functional diagram explain tho
MU· Mn 16. 5 Morks .......................................... 4-27 working principle of Cyllndrlcal Magnetron.

4.7.3 Need of Attenuators ........................................................ 4-27 MU. Doc. 17. Mn 18. Doc. 18. 10 Mnrks ........... 4-41

4.7.4 Expression for Velocity Fluctuation of the 4.10.1 Construction .................................................................... 4-41

Electron Beam ................................................................ 4-28 4.10.2 Operation ........................................................................ 4--4 1

LQ. 4.7.3 Derive the expression for velocity fluctuation 4.10.3 Favorable and Non Favorable Electrons ...................... 4-42
of the electron beam ................................................ 4-28
4.10.4 Back-heating ................................................................... 4-43
4.7.5 Convection Current In TWT ............................................ 4-29
4.1 o.5 Bunching (Phase • Focusing) .......................................... 4-43
4.7.6 Circuit Equation In the TWT ............................................ 4-30 LO. 4.10.2 Write a note on bunching process In
4.7.7 Modes of Propagation In TWT ........................................ 4-31 cylindrical magnetron . .............................................. 4-43

LQ. 4.7.4 Write note on different modes of propagation 4.10.6 Self-consistent Modes..................................................... 4-43
lnTWT..................................................................... 4-31
LO. 4.10.3 What Is sell consistent modes In magnetron? ......... 4-43
4.7.8 Output Power Gain In TWT............................................. 4-33
4.10.7 n-mode Oscillation .......................................................... 4-44
4.7.9 Applications of Travelling Wave Tube ........................... 4-34
4.10.8 Mode Jumplng ................................................................. 4-4,4
LO. 4.7.5 Give the applications of travelling wave tube ......... 4-34
ua. 4.10.4 Whal Is mode jumping in magnetron.
4.7.10 Difference between TWT and Klystron Tube ................. 4-34 How Is ii taken care of? .... 4-44
LO. 4.7.6 Differentiate between TWT and klystron tube.......... 4-34 LO. 4.10.5 How 10 Avoid Mode Jumping ? ................................ 4-44
UEx. 4.7.4 ........................................... 4-35 4.10.8(A) Mode Jumping Techniques ......................................... 4.44
4.8 Cross Field Amplifier (CFA) ............................................ 4-36 4.10.9 Hull Cut-off Magnetic Field .............................................. 4-45
LO. 4.8.1 Write short note on Cross Field Amplifier................ 4-36 LO. 4.10.6 Derive the expression for Hull cut-off condition. ...... 4-45
4.8.1 Classification of CFA ...................................................... 4-36 4.11 Gyro1ron .......................................................................... 4-48
4.8.2 Power Gain of CFA ......................................................... 4-37 ua. 4.11 .1 How does gyrotron tube ditter from klystron and
4.8.3 Efficiency of CFA ............................................................ 4-37 magnetron tubes ? Explain the principle of operation ol
gyro TWT amplifier. .. ..... 4-48
4.8.4 Derivation of 'Ile ............................................................... 4-38
LO. 4.11 .2 What are the drawbacks of conventional tubes ? .... 4-48
4.8.5 Derivation of 11, ............................................................... 4-38
4.11 .1 Types of Gyro Devices .................................................... 4-48
LO. 4.8.2 Give the characteristics and applications of CFA .... 4-39
4.11.2 Bunching Process ........................................................... 4-51
4.8.6 Characteristics of CFA .................................................... 4-39
4.12 University Questions and Answers ................................. 4.52
4.8.7 Applications of CFA ........................................................ 4-39
Chapter Ende............................................................................. 4-52
4.9 Backward Wave Oscillator (BWO) ................................. 4-39

Tcch-Neo Publications.••_..._ Where Author.,·inspire innomtio11 .....A S.4CIIINSHAH Pr.nturt

 - Microwave Engineering (MU _ Sem
· 7 - E&TC)

4.1 Limitations of Conve ti bccorr.c\ :un-r.lU a ,t-.t:n. cl," (_.I-' _ cp t.~ ,. -

n anal
T u bes inten:l.cctrodc oin:x:r..a1 •,..l:.:ch cr~ :::·o ~'c,:.: cz
an: \ l-.c-.:.n in ng. <!, l.lfAJ.
The effect o f ir.~!.ect.-c,'~ c.tyJCr'-Zt'.o! ::i:. '.'-
LO, 4.1.1 What are the limitations of .
tubes ? COnventionaJ minimized by ru...:cinz &..e Cr;;;. C,. Cu. Tr..c-,,: c;.c. ='-
reduced C"f ~u:g tu a:~ cf e-'.a:t.--./...G.
High freq uency limitations of conv .
em1onaJ tubes are as
follows: C = d

Limitations of conventional tubes Tna is by min 5 sm.2ller e~✓..eI er b:· ~:.-~ ~

diszaoa: t:evo:n d : e e ~
1. lnterelectrOde capacitance
[ a. 4.1.2 Lead Inductance Effect
2. l ead inductance
As frequeno1 i.ccre..:ses u:.e rr,.•a:n:z ;r., = ...,_1 )
3. Transit lime effect
~ 2nd tecce tk ·;-o!I.2? ~~-cg a: ~ ~~
4. Gain bandwidth limitation electrcdes ere le;s thzn ti:e H l ~ a: :::.: ~ . ·-.
This resuJ t in retlilced gzo fcr r.::e n:=e 2 • '.:..::!::". ~....
L., and L I are tk l..-..zd i.ab:-..z:::ces L'::2:: F- =- ~
(1D1)Fig. 4.1.1 perfonnznce of ti:e o:u:e «::d a.-e ~ c:
ng. 4 . 1.1 (A ).
~ 4.1.1 lnterelectrode Capacitance T~ effect oi Le:.2d lnd.uctz.::ce (LfJ a= be r ==z_.
Effect
by cixre2Sing (LJ. Since L is p, c:,cnic:::"'' to ~ : r , ~

L can be decre2Sed b:, ming La.~ m.e ~ !~

without b2Se pins thz.! is o:, ~=E A ti
decreasing l. However thi.5 reduces C:e fo-;.e i::::-c-=-:
capabifay.

a. 4.1.3 Transit nme Effect

(102)Fig. 4.1.l(A) : Interelectrode capacitances and lead

inductances I/

I
As frequency increases the reactance Xe = 2nfC

decreases and Lhe outpul voltage decreases due to

shunting effect. Because at higher frequencies (XJ
(tDT,Fig. -U.2: Tride

Tech-Neo Publir.atioos,.,_,,__ Where Authors in.pin: inooY11tion

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 - · """" urnc is Ille Lime 111ken for elcccron to tmvct from
Clllllo<..le to uno<..lc ns shuwn in Fig. 4.1.2.

Trunslt time 't = .!!.

Vo

Where, d = Distance between anode and cathode

I

Vo = Velocity of electrons T ➔I

Stu tic energy of electron = cv

(1~) (a)
Kinetic energy of electron

At equilibrium,

Stutic energy = JGnclic energy

l 2 (High frequency)
eV = 2 DlVo (T = nanosec)

Vo
(b)
=
. ~
m
(106JFlg. 4.1.4 : Effect of large 't compared to T
d
't = ... (4.1.l) That is (iP) lags (Vg) and grn becomes a comple~
~ quantity. Therefore change in plate current occurs after
a finite delay with respect to change in control 0 ,;
At low frequencies transit time ('t) is negligible as . "''d
voltage.
compared to the period of signal (T) that is period of
the signal as shown in Fig. 4. l .3(a). r,r Remedy for transit time effect

To minimize ttansil lime ( T = ~J

The separation between electrodes can be decl'CaSe,j

(but this increases the IEC) and the plate to cathock
I1<14- - - T(msec),- - - - . i·I•. I potential (V) can be increased. Therefore, trade off
between IEC and transit time is a must
(a) (b)
(1~)Fig. 4.1.3: Effect of 'ton phase betw~n iP and v& ~ 4.1.4 Gain Bandwidth Limitation
]
~ip
gm = ~vg .
Both iP and V8 are in phase as shown in Fig. 4. l.3(b).
C
Therefore the plate current (ip) responds immediately to
changes in control grid voltage (Vs>·

At higher frequencies the transit time is comparable

(1D7)Fig. 4.15 : Equivalent circuit or u tube
with tJ1e period of the signal which is very small as
shown in Fig. 4. l .4(a).

Tech-Neo Publications--.·-- JWicre Authors inspire innoY11tion ,_ .A SACJIIN SHAH J'eDture

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 ~ Microwave Engineering (MU. Sem. 7 • E&TC)
~ 4-5 Microwave Tubes
• 6 ,.... imum gain is achieved when th
., JV,-- e tuned circuit .
resonance, Referring to the equivalent . . is at (b) Dlelectrlc losses
c1rcu1t show .
fig. 4.1.5. We can calculate the . n in
gain bandwidth This occur in various types of insulating material used
product, in the device i.e. glass envelope etc. The Joss in any of
I ( g,,,) these material is in general given by
Gain bandwidth product
= g,,,R xiic =c 2
P = 1t f V0 E, tan a
The gain bandwidth product is thu . d
s in epcndent of
(reqUency of (gm) and (C) are fixed fi • . As f increases the power loss increases the remedy of
. or a Particular
ciJCUll.
this is to eliminate the base tube and to reduce the
surface area of glass.
_ Higher gain can be achieved at the cost 0 f b .
andw1dth
onJy. [a 4.1.6 Effect due to Radiation Losses
This limjtation can be overcome by the use of:
(i) Slow wave Lubes Whenever the dimension of the wire approaches the
wavelength it will emit radiation that is radiation losses
(ii) Re-entrant cavities
increase with increase in frequency.

~ 4.1.5 Effect due to RF Losses ] The remedy for this is proper shielding of the tubes and
its circuitry.

(a) Skin due to RF losses

B. 4.2 Classification of Microwave
_ These losses come into play at higher frequencies at Tubes
which the current has the tendency to confine itself to a
smaller cross section of the conductor towards its outer
Microwave tubes are classified as :
surface.
MW tubes
Skin depth (6)
I
I I
I M-type O-type
6 a. A.rr and 6 a. {f

I , ~ 4.2.1 Crossed-field Tubes (M-type)

Hence, A.rr a. -{r
UQ. 4.2.1 Write short note on 'M' type microwave
R = ~ tubes. MU:- Ma 17, 5 Marks
A.rr

R a. _I
A.rr
a.{f
© ==±==:: Electron beam

- As f increases R increases hence losses will increase at

B
-----h-----+
(IOB)Fig. 4.2.1 : M-typc tube
higher frequencies.
Crossed-field tubes derive their name from the fact that
- These losses can be reduced by increasing the size of
the de electric field and the de magnetic field are
lhe conductor.
perpendicular to each other.

Tedi~ Puhlicatio11.1_ .._Wliere Authors mspire ionoralion .....A SACIIINSIWI Yenture

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 ~ Microwave Engineering (MU. Sem. 7. E&TC) 4-6
...
Microwave iu~
~
The general motion of the electron beam is The microwave tube uses transit urnc 111 the convc .
~ion
pe.peodicular to both fields as is indicated in Fig. 4.2.1 . of de power to radio-frequency (rf) power.

Crossed.field tubes are also referred to as "M-type" The interchange of power is accomplished by using lhc

tubes after the French TPOM• which in' . Enolish

. e, means principle of electron VELOCITY MODULATION ¾d
rubes for prop:igation of waves in a magnetic field. )ow-loss resonant cavities in the microwave tube.

In all crossed-field rubes. the de magnetic field plays a A clear understanding of microwave tubes must Stan
direct role in the RF interaction process. with an understanding of how electrons and electric
fields interact. An electron has mass and thus exhibits
[ ~ 4.2.2 Linear-beam Tubes (0-type) kinetic energy when in motion.

The amount of kinetic energy in an electron is direcuy

I UQ. 4.2.2 What an, 'O' type tubes ? E,q,l~n- proportional to its velocity; that is, the higher the
MU - Ma 17. 5 Marks velocity, the higher the energy level.
---B The basic concept of the electron energy level being
E - - - - - - - - - Bectron beam directly related to electron velocity is the key principle
of energy transfer and amplification in microwave
(lDS)Fig. -t2.2: 0. type tube tubes.

An electron can be accelerated or decelerated by an

In linear-beam rubes. the de magnetic field that is in
electrostatic field.
parallel v.;th the de electric field is used merely to
focus the electron beam. Fig. 4.3.1 shows an electron moving in an electrostatic
field. The directjon of travel (shown by the heavy
In line:rr-beam rubes (such as klystrons and TWfs,
arrow) is against the electrostatic lines of force which
Fig. 4.2.2) where the general dim:tion of beam motion
are from positive to negative.
is 2.ligned v.;th the fields.
The negatively charged electron will be attracted to the
Tnese are also referred to as "O-type" tubes which
positively charged body and will increase in velocity.
de,"ive their name from the French TPO or from the
As its velocity increases, the energy level of the
word original (meaning the original type of rube).
electron wiU also increase.

I a 4.3 Velocity Modulation I Where does the electron acquire its additional energy 1
The only logical source is from the electrostatic field.
Thus, the conclusion is clear.
/ LQ. 4.3.1 Write short note on velocity modulation.
Ao electron traveling in a direction opposite to
Velocity modulation is defined as that variation in the electrostatic lines of force will absorb energy and
,·elocity of a beam of electrons caused by the alternate increase in velocity (accelerate).
speeding up and slowing down of the electrons in the
As Fig. 4.3.2 illustrates, the opposite condition is also
oe.am. true. An electron traveling in the same direction as the
Tne microwa,·e rube was developed when the use of electrostatic lines of force will decelerate by giving up
the frequency spectrum went beyond 1,000 megahertz energy to the field.
2nd into the microwa\'e range.

Tecb-~eo PahfieatP.m_<- ffbue AuthDrs iDspire io.aU1ztioo -A SACHJNSHAD Yeoturt

l
.,)

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 I

I
"1 1.HOWave En ineering (MU - Sem 7
~ ~...,,--: · • E&TC)
positively charged Microwave Tubes
body ►(1- + -+
I I
I I
I
I
I
I
I
I
'a. 4.4 Two Cavity Klystron
I I
I I
I I

Electric field - - : : Electron

I I
I I UQ. 4.4.1 Give the working of Two Cavity Klystron.
I I I Direction of
:
I
:
I
• :
I
I
I
'II travel MU· Dec. 17. 10 Marks
: : : :
I t I : I
I
'
I

t' •' The Klystron is a vacuum electron device for

Ne9a~~charged~ t t t
ovuY . --3 transfonning DC energy into RF energy, and it may be
either an oscillator or an amplifier.
11010}f1g. 4.3.1 : Electron moving OPJ>Osite to e1ttt.ric
•

n vity
,, field
i.-L--+I
The negatively charged body will repel th RF input Caotcher
cavity J o!ut
- . e electron and
cause it to decrease m velocity.
Anode L.=i_, ~ Collector
.F_1~====~
-
When the velocity is reduced, the ener .
gy 1eve! is also
reduced. The energy lost by the electron • .
1s gained by
0 I uo -
I
L;1,
7-.,
I
--~1Jl_i~1l___
-----1---·- -
~=□ z
I - --

I
the electrostatic field. Vg 1---..-J beam
v0 1t---+----J Distance I I •t
~ . Positively time 12 l3
~ charged
I I I I
: : : : body
Direction or : : : : (1D12)Fig. 4.4.1
travel ' : :
:I :
I
- Electric field The Klystron was invented in 1983 by the Varian
Electron _ .............___......o : :
t
I
I
I
I
I
I brothers to utilize the finite transit time of electrons in
I I I
I
I
I
I
I
I motion (which is a severe impediment to the operation
1

,..ta-tL ..itL....1•'--ll•:....:1•-
Negatively of most electron devices at microwave frequencies) and
._!-------------'-!--charged
body thereby obtain previously impossible levels of
(tDtt)Fig. 4.3.2 : Electron moving in the direction or electric field microwave power.

_ The operation of a velocity-modulated tube depends on

1 a. 4.4.1 Construction
a change in the velocity of the electrons passing
through its electrostatic field. The Klystron is called a linear beam device, since the
fields that influence the electron motion are
- A change in electron velocity causes the tube to
predominantly in the same direction as the electron
produce BUNCHES of electrons.
motion.
- These bunches are separated by spaces in which there The main advantage is that the Klystron is naturally
are relatively few electrons. made of three main components :

- Velocity modulation is then defined as that variation in (l) The electron gun (on the left)

the velocity of a beam of electrons caused by the (2) The RF interaction section, and

alternate speeding up and slowing down of tJ?e (3) The collector, on the right.
electrons in the beam. This variation is usually caused Each component has only a simple function and can be
by a voltage signal applied between the grids through designed almost independently of the other parts.

which the beam must pass.

-4 SACHJNSHAH Yeature
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tl Microwave Engineering (MU. Sem. 7 - E&TC) 4-8 Microwave Tu~

~ 4.4.2 Operation electrons nrrive at the output gap center at the s~

~

time.
The basic idea i. to . tun with nn unbunchcd. moderate Of course. with a continuum of electrons in the
velocity electron be:un in u m:1gnc1ic system such that bunches cavity nnd in the presence of the unavoidable
the be:tm lr.ln,l:itc along an :1..1:i:; with minim:1I mdinl electron repulsion (space charge) effects. the bunchCQ
spreading. hc:1m i, onl y more 1e111porally concentrated in the
If two RF cavitic.~ nrc abo along 1hi~ :L'(is, the fir-t one out put c:wity and the electrons remain distributed .
1n
can be dri"cn by :m e\lcnml RF ~ource (the input time.
cavil)') nnd the ~nd ca11 ,crvc a!\ a ~ourrc (the uu1pu1 Thu~. the hc:trn i~ dcnsily modulated at the output &ap
cavity) of microw.1,·e pcmcr. TI1is power i~ oh1aine1I .ind ., c.ucful :inaly,i~ , how~ that the velocity U!ld
from the kinetic energy of the electron he.1111, which dcn,ily 111o<lul :11ion arc co,ine and sine wai•cs
comes from the.: DC power ~upply. rc,pccti\cl)',
Tiie principle of operation ,, called , cll"Ctt)
~ 4.4.3 Mathematical Analysis
modul:ition. The electron~ an: emj11c,l in ., Cl1ntinuou,
~tre..m1 :it the cath0<.k and ::i ·clcr.11cd to ., 1111'<..lcratc
velocity by the DC field, in the electron gun. UO. 4.4.2 What IS tho importance of beam coupling
coofficient ? Derive tho equation of velocity
We "ant the electron 10 :mi, c: at the output i;np in modulallon 1n klystron.
hon bunchc,, -,o these bunchc:, c:i.n be lowed down MU ; Dcc:,15. Dec:.18. 10 Marks
by the fields in the output cavity. ua. 4.4.3 Doscnbe tho mechanism of velocity
In thi m:i.nnc:r. energy from the power , upply b modulation in a two cavity Klystron.

con,c:n~ into microwave energy in the output cavity. IM1ii&Mi&1Mna

In :i gridded v:icuum tube. the control grid i~ u,ed to 111e m.11hcm:11ical nnnly is of velocity modulation
conven a continuou,; '>lrl.!illll of electrons from a n:quircs ccnain ~implified assumptions, which art

cathode into bunche . but the grid only war~ well given bd ow:
when the time the electrons tnke to move from the I. Cro,5 section of lhe beam is assumed to the
c~thode 10 the grid i\ !>mall compared to an RF pcricxl. unifonn in tenns of concentration. of electrons.
The input cavity in the Klystron ha.~ tln RF voltage that 2. ·n,ere is negligible or no effect of space charge.
makes a field that oc;cillates with time along the tL"<is. 3. ·n,t.! magnitude (V1) of microwave input signal
The KJy tron i designed so that the fi n,t electrons in (V5) is much smaller than that of the de
each period arc slowed down Wld the l:L~l electrons in uccclcrJting vollagc (VJ.
each period arc accelerated. while the electron-. near 4. The velocity of electrons (VJ at the instant of
the centre of the period arc left alone (the E field is liberation from the cathode is zero.
cosine wave, in this example). Let V0 = the voltage between cathode and anode
A the initially unifom1 density beam drifts down the v0 = the velocity of the electrons
a;<js, the faster electrons at the rear catch upto the
L = drift space length
slower electrons from the fronl and if the dimensions
Vs = the R.F. input signal to be amplified by the
arc comet. the fast. ~low and average velocity
Klystron

c.h-Neo PubliCJ1tioM- rfbt'JT Aul.hors in.pi.re inno,'3tion -4 SA CJl/1VSIIAJI l'cnturt

-- -=--------==----------:--------,-~~::::;-:~~~__/
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rel . rowave c.111:111 •"'"'""l:I \tv1u - ~em' 7 • E&TC)
~ ~IC 49 Microwave Tubes
~ d velocity v0 · =
51eP l •
Thell we supply voltage V betw
•
1
Y" '' een anode o v.,
men the electrons emitted by th and V, = V1 sin wt
t11ode, e cathode tr
ell unifonn velocity at the first cavity Th . avcl V1 - ---
·tb a · e ve) ·
wi ctr0ns is given by ocity of
t!Jese eIe
V
0
= ... ~
-\J~
• To find the modulated velocity (1D13)Fig. 4.4.2
steP Z'
\'/hell a microwave signal is applied to the input
. ox! 0 ·
·oal the gap voltage between the bunch .
Let w1o+-
2v0 = Wto+T = A
1ef!Tll ' er gnds appear ~

cod 0
r-.
and 2v0 = .:l2 -- B
N = V 1_sin(rot)
J
Then using the trigonometric identity
Where V 1 = the amplitude of the signal and v I <<V .
0
cos (A- B)- cos (A+ B) ::: 2 sin A· sin B
Let the electrons enter the first cavity call~-
. . . as We get (V5) as
uncber cavity at time t.0 , while they leave the cavity
· . at

n
b .
time t,.
The electrons are present in the cavity a duration
• 1r 0 r
CVsl = :: [ 2 sin ( (0~ +. '.in ( ~ ) J
· '

- lo, this duration is called as transit time, denoted by t. If

11
the 1>uncher gap distance is d, then the average transit time

is,
since, I 2) . ( ~)
= V, (0,/2) •Stn Wfo+ 2

The average gap transit angle 01 is calculated as

cod" ..
0g = (l)'t = ~ro (t -. to). = -Vo ·
where, ~; = beam coupling coefficient of the input
The average microwave voltage in the buncher gap is cavity gap i.e. the coupling between the
electron beam and the buncher cavity
ti
CVs) = ¼JV 1 sin (rot) dt sin (08 / 2)
to ~i = (0,/2)

-V1 t1 When 0 i, ~; .J, i.e. the velocity modulation of the

= - - [cos rot] 1
(l)'t to beam for a given microwave signal is decreased.
V1 The electrons leave the buncher gap at time t1• The
= - [ cos roio-cos rot1 ]
(l)'t velocity the electrons at time t 1 is calculated as

= ~ [ cos roto - cos ( roto _+ ~) ]

1
2e
- (Vo+(Vs))
m .

-A SACIIINSHAH Yeatun:
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 - ····- ·v nu-191,,
~
•r1 0 vulf odC V, I, 1ho lnpul lo the bund 1ing ca•,;,.
I E- I , l >. •
\'ollngc uppc111• ncm~, rhc y;icJ of lhc C,hit1. l;
vi>lrnp,c 1, c.l1nnf,lng ~lnu~olcfally, lhcrcfc;rc ~
• L
clodflt\ of the clectflJll'I Icav,ng l11c
1'_-
Ct-, n,~,
changes wllh cl111nge in volt:igc V9 • ~
I\
1.0
lllc clectroM thnt pas~ the bunchcr at V~ 111 ,,
,~
1
0.8 through wi1h unchanged velocity \J 1 :ind twlfl',.
~
0 .6 bunching center.
0.4
0.2 Those elecLrons that pai;s the buncher cavity durir.l ~
. . t
-~o-t----\---1-----l---,,,,c.-- og positive haJ f cycles of the microwave input vol~z: l/
I
travel faster 1.han the electrons that passed the gap "1
(101t)Fig. 4.4.3 Vs=O.
v, Those electrons that pass the buncher cavity during~
lbc tenn P,V Represents the depth of velocity
0 -ve half cycles of Vs travel slower than Lhe electni
modulation and P, V 1 << V0 that passed the gap when Vs = 0.

This is velocity modulation.

At a distance of ~L along the beam from the ~

2
.. . using the approximation ✓ 1 + x = I + ~ when x << 1.
2 cavity, the electrons gradually bunch together as thq
travel down the drift space. The process is bunchfq
It can also be written as
proc~.

Ia. 4.4.5 To Calculate ~L _ ,

f B. 4.4.4 Bunching Process J The distance from the buncher grid 10 Lhe bu.ncli::/
center for the electron a l lb is
LO. 4.4.4 Explain bunching process in two cavity
klystron? ...(i)

Similarly, the distance for the electrons at 11 and ~ are

z
6 l - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , Bunching .1L = Vmin ( td - 11 )
• center
Distance
•
= Vmin ( Id - [ lb - 2:]) ...(ii)

= Vmin ( tJ - lb + 2: ) ...(iii)
0
Bunching
grid
and 6L = \Inu., ( td - t, )

= U0 ~, ( tJ - ft, - 2 :1))
11015JFlg. 4.4.4
From Equation · (i) or (ii) the minimum and nu.'limUIII
velocities arc

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'1
Microwave Engineering (MU _Se
~ . m. 7 - E&TC)
4-11
vmin = v0 (l-;~) 2V0
... (v)
Microwave Tubes

L
... (vi) =
putting Equations {v) and (vi) i .
n Equations ('1··
respectively, 11) and (iv)

1
6L :Vo(1- ~~ ) ( ~-~+ 2: )
...using approximation _J_::: 1 - x for x « 1
l+x

Let Uvo =To = d.c. transit time

~iv.
= T0 [ 1- 2y sin wt1
0
( -T8 ) ]
Multiplying this equation by co

wT = wti- COt1 = coTo - coTo. ~~• sin ( wt1 - {)

= 80 - 80 · ~~I sin ( Wt 1 - ; )

where

coT = 80 - X · sin ( wt1- ~)

~iyl
where X = 2Vo . So

= bunching parameter of a klystron.

Putting this in Equation (i), we get
- The catcher cavity is placed so that the electron
7t Vo Vo bunching occurs within the catcher gap.
aL = - -
(!)~i v. - During traversal through the gap the bunched electrons

Ia 4.4.6 To Calculate Loptlmum I induce positive charges in the catcher grids by repelling
conduction electrons in it. This process results in a
series of positive current pulses in the external circuit
- To calculate the spacing between the buncher and
at the rate equal to the periodic time of the input signal
catcher cavities in order to achieve a maximum degree and width equal to the transit time across the gap.
of bunching we proceed as folJows:
- The fourier transform of this pulse waveform gives a
- Between the two cavities the region is field free. Let large number of frequency components.
the distance be L. The time taken to travel this distance
isti-t1•
-4 SACRINSI/AH Yeature
111
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:,: L.,.;,1n:,:rr = t·J ~, VJ

4A,7 TO find p'j'.sf and EfflcienC"/

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 4·13 Mlcrowovo Tubt'"4

210 Po J1(X)
A., = 2V (X)
0
. ~
P, Oo
Io 2[ J, <X)] . R.ti
= -V0 .po - X . 80
, ,
= 2 1: ~~ [ J 1 (X) J2 ~ l [ J,(X)] R.i,
~ = Go . Po ~ . 8 0 •

R is Lhe total shunt resistance as shown in

\\'hCfe 1,.,

fig . .t.-l-6,
& 4.4.9 Applications of Two Cavity
Klystron

LO. 4.4.5 Give applications of two cavity klystron.

KJystrons can produce far higher microwave power

0 • -4 Wall resistance, Re-+
''Silo .
Beam resistance outpulS than solid state microwave devices such as
. RL-+ Laod res1tance.
Gunn diodes.
(t0t7)Fig. 4.4.6
In modem systems, they are used from UHF (hundreds
The de pawer supplied is of megahertz) up to hundreds of gigahenz (as in the
E:ittcndcd In1er.1c1ion Klystrons in the cloudsat
satellite).
KJystrons can be found at work in
efficiency, T)
o Radar,

= 0 Satellite and
o Wideband high-power commu nication (very
Normally Ro> Rsh Roi, 10 ,!,, (P;n = V0 lo) J,, T) i common in television broadcasting and EHF

But Io,!,, l2 J,, P0111 J.. T) J, satellite terminals).

o Medicine (radiation oncology). and
Tl can be maximized if Po= 1 and Ro=~
o High-energy physics (particle nccelcrators and
2
.'. l) = 2 X (0.582) X )()()
experimental reactors). At SLAC, for example,
klystrons arc routinely employed which huvc
= 67.7 = 70%
outputs in the range of 50 MW (pulse) nnd 50 kW
r~ 4.4.8 To Calculate the Gain (time-averaged) at 2856 MHz.

- The Arccibo Planetary Radar uses two klystrons that

We have, provide a IO!nl power output of I MW (continuous) at
2380 MHz.

2V0 (X)
But : . VI = ~
1-'l 0

· ___ rn~
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~ Microwave Engineering (MU• Sem. 7. E&TC) Microwave Tubes
4-15
p
g soin.: (d) Calculate the beam loading cood uctance. The beam
f or rnx<imum V 2, J, (X) must be maximum. This mean loading conductance G 8 is
(al
JI (X) = 0.582 at X = 1.841 . The electron vcloc't ·
I Y JUSt Go( 2 e,1
ienving the cathode is. Go= T P0 -PocosTJ
Vo = (0.593 X I0
6
) --f1o = (0.593 x J0 "1o1 6)
= 25 \10
-6
[(0.952)2 -(0.952) cos (28.6 )]
0

7
= J.88 X 10 m/s
7
= 8.8 x 10· mbo
,c gop u-ansit angle is.
11
d 10- l Then the beam loading resistance Ro is
0~ = w ;- = 2n (3 x 1041) I 88 ::r - I r·1d
O • X 10 - ' I 6
R11 = o=l.14 x l0 Q
ll
'fhc 1>eam<oupling coefficient is
.
In comp:mson . RL and Ratio or the effective shunt
w1l11
sin (0, / 2) . (
A ---- S in J/2) resbt:mcc R.i,. the beam loading resis tance is like an open,
rl, = 1.10 = o /'> = 112 =0.952
' - - circuit and thus can be neglected in the preceding
The de tronsit angle between the cavities is calculation.

Ex. 4.4.4
A t,,·o-cavity Klystron is having following parameters :
= 10 r.id (i) Gap in input cavitj' = 2.5mm
Tiie mi'<intum input vol~gc V I is then given by. (ii) Fn:quency = 6 GHz
(iii) V 1= 25 volts
(iv) VO= 800 volts
Calculate the depth of modulation in input cavity gap.
(b) TIie voltage gain is found as.
, 0 Soln.:
~~ Oo J, (X)
,\ =T~ ~ d = 2.5mm.
9
f = 6 x JO Hz. Y1 = 25Y, Yo = SOOY
2 3
(0.952) (40) (0.582) (30 X 10 )
= 4 X l 0~ X 1.84 1 = B.S9S Vo = 0.593 X 10
6
'1vo = 0 .593 X 10
6
X ~
6
= 16.77 X 10 rn/s
(c) TIie efficiency can be found as fo llows :
9 3
3 wd 27t (6 X 10 ) (2.5 X 10- )
I: = 2Jo J 1 (X) = 2 X 25 x 10- X 0.582 eg = -V-
o = 16.77 X 10() - 5.26 rad
3
= 29.1 X 10- A
A., = sin (0g / 2) s in (5.62/2)
3 I-' (O, 12) = (5.6212) = 0.1 I 58
V2 = PoI~ R..~ = (0.952) (29. I x 10- )

(30 x 10') = 83 1 V Depth of modulation a is given by

~ O 12 Vl(0.95 1)(29.1 X 10- )(831)

3 Y, 2
a = ~i y O = 0. 1158 X BOO
Efficiency = 2fo Vo = 2(25 x 10-J) ( 10-')

= 46.2% = 0.36% or 3.62 x 10- 3

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 4 .s Multlcavlty Klystron

G
L..._
L_o _.4_.s 1__:Elpl~:a:
.:.:·..:. ln'...:m~u~1t::ica~V1~ty'.:~kt)~rs~1ron~.: __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ ~
Po" er s.i.in of 1wo .1, ity kly,1mn i, :ihout JO JO.
In on.k-r to Clbtll.in la~cr !'O"'t:r f:rtin. l-<'' c 1.11 l\\ll \'..wity klrt ron 111tx.. c:111 be ronnc<lcd in c.ucadc:.

,~r Input

M:)Snol

11~ 1Jl11!. ~.5.1 : ~l uhl-c:l\h) ((our) U)")tron

r Cons.:truction ·1111, (~.l\\cr pm cntuncc:mcnt rcsulLS in hjgh per.a

h.un .11 the llt.ltpuL F r iour c.l\"ity 1..ly iron. ~
Output of e:.:ch of the tube i, fed to 1J1c inpu t of the
follo•.••l!l:' 1ubc. 50 JU l'-l,,cr g.ifo 1.:.1n be ob1.1ined.

In multic.i,it) Ll y,uon. e:ich of the in1crmc<lit11c ,:r Mnthemr,tlcnl onnlysls

C!i \ itic., .lfc pl;,ccxl by 1bc factor of bunclung p.unmctcr For hi~h !Xl'' er kl) iron tubes. electron density of tit
X of UW I :tw::y from c.llCh othrr. licu11 i, lal);c. llcncc forces of mutual repulsion l1l!lll
r Wor1dng princlplo he tlm,idcn:d.

The rnt_etm('di:11c c:i, itic.~ 11c1, a, a bunchcr c:ivitic,. 'lllc clcctrun den,ity consi,ts of :i de pm plus an Rf
pcrturb:11ion cau~ed by the dcclron bunches.
E:ich huncher ca,·ity ~Ul~c cnh:inccs the umou nl of RF
mlw~e produced u·11h P1L' ing electron l'Cam. ·n,i, ·n 1c \pace charge force wilhin the electron hew

re~ulL, in vc:loc11y modulntion. dc:pc:nds on ,;jz.c and ~rnpe of an electron beam.

Tech- 'ro Publiation'-- 1f1x:rr- (ut.h,.rs UL'J'irr iiuxtt~tiaa _ { S.{G/J,VS/Wl lr.11tart

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 ~ Mlcrowavo Enolnoorln MU - Som. 7. E&TC _ Mlcrowovo Tubos
4 17
In infinitely side l>enm : the electric ncld11 uct/i only In iR known u.<i rc<lucc<l
Such lower plnsmu frcc1ucncy
11
,dul direction plunrn11 frequency. lt l11 dcnolcd IIJl o,,,.
.. rn finite bcnm : The electric ficld11 arc rudinl us wcll ,ui • 1.- Juccd twice us for
In u klystron the c11vl1tcs can ')\, P
axinl. . , c<l by infinite beam
uparl IL'l would be rndicut
.. [fat the charge density and velocity pcrturhutiomi be culcu lation.
sinusoidal variations both in time and po.5itions. velocity urc given
The 1otul churgc density und c Icctron
(i) Chnrge density is given as, by
... (4.5.3)
() = D cos <flcz) cos (<ll,, t + 0) .. .(4.5. I) p,,,, = - Pn + P
... (4.5.4)
(ii) Velocity perturbation is given us v,rii = Vo+ V

v = - C sin me7.) sin (CJ>,, t + 0) .•. (4.5.2) Where, f>n = de clcctron charge density

Where, D = Constant of charge density p = instantaneous RF charge density

perturbation
v0 = de electron velocity

C = Constant of velocity perturbation. v = instantaneous electron velocity

(J)
Pc = -; =de phase constant of the
I)
perturbation.

clcclron beam. Total clcclron beam current density can be given as,

. .. (4.5.5)
CJ>q = RCJ>p = perturbation frequency or reduced
plasma frequency Where J0 = de beam current density
~
R= (J)p
= Space-charge reduction factor and J = Instantaneous RF beam current perturbation.

O<R<I The instantaneous beam current density al any point in

the beam is given as,
(J)p =
~ 0
= plac;ma frequency
.. .(4.5.6)

0 = phase angle of oscillation Substituting for p101 from Equation (4.5.3) and for v1o1
from Equation (4.5.4) in Equation (4.5.6) we get,
r71· Electron plasma frequency

rJr Definition ofEleclron plasma frequency J,01 = (-Po+ P) (vo + v)

It is the freqttency at which the electron will oscillate in
the electron beam.
= - PoVo - Pov+ PVo + pv
Plasma frequency applies only lo beam of infinite = -Jo+J
diameter. ... (pv is very small so ignored)

- For infinite diameter beams, plasma frequency< WP. Where, J = ()Vo- Pov
!.l - Practically all clcclron beams arc of finite diameter.
And lo = Po Vo

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ef' ::..-~ .,.,lJ -
- ' ' __e,f,nr.,,:::-, 11r; \lfll - ~

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__, ~
i::"l'S:::l!l YA-m ~
- ::r :oJo-r~ ,---_,:;--~
~ - :
Y-1!m ~ y I = :~..: :i::Y
3!:u:D~ :c= =
-~-!..
3in
=
r::: >:·~·
-.·!:i:ci::~ri:l::
C ~:

~ Tn= .:i= 77-'i" ::::r5'1!T

- -, ::-
::le 7;,,:;m,, :::::yo:
r:..: --- 11:.
;:
!.!e jC>jrr:=-i ~,;-...,-;~ ~ : ::r?., =Q ~
_.re::i:~::zc::::n:~
_!E~~~~

_,:?: iY""' I 1, . ti ~ 3!!:: i:!:: ~ ~j-ci}

~=---:.!:.. =
=

- - .., - ....JJ
-Lo .,.- ·
;:
=

_:, -..· I!., =

=: - -;:..~ :;--.r::_._

- --- -
;:

!!
~_
.......

==
............x::::::---~~k...:. ~

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'1 Mic;ro~ . Ha:ve~E~n~g~inei;e==ri:;:;ng=-(==M-=U-=·-=S-=em=
. 7-=·=E==&==TC~)~~~ .f
4 1~
9 ==========~~~~~:!,
Microwave Tubes
j r. The trunslt time acros., the Input gap
u .. ,.5 f four-Cavity Klystron
V •oJlO a
apernu ·n1
...cavi.,
cw klystron amplifier VA-864 has the

,."' fouf1·11g p111

--meters :
...-· g. The electron velocity leaving the Input gap
foJfoW ge y 0= 18 kV, Beam current 10 = 2.25 A
volta 3
~ ce d=lcm v(,11
8
= 0.796 X 10 [1 + 1 X 10/(2 X 18 X !0 )
distall
03P . frequency f = 10 GHz 10
sin (27t X 10 X 1.256 X 10-
10
,1
...eriiung
Or- Jiage V 1 = 10 V (rms)
5igrtaf VO • . A - A 8
..,puung coefficient
eaJllC01'• ·
.,0 -
.,.
,
=t = 0.796 X 10 + 2.21 X JO'' m/s
8 3
J3 tr0n beam current density p 0 = 10- CJm
pcelec
petertnine : ~ 4.6 Reflex Klystron
'fhe de electron velocity (Single Cavity Klystron)
a.
'fhe de electron phase constant
b.
'fhe plasma frequency
c. UQ. 4.6.1 Write a short note on : Reflex Klystron
The reduced plasma phase frequency for R = 0.5
d. MU· Ma 18. 5 Marks
The reduced plasma phase constant
e.
f. The transit time across the input gap The reflex Klystron is an oscillator tube with a built-in
g. The electron velocity leaving the input gap
feedback mechanism.
!t1 Soln,: - It uses the same cavity for bunching and for the output
a. The de electron velocity is cavity.

= 0.593 X 10 ✓ 18 X lQ
6 3 If a fraction of the output power is fed back to the input
Vo
cavity and if the loop gain has a magnitude of unity
8
= 0 .796 X 10 m/s with a phase shift of multiple 21t, the Klystron will

b. The de electron phase constant is oscillate. ·

- However, a two cavity Klystron oscillator is not
constructed because, when the oscillation frequency is
2
= . 7.89 x 10 rad/m varied, the resonant frequency of each cavity and the

c. The plasma frequency is feedback path phase shift must be readjusted for a

11 8 positive feedback.
wp = [l.759x l0 x l0-
12 2 - The reflex Klystron is a single cavity Klystron that
/ (8.854 X 10- )1' ]
overcomes the disadvantages of the two cavity
7
= 1.41 x 10 rad/s Klystron oscillator.

d. The reduced plasma phase frequency is It is a low power generator of

7 7
wq = 0.5 x 1.41 x 10 = 0.705 x 10 rad/s output = 10 to 500 mW at

e. The reduced plasma phase constant frequency range = 1 to 25 GHz

7 8
~q = 0.705 X 10 / (0.796 X 10 )
efficiency = 20 to 30 %

= 0.088 rad/m

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 4 .6.1 Construction

The !l"lnldtOn of ..~ne\ Ll)'tmn 1, ~ \ho\lo n In

J:-lf. -I

l 4 .6.2 Operation

rcrdkJ
ThC' thn I') l\{ ti!(' tu ,, l·:I\ 11\' "') l rt n u,n l'C .lprlscJ hi
the.- ::i.."l.ll~"'1, l'i the' :d1n t-. I\ ,tn•n \ < 1th ,la hi 111<"1111, .1!1, n Toe return umc uf 1 ~ cle'\'.U\ n, " 1,mt, °TI)C e!
;a,~ .U'41 l:t1kJ .l\ l"ll rl ) clC'Cll'\ "' (r.), ,illC"C thcr k~\.
The- rrnn t-. 1) ,1t\Y'I h l!'C' ,. :;, "1lll\\ n in I If 4 fl I.
tlr i,,P c.ul} t--ch'<t: cl~u, n, ll ;u,J c . '
' ' !'.1, 11 u<.:-,, :11) :i ,.,:\Fir rc<:111:1111 1111d''"·"'T, .1,11, :n
Tl c!c..111-<', "h' 1 1..;illcJ rclctt"Os.'C ( l·R) clt\"tn:
\
l -) 11.1n·I ..., 1th ,,!l 11, le" 1h.,n th.it c The, tn
• ' , \ti I
,!,• •~r.,;:c 1n ,b,. 1~1 llct 'I :'\: le--, th.u, th.it h) C'
.~
- L- ,
1 • (1, !: C: .:.-c nl'cJ I •c c!~urn, (r1). ~
tu,d k > ~ •:, 1. I) c, c, tn the ref"llc-r 'I':..~

-- c:Unl
· ~=•,:,:\ up ,,th c:1 .mJ c, c l ~

01 :.! - ' • ~ .
bench

;.:, -· ' C :JI t!c \ c' .. l;• m .Juu!cJ clC'CUtXJ

I
t l \~

L•
.: ;! :. •.::r,: tm:r ~ th, f' u,c (".tl: o f the CJ\Jt) Rf
0 a
, ~-.: --:•-= lL:,. t!l::: ,d .. it) m......Jul.itcJ cl~.r.,
:.!'C : - ! J : •• l~f !.'>'.! I .;: their uncuc coon
... : -!'\ t•,c , c: ~ ..!'.:.c! tl.c f' 1u, c h.Jf qdc oft!-,:
Thr doct.'"CO t,c-_-n <.!:l!!lCJ 11<-"!I Ilic 1..a.l! .Jr i,
'-:.i' .t~ RI 1:!J
~kr•-..!.c-J b) tl,c ~.-.Jr :...iJ p:::1-!loe tlmiuth the ,,. at)
l'b, I• > u! err.:;~ t> Lli:1, ln!l\lcm:,d 10 the C~\11) ll

~'\J L!ic re-re.In clcctn..Jc ,t.::-c:r,, the td.11 f'l'.,cr.

\\'c - ~l...;!!X ::..o u:.itd JC fidJ 111 the 1:.1, II) (due tu 001-.c It the rw, er Jdt\cn:J h~ the l-unchcd clcctrons 10 &

0< \,4,tdu.n1: lr.:i!l-.U:.'11~) 'Joe ck lt\111> P->"IO!,' tluuo~lt i;.;i\ ll} 1, !,!rc,;1:cr tl--1:1 (')\\ c:r lo , tn 1hc: c:n 1ty, dt

the C!I\ JI) r.ifl "d' C pc-11cn1.n Lht\ RI · field .illJ .l!C d~tn: nu;ocu, iiclJ :m1ph1u<lc :it the n:<.Qll!::

, c !t-::1)' mvJuwcJ in the follu,, tnf m.:uu1cr, ircqucn..:~ of lhc i:.1, 1I) ,,, 111 tncrctuc: to proJ.n
uucn,,, .1,c t"xtll~tton,
o lb:: dccL't'n, ·a· ,ho11. 111 F,~• ~ ta I ul11ch lc.J,c
the.- pp -1 pc,,.111,c lu.lf t.")tlc of Ilic KF field ,n the 111t: RF pv,, er 1, coupled to the output lood by mt~
,~, ,1~ r.1r "',u 1:,c nC"O"Jcn11rt1. u( .i ,null I u hich fonn-~ the ccntn: conductor of et

0 Whtie electron, "b' lr:Jvcl with unchtt nlted co•J\1:i.l ltnc.

c,ri •in:u \ cl II). ;ind

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 Microwave Tubes

:rJfCfO ode 3/4 occurs al a

(he p0wer delivered by the electrons become/I fl ill obvioull that the lowe11l order m
Ila e Higher or er
d
Wben . · 8 ·
.,, al to the total power loss m the cavity system, 11 maximum value of repcller vo
e<JU lJUCrowave osc1'II at10n
. ts. generated 111 resonnnt rnodell occur11 nt lower rcpcllcr voltage,.
steadY . · he occclcrution of
1
ncY of the cavity. Since at the highest repcller voltage
freque . ' hi,. •ic1t, pcwcr
1
the bunched electron/I on recurn · b'
Mode of Osclllatlon output of the lowe,t mode lr; maximum.

The bunched electrons can deliver maximum power 10 a 4.6.4 Mathematics Analysls
' the cavity at any instant which corresponds 10 the
pcsitive peak of the RF cycle of the cavity oscillation. v0 a 0.593 X 10" ~
11
If The electrons leaves the cavity &JJP. at z d d at time
'f ~ The time period of the resonant frequency.
with velocity
~ Is the time taken by the reference electron to travel f3, v, . ( . ~)]
lo v(t,) = Vo [ I +-rv;san wt, - 2
forward and the returning to the cavity at positive
peak vol_tage on fonnation of the bunch, then
The same electron is forced back to the cavity (z == d) at
to = ( n+¾)T=NT time ~ by the retarding electric field E, which is gjven
by
where, N = n + (3/4) and n = 0, I, 2 ....
E =
Thus, the adjusting 'repeller ·voltage for a given
dilllensions of there flex Klystron, the bunching can be ..... since (VR + V0 ) >> V, sin (0(
made to occur at
Force on electron = - eE = - e (
VR +
L
Vo)
N = n +¾positive half cycle. 2
dz
Also force on electrons = mass x acceleration = m · -dt
2
According the mode of oscillation is named as

N = 43, 1 43 ,2 43, etc. For n =0, I, 2,.... respectively. m•-2

iz =
dt
Distance
from
cavity or
gap

=
0 Returned beak
dz
is retarded during at t = t 1, dt= V (t 1)
this half cycle
Cavity
gap
. volate

(1D19)Fig. 4.6.2: Applegate diagram

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 Microwave Engineering (MU • Sam. 7 • E&TC 4-22
I
then z = Jdtdtdz x' = 2P1( VVo1) o~ =rs the bunching parameter or Ilic
1,
reflex Klystron oscillalor.

In order for the electron beam 10 generate a rnaxi

. . rnu111
amount of energy to the osc11Iat1on, the returnin
. g
electron beam must cross th e cavity gap when lhc
_ e(VR+V0 ) (t-t/ . &ap
- - mL . 2 + v (t1) . (t - t1) + k2 field is maximum retardmg.
Jn this way the maximum amount of kinetic energy can
at t = t1' z = d = k. 2
be transferred from the retuming electrons to lhe caV1ty
.
walls. Thus, for a maximum energy transfer, the round.
trip transit angle, referring to the center of the bunc~
must be given by
Assume that the electron leaves the cavity gap at z = d
at lime t1 with a velocity of v (t 1) and returns to the gap ro(ti-t 1) = roT~=( n+¼)21t=N21t=2nn-f
at z = d at time ti, then at t = ti, z = d.
where V1 << V0 is assumed.
e(VR+Vo) 2
:. d = 2 mL · (ti - ti) + v (t1Hli - t 1) + d n = any positive integer for cycle number, and
N = n - ( 1/4) is the number of modes.
w To find VR and cycle number n

The round trip transit lime in the repeller region is We have Vo = ~Vo
, 2mL
T = ti- ti= e ( VR + Vo) v (t1)

2mL V0
= e(VR+V0 )

2 mL • ✓(2e/m) · V0
= e T0'
• 2mL
where, TO = e( V +V ) 2 2
R 0 4 m L · (2e/m) · V0
or =
= The round-trip de transit time of the center
I
;7 [2nn - (1tl2)i2
of the bunch electron. Multiplying T by w
gives, Vo
(I)2 8•m • L2 •
= e (2 nn - (n/2))
2

2
(2 mt - (n/2)) e
or = so>2L2 m
...(i)
where, 0~ = w T~ = Is the round trip de transit angle of ,.
the center of the bunch electron.

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 wave Engineering (MU - Sam. 7 - E&TC) Microwave TubeO
4-23
d pawer output In terms of VR
~ rofln
.
The magnitude of the fun domen t·aI component is

12 = 2 Io P1 J1 ex') (peak)
The de power supplied by the beam voltage V O is

The ac power delivered to the load is

p IIC = V 12V2 = VI Io P1 JI (X')

From (A) and (B), we have

I I
2 V O 10 X J 1 (X )
pDC := 21tn - (rr/2)
I I
VO Io X J 1 (X ) (VR + V0) _ ~
== COL . \J2 m½ ...(ii)
= P; c2n n - (rr/2) 1
Equation (i) gives : For a given V O and cycle number n I I
2 V 0 J0 X 11 (X)
.,,ode no N, VR can be determined in terms of center
or,.. · pi c 21t n - cn12) 1
frequency.
Equation (ii) gives : Pout at the center frequency can be The efficiency is calculated as
I I I I
calculated. . Pac 2 X J 1 (X ) X J 1 (X )
Also, the beam current injected into the cavity gap Efficiency = Pde= [ 21t n - (n/2)] = 1tN
from the repeller region flows in the negative z-
N J., n i but it is not so.
direction. Therefore,
The lowest N = 3/4 is not possible in practice.

X'J 1 (X')
- The fundamental component of the current induced is

i2 (induced) = - 13; 12
I 2 I
= 2 I0 J3i J 1 (X) cos (cofi-00 ) ....08 << 00
_.,.____ _ _.....___ ___,.___.X'
0 2.408

11021)Fig. 4.6.4

The factor X' J 1 (X') reactes a maximum value of 1.25

I I
at X = 2.408 and 11 (X) = 0.52.

In practice the mode of n = 2 has the most power

output.
3
If n = 2 or 1 4 mode, the maximum electronic

efficiency becomes

(1D20)Fig. 4.6.3 : Modes and as.wciated powers

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 3
the theoretical v= is 20 to 30 %. d = 2 x 10- m. u0 =5.93x JO~~

6
[ '5. 4.6.5 Applications = )8.75 X 10 mis

9
(l) = 5 X 10 21t
Ci) It is v.;deJy used in the laboratory for µ-wave 9
21t X 5 X 10 X 2 X JO- 3
measurements and Transit angle eg = 18.75 x 106
(ii) In microwave receives as local oscillators in
= 3.351 raidans
C:OmmerciaJ, military and airborne Doppler radars as
well as missiles.
Ex. 4.6.3
? Solved Examples
A reflex klystron operates at 8 GHz at the peak of n :::
2
Ex.. 4.6.1 mode \.; th Vo= 300V. R.i, = 20 kQ and L = 1 mm, lfthe gap
tranSil time and beam loading are neglected, find the
A reflex klystron operates at the peak mode of n = 2 with
(a) repeller voltage, (b) beam current necessary to obtain an
beam voltage VO = 300 V. Beam current Io = 20 rnA, signal
RF gap voltage of200V.
Yoltage V 1 = 40 V. Determine (i) the input power in watts
(ii) output power in watts (Hi) efficiency. 0 Soln.:
@ Soln.: (a) Repeller voltage V R is given by

(i) Po: (input power) = V0 Io = 300 x 20 x 10- 3 = 6w

I I

2Vo loXJ1(X)
(ii) Px (output power) =
2nn-.t / 2

= 2 x 6 x 1.25 = 1.36 Watts

(2 X 2 X 7t) - 7t / 2

P,c 1.36 0.00105

(iii) 11 ; px 100% =-- = 22.7%
;a;

0: 6
300 3
Ex. 4.6.2 ⇒
= 0.()()J05 =285 X 1.34 X 10
A reflex klystron is operated at 56 Hz with an anode voltage
of 1000 V and cavity gap 2 mm. Calculate the gap transit
angle. Find optimum length of the drift region.
3 ⇒ VR = 533.96 + V0 =833.98 V
Assume N = I 4 , VR = - 500V
(b) Assuming output coupling coefficient Po = 1
0 Soln.:
VI = 12. R,_h =21oJ1 (X') R.i,
= 6.74 x 10- 6 x fx L ~
N -V0
⇒
v1 . 200
lo = 2J 1 (X') R.ii = 2 X 0.582 X 20 X 10

= 8.59 mA
L = 2.463 mm (length of drift region)

---------==---:--:--:-----:-:---.--------------------:=::::::::;;;z.:;-
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re"! ·r,4;cr·~ow~a~v;;a:::=E::in===gi:=:n:=:00-=n-=·n=g=(M=U=·=S=e=m=.==7=•==E~&~TC~)b==!4-~2~5=============~M~lc~ro~w~a~v:eJT~u~be~~
~ Ex. 4.6.5
4,6,4
~- e~ )<lystron operates under the following condilions 3
11 A reflex klystron operates at the peak of n = I or 4 mode.
,i\ieO ., o . = 15 kQ, elm= 1.759 x 10
~v,~ •
The de power input is 40 mW and ratio of VI over Vo is
1/l J!t L= 1 mm
C:'9G , 0.278.
, . (be spacing between repeller and cavity. The tube is
L~ 3 (a) Determine the efficiency of the reflex klystrom
. g at f at the peak on n = 2 mode or I - m d
l)SCj]]alln r 4 o e. (b) Find the total power output in mW.
sUJllC that the transit time through the gap and through (c) If20 % of the power delivered by the electron beam is
A5 ding can be neglected. dissipated in the cavity walls find the power delivered
aJ111oa
be fi"nd the value of repeller voltage V R to the load.
(i)

Oil
find the de necessary to give microwave gap of 0 Soln.:
voltage of 200 V
2X' J 1(X')
... calculate the electronic efficiency. (a) Tl = 2n1t + 1T.12 n =I,
(111)
~ soJn.: 31t I
WeknOW that
X' = 0.278 X z X
2 = 0.655
a)
2
= (me) (21tn - TC/2) (b)
8o>2L2
80
(c) Power delivered to load= 3.564 x 100 = 2.85 mW

Ex. 4.6.6
= 0.832X 10- 3 A reflex klystron operates under the following conditions
2 600 6 . Y0 = SOOY
(V,+V0) = 0 _832 x 10-J =0.721 x 10
~=20k.Q

V, = 250V f,= 8 GHz

L = I mm is the spacing between repeller and cavity. The
b) Assume that ~o = 1, si nee
tube is oscillating at fr at the peak on n = 2 mode or I ¾
mode. Assume that the transit time through the gap and
through beam loading effect can be neglected.
= 2 Io 11 (X') R,h
(a) Find the value of rcpeller voltage YR
The direct current J0 is (b) Find the de necessary to give microwave gap of
V2 200 voltage of200 V.
3 11.45 mA
lo = 21 1 (X')R_h = 2(0.582) (15 X 10 ) (c) Calculate the electronic efficiency.

c) The electric efficiency is

0 Soln.:

2X'J 1 (X') (a)

. Efficiency =
21tn -1T.12

2( 1.841)(0.582)
= 19.49 %
2n(2)-1T.12

= 1.06 X 10- 3

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 ~ M' .
terowave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7. E&TC) 4-26 Mlcrowavel'

CVR-Ve/ = 500 / 1.06 X 10· 3

To increase the output the interaction betw
ecn "1,,o
~
must tic increased.
VR-Vo = 685.352 In order to prolong the interaction between an cl
bc~m :md an RF llcld. it is necessary to cnsu ~
VR = 685.52 + 500 =1185.52 volts · .,n thc sumc d'ttcction lhat
both are moving .
. ""1th
(b) Assuming Po = approximately the same veloc11y.

The problem is tha_t 110 RF field travels With !he

v, = R-.~· 11 = 21o J1 (X') R.i,
velocity of light. wlulc the electron beam.~ velocity~
v, 200 Unlikely to c~cccd
. 10 percent of that, even with
a~~
lo =
2 J1 (X') R.i, = 2 X 0.582 X 20 X I 0- high anode voltage.

= 8.59 X 10· 3 A v0 : 0.593 X 106 -../Yo

(c) Efficiency The solution is to retard the RF field with a slow.wal'c

2X'J 1(X') structure.

11 = 27tn - rr/2 Since to incrc.1Sc the output an RF field is made
10
trnvcl in the tube. it is named ac; Travelling wave tube.
fl; v, 8~
X' = 2V0 Klystron u cs a ~onant cavity hence it is a low

, bandwidtl1 device. T\Vf uses non resonant periodic

, ro2•mlv
ao = roTo =e(VR-Vo)0 struclun.: so ii has large bandwidth.

=
2n: X 8 X 109 X 2 X (0.J X 0.592 X I0\[500
11
1 ~ 4.7.1 Construction
1.579 X 10 X [ 1185.52 - (500))
, Magnetic focusing field
i.e. ao = 12.32° RF inpu1......_ '"° RF OUlpu\
At•r"·
c;,:~• ~ /J {JJ J J J J 1£1 J----~
200 X 12.32 """'· 111 Il
for ~ = 1, X' = 2x500
=2.46

X' = 2.46 from lable. X' J 1 (X') =1.248 clectrodo. ] 1ectron

gun
t
Eleciron
+.
Hehx
-¥1Collector
2 X 1.248 beam slow-wave
11 = 2it( 2) _ rr/2 =22.7 I % circuit
(1D22)Fig. 4.7.1: Construct.ional delllll~ or TWT

~ 4.7 Helix Travelling Wave Tube In Fig. 4.7. I an O-typc trnvcl ing-wave tube is shown.
(TWT) The TWT possesses four major components as shown in
Fig. 4.7.1.

UO. 4.7.1 Explain Travelling wave tube as an amplifier. (i) An electron gun that produces an electron beam.
Imm ee. 15. Dee. 17. 5 Marks
(ii) A slow-wave circuit that slows an RF electromagnetic
In the multica·, ity klystron, tl1e electron beam travels wave 10 a speed synchronous with the electron beam.
but the RF field is stationary. The interaction between (iii) A collector that collects the spent electron beam.
these two is very small.

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 ,w:vo~E~n~Qi=no==o=ri=ng~M=U=·=S=e=rn=.7=•E=&~T~Cb==:::::~_~7~===========-==~~l~cr~ow=av~o=T=uiibO~O
~11c1-o:n
4

'tlC
.,•w·r padrngcs that provides coolin,._
0
bc"ttt
.. frequencies, which implies the
broad bandwidth of
(i''' 'l .· , :ind :ll'\.-ess to the RP input nnd output. . . f I elix ls not 1.ero.
;_,11~1ns TWTs. In reality, the d1spers1on o t1ic 1
1
----------
stow Wave Structure ~ = . p ... (4.7.3)
⇒
C SIO 'I'= '1fr,2 + (1td)1
What aro slow wave structures. Draw various pc (t) .. . (4.7.4)
l) o. 4.1.2 stf\lctures and give their significance
For small p u
r
r:::
nd=p
MU· Mn 16. 5 Mnrks . . helix stow wave
This equation is useful in designing a ·
:vav ~ st111ctures are
stow-wu,-c stnictures are S{X"'Cial circuits that are used structure. Different types o f s Iow ' c •
cd slow wave
~ in illicrowa,·e 1ul~s to rc.-duce tJ1e w:we velocity in n
shown in Fig. 4.7.2. The commonIY us

l~.rrnin dirc.'\:tion so that the electron beam and the

structure is u helical coil.

. .,, ,,,we
SI£0 • ' '
can intcrnct.
As we h:i\'e seen. in the TWT interaction is possible in
IDJUl Helical line
f1J7J1J
Folded Back line
Zigzag line
the presence of ch..-ctromugnetic structures that support (c)
(a) (b)
prop:1g:1tion of "slow" electromagnetic waves with a
(1023)Flg. 4.7.2: Types of slow wnve stnicturcs
pha!le \'clocity le.,~ thnn the SJX'Cd of light. The fmil
such stn1c1ure. used by Kompfner. wns a helix.
(Fig. -t.7.2)
Ia. 4.7.3 Need of Attenuators ]

_ In the simplest model of this stntcture. the wave Slow wave structure

propaga1es along a wire at the speed of light and

therefore mo\'es in an axial direction with the phase
velocity
I Gun G
Ii Gun

v p "" c sin 'lj/ ... (4.7. 1) Input j Input

(1D24)Fig. 4.7.3 : Need of nltcnuntor

Where the helix pilch angle

... (4.7.2) The sketch in Fig. 4.7.3 illustrates a nVT having no

attenuators or severs.
where, If the rencction coefficients nt the output nnd input
p = Helix pitch 1cmunals of the nVT are respectively. p0 and P1 then

d = Diamc1er of the helix oscillations may occur when

G - L - Po- P1 > 0 ... (4.7.5)

\jf = Pitch angle

c = 3 x 108 mis is the velocity of the light in free where G (gain) L (loss of the circuit). nnd the reflection
space. coefficients are expres sed in decibels.

According 10 Equation (-l.7.1 ) the phase velocity does Although the tube may be very well matched 10 the
not depend on 1he frequency (zero dispersion). This is a signal source and to the load, there will norn~nlly be
very important property, because U1c synchronism of
reflections at input and output tem1innls because of the
the beam and the wave would be supported al all
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 Microwave En • . Microwave it1~
gineenng (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 4-28
~
difficulty in rnnl.:- .
u.uuw,g impedance transitions from the RF "O
Retarding field
structure. ~
-2
Thus all practical tubes use some form of attenuator ti
iii
(whlch has the subs1·d·1ary effect of somewhat reducing
gain). Accelerating field

An attenuator PJaced near the center of the helix

(ID25)Fig, 4.7.4 : Jntcrnction between electron beam lllld
reduces all the waves traveling along the helix to nearly
electric field
zero so that the reflected waves from the mismatched
loads can be prevented from reaching the input and An nttenuator nearly zero so that the reflected waves
causing oscillation. from the mismatched loads can be prevented from
reaching the input and causing oscillation.
Both forward and reverse waves are attenuated. but the
The bunched electrons emerging from the attenuator
forward wave is able to continue and to grow past the
induced new electric field with the same frequency.
attenuator, because bunching is unaffected.
This field in tum, induces a new amplified microwa\'c
signal on the helix.
~ 4.7.4 Expression for Velocity
Fluctuation of the Electron The motion of electrons in the helix-type Lravelling
Beam wave tube can be quantitatively analyzed in terms of
the axial electric field.
LO. 4.7.3 Derive the expression for velocity fluctuation
If the traveling wave is propagating in the z directionI
of the electron beam.
the z component of the electric field can be expressed
The electrons entering the retarding field are ns:
decelerated and those in the accelerating field are
E, = E1 sin (wt - ~P z) ... (4.7.6)
accelerated. They begin fonning a bunch centered
about those electrons that enter the helix during the where E1 is the magnitude of the electric field in the z
zero field. This process is shown in Fig. 4.7.4. direction. If I = 10 at z = 0, the electric field is assumed

- Since the de velocity of the electrons is slightly greater maximum. Note that ~P = w I vP is the axial phase
than Ute a,"(ial wave velocity, more electrons arc in the constant of the microwave and vP is the axial phase
retarding field than in accelerating filed and a greater velocity of the wave.
amount of energy is transferred from the beam to the The equation of motion of the electron is given by,
electromagnetic field.
- The microwave signal voltage is amplified by
amplified field bunch continues to become more Assume that the velocity of the electron is
compact, and a larger amplification of the signal
v = v0 +v.cos(w.t+0.) ... (4.7.8)
voltage occurs at the end of the helix.
dv
- The magnet produces an axial magnetic field to prevent Then dt = - v. w. sin (ro. t + e.) ... (4.7.9)
spreading of the electron beam as it travels down the
tube. Where, v0 = De electron velocity

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 Ve - -- -, ••w--•uuuon in lhe
velocity modulated electron beam When the spncc-churge e!rcct i11 considered, the
electron velocity, the chnrge densily the current
:: Angular frequency of velocity fl . density, nnd tho nxiul clcetric neld will pcrturbat.c
o>c Uctunlton
about their 11vcrugc11 or de v11luc11. M11thc:m11tlcnlly,
8e :: Phase angle of the fluctuation
these quantities can be expressed 1L~,
substitution of Equation (4.7.8) in Equation (4 7 J,,,r - yi
... (4.7. 15)
..9) V = Vo+ v1e
yields j(IJ[-)'l
..(4 .7. 16)
p = Po+ P, e
mvc o:,0 sin (000 t + w.) = e E 1 sin (ro- ~P z) ... (4_7 _ )
10 j,,,1-)'l
] = -Jo+ J, e ... (4.7.17)
for interactions between the electrons and the electric
E, = E1 eJ,,,r -)'l ... (4.7.18)
field, th_e velocity of the velocity-modulated electron
must be approximately equaJ to the de electron
!)ea[Il
Where, y = a. + jf3, is the propagation constant of the
velocity. This is axial waves. The minus sign is attached to 10 so that Jo
may be a positive in the negative z direction .
... (4.7.11) For a small signal, the electron beam-current density
Hence the distance z traveled by the electrons is can be written

... (4.7.19)
... (4.7.12)
Where, -J0 =p0 v0 , J1 =p 1 v 0 +p0 v 1 and p 1 v,=O
have been replaced. If an axial electric field exists in
... (4.7.13) the structure, it will perturbate the electron velocity
according to the force equation. Hence the force
Comparison of the left and right-hand sides of
equation can be written
Equati~n (4.7.13) shows that
eE 1 ~: = - : E 1 eJax-yi =(:I+: :Z) V
V
• = ... (4.7.14)
)llll - )'l
= (j ro-yv0)v 1 e ...(4.7.20)

where dz/ dt has been replaced by v0 • Thus

-elm
Vj = . E, .. .(4.7.21)
J(l)-yvo
- It can be seen that the magnitude of the velocity
fluctuation of the electron beam is directly proportional In accordance with the law of conservation of electric
to the magnitude of the axial electric field. charge, the continuity equation can be written,

[a 4.7.5 Convection Current In TWT 'i1·1 +t = (-yJ,+jrop,)eJax-y,.=O ... (4.7.22)

In follows that,
- In order to determine the relationship between the
circuit and electron beam quantities, the convection
current induced in the electron beam by the axial .. . (4.7.23)
electric field and the microwave axial field produced
Substitution equation (4.7.21) nnd (4.7.23)
by the beam must first be developed.

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 Microwave Engineering (MU • Sem. 7 • E&TC) 4-30 Mlcrowavo Tu~
.. ~
For simplicity. the slow-w~ve_ II
1c 1~ 1s r~prcscntcd by a
distributed lossless transm1ssmn hnc. rlic paramc,.
gives,
10 -.:rs
J, = J .!!!. £. - -- - -
2 EI ... (4 •7•24) arc defined as follows :
v0 m (j0>-yvo)
L = inductance per unit length
Where, - 10 = Po v0 has been replaced. If the
magnitude of the a'{ial electric field is unifonn over the C = Capacitance per unit lenglh
cross-sectional area of the electron beam, the spatial ac = alternating current in transmission line
current i will be proportional to the de current 10 with
the same proportionality constant for J and J0 •
v = alternating voltage in transmfasion line

Therefore the convection current in the electron beam = convection current

is given by,
Since the transmission line is coupled to a convection.
electron beam current, a current is then induced in the
line.
0) •
Where ~. = -;- 1s defined as the phase constant of The current flowing into the left-end portion of the line
0
length dz is i, and the current flowing out of the right
the velocity-modulated electron beam and
v0 = ✓ (2 e/ m) V 0 has been used. This equation is end of dz is [ i + (ui I uz) dz ].

called the electronic equation for it determines the Since the net change at current in the length dz muse be
convection current induced by the axial electric field. If zero however, the current flowing out of the electron
the axial field and all parameters are known, the beam into the line must be [- (di I dz dz].
convection current can be found by means of
Application of transmission line theory and
Equation (4.7.24(a)).
Kirchhofrs current law to the electron beam resuJ~
a. 4.7.6 Circuit Equation in the TWT after simplification, in

... (4.7.25)
The convection current in the electron beam induces an
electric field in the show-wave circuit. Thls induced
Then, -yl = jwCV + yi ... (4.7.26)
field adds to the field already present in the circuit and
causes the circuit power to increase with distance. In which a/ az = -y and a/ at = jw are replaced.
The coupling relationship between the electron beam From Kirchhoffs voltage law the voltage equation,
and the slow-wave helix is shown in Fig. 4.7.5. after simplification, is
. · i+ vv dz av ar
== _ == == ____ =l
~ --+ f.z
Eleclron beam az = -ai ... (4.7.27)

I -~dz --+ 1+ av dz
Similarly,
♦ uz cz

C I- Transmission line
-y V = - jwLI ... (4.7.28)

I\ I
__
Elimination of the circuit current from
Equation (4.7.26) and (4.7.27) yields,

(ID2SJFig. 4.7.5 : Eledron beam coupled to equivalent

iv 2
= -Vw LVC-yijO>L ... (4.7.29)
circuit of a slow wave hcli:-<

Tech-Neo Publitlllions........... Where Authors inspire i11110rotion _..-4 S.4011,VSJWI l~olllrt

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 -

.; "!t 7.,
.;" _.;,.I..

~ ~ ~.!&..::r: r.:.· ~..v.: '~ ':.e .:::.m 7.e

~ f::.o &;;°Y..:.x.r.. f .1:i.l,; r-L l !.,1:t:tJ:
4

z." == ·I LJC

~~ _c, == - 7'I == -{?-If m.J= '(I, ~,e v.hl ~,.e:,-;..f.c

~;& !!> '/J-,ezl (7/,

• ..f.t..133j
C E

_ ,~ &~;;mt.r.i h ~fb.1 u-.e ciro.r.1 ~...aio:1 w-....c."-,,: a

~...n:/:f,b'I, 'r~r,1 Ir,':; v.fal ew-"~ fl,!l.d of tf.e lV-W· h C2::'J k ~ .:..-:.c:: =:,-:-cir ,.:._J,3.5 :::::z =a: .i=
-::~/!, 'r.d11. fa. ~(1:1'..1».1 'rrj tr.e i.~&J ..c ee?.Io:J ~ ~ ::,:-.;.~ t:z"t ~ . ;t r:$ ~:r•4-"! ~ ~- J;.r
.:.::.d o.:e h,c'i:-.-.d :::zi.,- - _ -=-i ,,= c::c::::<y:c•7 :::.,

[ ~ 4.7.7 Modea of Propagatjon in TV,fT

e- Pr . Let ::J: ~ :::r:rs_.,,. ci -:::.::: =
t.n. 4.7.A 'll(r'A r~J".I: w r!.11~r~,t rrd~ cl. v.v~nn
in T'lfT.

n·~ ·11~·11:. rfll/L~ r,f,: helix-ty_r;r- Ui!'lclinz • -;,•e;~.-e w~ S!!h<2'.t::::100 af &;::=":n t.:._72:S>::::i 5..,_C!!S::c .!... 7 3-E

c.,::i be &;u;:,m1rl!:IJ 'rr; v,l'tinz th~ el~oni!: ;a;d cfrc:uil ~o

tl.fJZJJJJfir. timult,mer;'J')IJ for ·the pro~ticm C('IQ1U:Jili.

- F,;,,t;J, v;Jutfr,n for 1J;e pt'.!p/J~J.fon C/Jfl~ repr~

11 tr,1(/1,; rtf tr;nelini W;J:te in the t.ube.

- l ill;f,; 1:re fov r dir.tin.ct ~/.>lu1iom for the propa~oo

'hn~riL~. 'f11h ,nean~ that there are foor ~ of ...
( ...,.
- ...--~-
ltiweJini ·mi:1e in the 0 -t, f/.:~ tra·1eling-wa•1e wbe. From cbe thrror:· of co:::;:r:~ ,~...; ct:
, _ j) ca.'l be p!ou_--d l.!l ng,. -U .6.

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 Microwave Engineering (MU • Sem. 7 • E&TC) 4-32

J _ These four propngntion constants represent fou

. . r
different modes of wnve propngutton tn the 1Ypc o.
heJic.al traveling wave tube. These are shown in Ilic
following Figures.
-1
Sit ----1r----,lk----!......!..-. Real l ) The wave corresponding to Y1
-6 , n==1
2) The wnve corresponding to Y2
3) The wave corresponding to YJ
4) The wave corresponding to Y,
-J
{1D27)Fig. 4.7.6 : Thrtt roots or (-j)
1) The wave corresponding to Y1
Equation (4.7.40) can be written in exponential fonn
as,
y = -P.c-¥+jP.( I +t)
1

13
6 = (-j)1 =e·HM+2.ui, 3 J(n=O, 1,2) ... (4.7.41)
a,
'O
The first root 61 at n = 0 is, ::J
.t :
C.
E
6
I= e
-jff/6 ll.. . 1
= 2 -J ... (4.7.42) <
2
The second root 6i at n = 1 is Distance
(1028)Fig. 4.7.7
~ -iSff/6 ::fl_ . l
U2=e =-2-J2 ... (4.7.43)
It is a forward wave, but its amplitude grows
The third root o3 at n = 2 is, exponentially with distance.

~ - k.lll/6 •
- The growing wave propagates at 1he phase velocily
U3 : e : J .. .(4.7.44) slightly lower than the eleclron beam velocily, and lhc
The fourth root o,
corresponding to the backward energy flows from the eleclron beam to the wave.
traveling wave can be obtained by setting 2) The wave corresponding to y2
y = -j P, - P, C o, ... (4.7.45)·
c2 Y2 = P. c-,¥+ jp.( 1-¥)
Similarly, o, = -j
4 ... (4.7.46)
- It is also a forward wave, bul its amplitude decays
Thus the values of the four propagation constants y are given exponentially with distance.
by, - The decaying wave propaga1es at the same velocity as
that of the growing wave, but the energy flows from
Y1 = -P,c¥+jp,(1+¥) ... (4.7.47) the wave to the electron beam.

Y2 = P,c-,¥+m.( 1 +¥) ... (4.7.48) Y2 ~2

{Slow forward)

YJ = jp, (1 - C) ... (4.7.49)

3
y, = - j P, ( 1 - ~ ) ... (4.7.50)

(1029)Fig. 4.7.8

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!'1 Microwave Engine~ring (MU - Sem. 7 _ E&TC)
4-33 Microwave Tubf!!
~ wave corresponding toy3 ·
t r of the tube
3) 'fbe end, the att.enuator placed around the cen c
YJ = j ~. (l -C) . • . m or 1.cro level.
subdues the reflected wave to a mmunu
. . h sum of three
Thus the total circuit volwge 1s t c .
Cl)
'C th
forward voltages corresponding to the rce forward
~

·J Y3 P3
(Fast forward)
traveling Waves. This is equivalent to,

V(z) = V1 e-Y1z + V2 e- Y2 z' + V3 e- '(3Z

3
,,,(4.7.51)

(1D30)Fig. 4.7.9
The input current can be found
It is also a forward wave, but its amplitude remains
3 Vo Vn
constant. i(z) = - L I 2
--r e-v.z ... (4.7.52)
The constant - amplitude wave travels at a velocity n=I 2V0 C 6n

slightly higher than the electron beam velocity, but no in which C6 « l , E1 = yV and jP. (l - Co) have been
net energy exchange occurs between the wave and used.
electron beam. The input fluctuating component of velocity of the tota1
wave may be found.
4) The wave corresponding to y4

Y4P4
(Fast backward) have been used.
To determine the amplification of the growing wave,
the input reference point is set at z = 0 and the output
reference point is taken at z = l. It follows that at z = 0
(1D31)Fig. 4.7.10 the voltage, current and velocity at the input point are
given by,
It is a backward wave, and there is no change in
amplitude. .... (4.7.54)

The backward wave progresses in the negative z

... (4.7.55)
direction with a velocity slightly higher than the
velocity of the electron beam.

[ 'B.. 4.7.8 Output Power Gain In TWT

The simultaneous solution of Equations (4.7.54),
- It is assumed that the structure is perfectly matched so (4.7.53), (4.7.56) with i(O) = 0 and v 1(0) = 0 is
that there is no backward traveling wave.
V1-- V2-V - V(O)
- 3- 3 .. . (4.7.57)
- Even through there is a reflected wave from the output
end of the tube traveling backward toward the input

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 ~\\~~ t~ " TWT Is used in micrownvc rc<.:ervers ns u ow noj~ Rp
~\\'Wll\~ W,\\'e is in~t\':\sing cxponc111inlly
w,t:h \il~~\"I\.'\' ti. will l\l\.'l.h.,minatc mw the M:tl vohngc 111nplilicr.
~k~'S t~ dl\'l\ll, T \,,.,.
y Is. nro, 11 lso used
• ••
111 w11/c-bu11d communication 11n._,
L.

• 1 cnhles us repeater amplifiers· Or

Whet, t~ k\'Sth I \lf ti~ sll,w-w.wc stn1i:ture is nncI c.0 ·,,1,,v 111
• ., 1,11tc• umi>lilicrs to amplify low signals.
~\ffi~t~,m~) \;\~~- th¢ l)\ttpnt \'Olt:1~c will be almo.•il
mtcnncu
T\Vl's hnvc 11 long tube life, due to which U1cy are llS¢d
~ \l,'\l t\.'t t~ ' ' l~' \)f t~ growi1~ w ;l\~.
as power output tubes in communication satellites.
'\3q\\.it1, ' 4-..I ,5 \) yicl&, t~ i.'Ulp\ll \'Olt:\gC ;\S,
Continuous wnvc high power TWTs are USC<J in
~ Cl) e.~p [-jPc ( l + ~) / ]
~t
Troposcuttcr links, because of large power and large
bandwidths, to scatter to large clistanccs.
... (•t.7.58)
TWTs are used in high power pulsed radars and ground
~ f-~t, r t.\ I is 1."\)n\'Cntion:tlly \\Tlt~n 2m~ , where N
bused mdars.
i.~ the d r.:i.1it lcnsth in cl~tronics w:n·dength - that is.
~ 4.7.10 Difference between TWT and
... (4.7.59)
Klystron Tube

1k ~ll1\nlitu--te uf th¢ <utput vol~-e is then given by

LO. 4.7.6 Differentiate between TWr and klystron tub;l

Sr. TWT Klystron

1k u~n puwcr gmn in decibels is defined as. No.

- 1~ ,~ - ---
·\=\Ol~g V(O) =-9.54+4 1..,NCdB ... (4.7.60) l. In this, the signal to be Here the field related to
amplified is allowed co move signal is present only
\,"be.--e XC is numcrk.:tl number.
along the axis of the tube. the buncher cavity.
~ output p'.)\\-cr g-.un shown in Equ:ition (4.7.59)
in-li.:-~"'C:$ :m init:i:1.1 loss st the circuit input of 9.54 dB. 2. So the interaction of the Interaction region is
beam with field of the signal only in the cavity gap.
Thi." less r-~.sults trom the fuct th:it the input voltage
is over the length of the tube.
splits intu t,~re-.! \\"ll.\'c!S of equal magnitude and the
g-r \\i ng ws,~ yQJrn_g-e is only one-third the total input 3. Since interaction is over Interaction is over small
,-cl~~
longer distance, the output of distance so output is
re 1.·~ :tl." re ~Jl lh3t the power g:lin is proportional T\Vf is high. small.
:n u.~ kngth ~ d~tronic_,;; wJvelength of the slow-
4. It uses no cavity therefore It uses cavity so
~-~ ,-e s.tructu.re :md the gain p:ir.unerer C of the circuit.
bandwidth of T\VT is high. bandwith is small.
~ 4.7.9 Applications of Travelling Wave
Tube 5. It makes use of slow wave It makes use of cavities.
structure.

/ LQ. 4.7.5 Gr.-s the applications of travelling wave tube. 6. It is used in high power It is used only in the lab
J ne.re ::i'1! rmny :ippli~tions of a o.n-elling wave tube. applications like radar. for practical purpose.

ra-b-S.. . . . Pnhlir-ti~' - - - ~ Aut.hars ia.-pire in.no,a/Jon

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~ J/1:!.(Jlla-ve En lnoorln MU · Som. 7. E&Tc 4.35 Mlcrowovo Tube&
~ ~ Ex.ample•
,,,---
. ,.1,1
@ Soln.:
'111c gnln paramelcr J,1 glvcn by,
rWf ij tiaving a pitch angle of 5.2 The opcrntional
f$, 6
,
1,hN" (300 x ,0- 3><;0.)W
~ i.\ 7 GHz. ff the bear~ voltage i11 I8(X) volt'I then C "" (4V-;J = 4 x 5 x JO )
caJtV!.afe ..... (r,11uency of velocity fluctuation •
IJl(,, .,.,
-3
= 66.94 X JO
Bf softi- :
Vo = 1800V The oulpul power gain i.~given by

Vo = 0.593 X I0'' -...{v;, Ap = - 9.54 + 4.73 NC

v<, = 25. I6 X JO'' 50 = -9.54+4.73xNx66.94 X JO
-3

~
VP = 3 X JO X 1,in (5.2)
N = 188.03
VP = 27. J9 X J0 m/s (r\ =j
6
Length of helix is

we ~P = (Vp-Vr,) 3 x JO~ )
I= N•Ae= l88.03 ( IO x !Oio =5.64m
1
w, = 3.28 x !0 rad/sec
'

UEx. 4.7.4 MU· Ma 17, 5 Marks

f1,4.7.2 A, Traveling-Wave Tube (TWT) operates under the
Ahelical TWT ha11 diameter of 2 mm with 50 turns per cm. following parameters :
(a) Calcolat.e axial pha.•.c velocity and the anode voltage at Beam voltage: V0 = JOkV
which the 1Wf can be <,pcrntc<l for useful gain. Beam current : ·10 = 5CX) mA
0 Sofn.: Characteristic impcdancc of helix : 7"'0 = 25 n
Circuit length : = 20 cm
pitch
(a) VP = velocity of light x circumference Frequency : f = 4 GHz
Determine: (a) The gain parameter C; (b) the output power
1 4 gain AP in decibels.
Vitcb = 50 cm = 0.02 cm= 2 x 10- m
0 Soln.:
Circumference= 7t x C = n x 2 x 10- 3 rn = 6.284 x 10- 3 m
a) The gain parameter is
10-4
3
:. VP = 3 X 1o*x 2 X 6.284 X 10- J -(f~)l13 -(500 X 10- x 25)l/3 -3
C - 4VJ - 4 x IO x IOJ = 67 .86 X I0

e v,, b) The output power gain is

106 ✓ 1o x 103
6
Vo = 0.593x I0 ~=0.593 x
8
Vo = 0.593 X I0 mis
7
x (0.9548 x l0 = 25.92 kV
)
/IA =.JEL = 0.2 x 2n x 4 x 109
E1, 4.7.3
N = • 21t V0 21t X 0.593 X )08 = 13.49
Aheli,:: tr&veling wave tube i11 operated with a beam current AP = - 9.54 + 47.3 NC
<,f 3(X, roA, t,cam voltage of 5 kV and characteristics
AP = - 9.54 + 47.3 X 13.49 X 67.89 X IQ- 3
irrrfitd11nce (Jf 20 O. What length of helix will be selected to
~e~n <>utput power gain of 50 dB at 10 Griz. AP = 33.85 dB

~ ii:::":-:-::--:------:---:--~--:;-:----- -- -- -----;--;:-:-~- - --
l ~ P11Llk.tHH1•H·H..,_ WJ,crtJ Author, inKpll'II /onon,t/on ._A SAC/1/NSI/All rcnture

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 ~ Mk:ro.,,ave ~ (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 4-38

I 'l:!. 4.8 Cross Field Amplifier (CFA) · J

[ LO. 4.8.1 Wme short w.e on Cross Fed ftm¢itier. ]
Gri1
- It is a microwave power amplif"Jer based OD rnzgnetton.
It is a cross between TWf 2nd ~ in its

, ~ 4~8.1 Classification of CFA ._..

.,,,_
-x...
--- ~
,,.,_....
..,-
~ ~ ~.,,,, ....
Cross fe:1 amp~
I 00oooaa
!
Based Cl'I rroje
of operafion
I (104",F~ .U.l (b) : Scherna1k diagram of wrward CTA
!
For"2.r'd
l
Ba::::kNatd Etrd.r.g-so!e L'l;ect.sd
'Ha",e CF-A wz-.-e CFA f:;pe CFA beam t]'P!?
CFA

fr.po~--0:tp-1.se--,...:.r'G.-Or
and ~ s;::a:::e
.

r,:c.c::,Fig. 4.8.l(c) : Ba<:kward ware CPA

3
......
...
@ ' ...
0 ''
' \
\
\
\

~a:_ :Xl :OK a:;-, d magre5= fed

::r~ ao:::x-~ !:>;... ~-a f I
er ~ - 0 "i'I-Z-,~ ~-Y.X I C ( -s,-rc:-r::r:o.:1

(t!:.l.!:,F".tg. -4.8.1(d) : }lotion a( E:tt:Ctrons in CTA

Rei~ Fi?- 4..8.Ha) 2nd (b), (c) anrl (d)

J;&re.kt:!rn~ ~ _,1 SJCBIJ,SH.,(JJ Ya:tzue

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 ,,.,.. .,..

Microwave Tube--!
i'1 t-4~wave engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 4-37

~fttl119 .ole type .

1a. 4.8.2 Power Gain of CFA ]
(I) fl" .
Ill (bis, the current e1D1tted from cathode is due to • · dependent of the
,, .,.;c field in the space between anode and cathode The total power generated in CFA is in .
elCC"• · ·11 the input power
RF input power. This happens ti
. aJJlount of current depends on the dimension th ke stability at
'fb1S . . , e exceeds the threshold value for the spo
., WPUed voltage and the enuss1on characteristics of the
input.
cathode,
= Input power + Power generated
Jt ha5 relatively high power and high current capability Output power of CFA
., in interaction region
at tow voltage.

,-.ted t,eam tube Power gain of CFA is = Pin + Pgen

oo 111,.,-·
'fbe electron beam is produced in a separate gun ~ - fla + pg.cn. ... (4.8.1)
g = P in - pin
assembly. Then it is injected into the iteration region.
. .. (4.8.2)
lo t,otb cases i.e. in emitting sole tube and injected
t,ealD tube, phased electrons travels toward anode and
collected there. However, unfavourably phased where, Pout= Output power ; P1" = RF input power
electrons travels towards negatively . polarized
Pgco = RF power induced into the anode
electrode.
circuit by electrons
QII) Forward wave CfA
Hence CFA is not linear amplifier. It is a saturated
It uses helix as slow wave structure. amplifier.

Ov) eackWard wave CFA

It uses strapped bar line is used as slow wave structure.
Ia. 4.8.3 Efficiency of CfA I
It is shown in Fig. 4 .8. l(c). It is defined as the product of the electronic efficiency

- In CFA, the electron is exposed to four types of forces. TJ. and circuit efficiency Tic
They are Therefore
(i) electric field force (de) .. . (4.8.3)
11 = fie • Tic
(ii) magnetic field force
TJc (circuit efficiency) is given as,
(iii) electric field force (RF)
P94, - P10
(iv) Space charge force Tic = .!L = P,en ... (4.8.4)
11.
- For analysis, space charge force is not considered as it Pgu,-P,o p
But 11 = and 11 _:..wi . .. (4.8.5)
increases complexity. V10 Ia0 • - Pde

- In presence of three forces, the electron travels spiral Where, Poot = RF output power
path in a direction along equal potentials.
P;o = RF input power
The exact motion of electrons can be plotted with the
help of computer. Refer Fig. 4.8.l(d) Pde = Va0 • I.o = de power

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_/
_.,, • I
I
Microwave,-~ I
liJ Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 4-38
E = Total electric field at position under I
Where
Va0 = anode de voltage consideration

I.a = anode de current B = Magnetic flux density at the l>Ositi0ii

Therefore, p gen = llc . pde w at any position is given as,

The power fl o
2
= llc · VaO • Iao E
p ::: 2 p1zc ...(4.8.9)
... (from Equation (4.8.5))

Now, the power generated per unit length is constant. Emax

= peak electric field
Where,
Hence output power is given as,
l
p = roN ::: phase constant
-1a1
= Pin e +
J~/ e -2a <t-Q> d"'
Zc = beam coupling impedance
POUi 'I'

0
_ The power loss per spoke due to electron motion
= p. e-2a1 +~ (1-e- 2a1) ••. (4.8.6)
ID 2 al towards the anode at any position is given by,
Where a = circuit attenuation constant
P, = Vso·1so
= circuit length in ~ direction
I m p1z! p
substituting Equation (4.8.6) in Equation (4.8.4) we get, = ... (4.8.10)
so e · B

, ~ 4.8.4 Derivation of fie . I Where y so = de voltage per spoke

Prnu - pin ~ = de current per spoke

llc = p gen
Now power varies linearly with position. Hence
[ -2al
Pin e +~
2al ( 1 - -2al ] p
e ) - in average power loss over the entire circuit length is
= pgcn m rlz
. Ps,avg = 1so2e · 7(Pin+Pou1) ... (4.8.11)
Pia e
-2al _l_ -1a1 ~
=
P,••
+ 2al (1 - e ) - Pgen·
Using Equations (4.8.l) and (4.8.11) we get, (Also

=~ ( -la/ -1) _ l_(l - -la/) using vP = w), the total power loss for all the spokes is
P
gen
e + 2al e
given by,

flc = (l-e·
2
a/) (
2
~-tJ . . (4.8.7) .!!!. ((J)~2 .!!l pl Z (g + 1~
P,osi = I,o . 2e p) + I.o 2e . 7
\,g - 1) pgen

( ~ can be neglected for high gain CFA. . .. (4.8.12)

Hence electronic efficiency is given as,

f 'B.. 4.8.5 Derivation of fie

Average drift electron velocity at any position is given 2

1- mw z
as, 2e V10 p

V = B
E
... (4.8.8) llc = l + ~ mp1 z, (K.±1)
B 2e g- 1

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j
 a IL ::a: ==!iiJe£
i .9 9-, ""'"attJ W14""n~ 01;;11 ~• 1
{O'll(J)

- - -

(~) . lf'~ll '-1:c

(t ) l ~ ~,, 1~h1

(ii lhfb ~ 'CJI\CC

.C .9.1 Llnur M-~tdll(jfton ]

Appllcatlona ol CFA
h l\ ~l l>J'C 0\\ 0

(I) iu..--c t,"t)fll nlUIIIC:tlio n r ~tn,cuon

•) l'uI:.cd racbr Rdrr Ii,. .I •1 I It .t. , I-,~ c-a ,:;, ~ ! \.t

.ll't"Hkitn1n ,~tll • "

[X. U .1
., CfA opcr;iic under fol 10 11. ans p;tr.,.mc-tCl\
(II Ano.Jc lk volt:J!=,C: s. 2 L.

. 1 Anodcdccumnt : I = I. A
(3) EJcctronic dl,~·icnry : Tl, = _Q 'l

(' ) RF input pi:>1H·r : I\ . = hO W

uk'ublc :
...
'•I Tk indu~d RF pt.) \\ er
(h) The tou.l RF output pt.) \1e-r
(r) lk po111,cr gd.in in J edtx"J -
0 Sotn.:

<h) lk RF ou1pu1 pt>11. c-1 i~

r.... = p 11 • p,.... ., o ,. t.to • c,. w

1..,J ..-~11"'"' 1<!,:\.,_. . !1,; 1 . k -!,, ., ,.J, ~•.i..1.111"'

f 1l \.1·.,~.;J , l , 1.,:- 11l.!.

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li) Mbow.._. Ez?::::, (MU • Som. 7 • E&TC) ~'t~
Ir WOf\lng Pffnclpie
The electrons at
.. G ... ~
J"O$luon ....,-c movec1 fac ~

A de ltU,tn("tJc ftcld i, pre~ near the cathode &re&.

unpemat<d ~tion, ~ of lh(-m a r c ~ ~
~
The cl«-.ron the circ-wL
., e.trutted from the cathode ~ bent at~
due lo tna&nc:Uc fie.Id. The kn~ from A to G is h.ilf cycle or ~

Thc'.i.c r'~-- . mo,-cmcnL

"'UfU Lnlcrlld v. 1th a hrl1' llJ'\1 v. I VC SJUCC
~~ Bmoc lhc enrin an the ll'C"UII ..an1 nov. lns in "" Advantage

'lt d.uTa.loo u lh:it of the d 1rc-ct11."C'I o ( clrcuon ( I) l l1sh cffi icney : 30 lO 60'l:
no
lbc-n u o v. v. a \T .,tru.:1~ l tmll1n:itc-J Al tht-
Ia 4.9.2 Circular M-Carclnotron J
rnJ
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ru: J t:nJ.I t:v.rut o al
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M<:&tdnotron

II ~ ., the ►) n hn~,i.m l'tc-lv. « !l the l'('ttU: ~

clC\."1Jvc. .. .1-""1,. "• ,o linr u M i.tnn<.m-a
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s.:ii. v" Rf r•,.

f{O.Jl:,. "-'.l I 8n.JII C ~ l 'OIU aftd nrctric r..-&J t'-' l l
-" 1-Ca.rriDoc roe

A• \.t: ll lft F1i -4 9 -:!, cl~'tro:h :it J'rullO!h A (nc,:ir , :>a 11-t. UJ: ~ t i c dl.acnun cl • drn&1a,
~I &rru>o<1'lo
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ll'C\111
Tiic ~ l)V. V. i\ C ~'tu.re mJ k ~ ci.mtl.u. The salt
ll ::.:c me,, rng tov. mi I.he 1>0lc. aprc .m lilc the .il - 1n nu.gnctron.

tioo C ~.re a , sni lo'>Cf 10 1.l1C 1~-u,1, In thi1 the tkhy lin<- I) tmnin~t~ ~I the coUcctor end.
clcctrOO.i ~ tJOn D 111c lo!>Cr LO the: M>k . 1lti~ i> ~ b) ) p.ni) in • tten~ting nutui&I on the

Cl«tron'i. i,t f'O)-llJOn C tu vc tn, cllcd for d1\l!ll'K.'C from l ut(OC"Cl of 1hc conduct

u:1pcnwt't"J p.i1h ll) romplTt'<l 10 cl t'C'tron, 11.1 pc>) ll ion llic: output is ttl.c.n from gun end of the delay line. This
D n,a I due 10 lronfct RF field. is an intcrtligiul line.

11~rdorr ckctrc,m ~,·c 10\t net ll!DOWll of f()lcnti:u lncn.'. f orc. the electron drift vcl i ty lus t.o be iii

C-O<"rl!Y· ) nduonism " itb lmd..w:ird pxc h.arroonic.

Thl\ rncrfzy 1\ t.r~mfrm:-J to the RF ficlJ.

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 ineering (MU - Sem. 7 _ E&TC)
4-41 Microwave Tubes
Cyllndrlcal Magnetron
positive w.r.l cathode which produces electric field
from anode to cathode.

oo,'-10·1 Wrth a neat functional diagram expl .

am the The magnetic field (BJ is produced by a permanent
working principle of Cylindrical Magnetron. magnet. This field is acting vertically as shown in
DI d•M◄ilci6Ni:i•l4Hi:i11Hitbb
1
Fig. 4.10.1.
It is a cross-field device as the electric field
(horizontal) is perpendicular to the vertical magnetic
AnO(le
cavities field.

When the cathode is heated up it emits electrons in the

Output
interaction region between anode and cathode. These
Anode electrons interact with two types of fields :
poles
(i) Static electric and magnetic field

(ii) RF field
(1D32)(a)

( a. 4.10.2 Operation

The operation of magnetron is divide in two stages. In

first stage we will understand how electron behaves in
presence of static electric and magnetic fields.

In second stage we will consider how electron behaves

in presence of RF field in addition to static electric and
Output coupling
loop magnetic field.

(b)
(1D33)Fig. 4.10.1 : Construction of Magnetron

I'B- 4.10.1 Construction I

- It is a diode usually of cylindrical configuration with a
cylindrical cathode at the center and thick cylindrical
block of copper as anode.

- In the anode block are cut a number of boles and slots

(1D34)Fig. 4.10.2 : Motion of electron in the interaction region
which act as resonant cavity.
Stage 1:
- .The space between anode and cathode is the interaction
space and one of the cavities is connected a coaxial I. The electron emitted from the cathode and moving
line or wave guide for extracting the output. towards the anode will get its path affected in the

- The electric field is produced by the applied de voltage interaction_space depending on the relative strength of
electric and magnetic field.
<YJ between anode and cathode. The anode is made
--i:~;:---::--------=:--:--:----:-.---:----:~-- - - - -- - - - - - - ~ - - - - -
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 .··~• vwa\'Q 't

We CXamine the electron trajectories in the presence of When electron a is situated (at this instant o f ~
closed electric and \'arying strength of magnetic field. point 1. the 1angcnll
'a)
component of the RF cl
litnc)~.
hi ob crvcd that : field will n:t~rd the electron. This electron gives ~
(i)
energy
When B = 0. (In absence of nrngnetk field) the electron to the RF field.

will travel traigh1 from U1e cathode 10 the nnode due to Electron b is so placed as to extract an equal amo
. Unto(
radial electric force ncting on it. (ind icntcd by trajectory cnergy from the RF field. and thus 1s acceler.ition b .
a). Yll

(ii) \
Vhen 8 > 0 (i.e. for moder.ite \'aluc of D) it will excn a
a 4.1 o.3 Favorable and Non Favorable
Electrons
lntcmJ force be nding the: path of electron indicntcd by
tr.ijectOI)' h. The r:idiui. of path is gi"en hy.
For o~illntion,; 10 be maintained, more energy 011151 be
_ mV t;i\'en to the electric field than i~ taken from ii. Note
R
- dJ
ih:it electron :i , pend · much more time in the RF licJd
(iii) When O = B, (i.e. critic:11or cut 0ff m:ignc1ic field ) 1he th:in electron h.
electron will mm e imo the inter.,ction ).p.1 ·e anti ju, t Tiie former is retarded. and Lherdon: Lhe force of the de
gr:u.c :iround the ,urfa c of anode (p.1th c). magnetic field on it i, diminished: as a result, it can
(i") When 13 > B, (magnetic field m:llk 1:utcr 1h:m critical now n10,·c clo..cr to the anode.
or cut-off field) the electron npcricn e a i;,rca1cr If condition~ arc rurangcd ,;o that by the time electron a
rot:uion:ll force and mar n:tum hack to c:11hcxlc qui1c :uri\'~ :11 point 2 1hc field h:is rc,·crs.cd polarity, thu
fa ter :ind all uch electron cause h:ick hc:11ing of electron will once :1g:iin be in a posi1ion 10 gi\'e energy
c.1thodc. (path d). to the RF field (tho ugh being retarded by it).
Stu~e 2 (ErTect of co mbined field.-. on elecrronks) 11J<: m:1gnc1ic fon:c on electron dimini hes once more,
and :1nou1er intc:rJCtion of thi~ type occurs (this time at
poi n1 3). Thi, .1_, ,u11ic~ 1hat at all limes the electric licld
ha.-, n:vc~c:d pol:i.ri1y each ti:ne this electron tlrrivcs at a
uitablc intcrJction po~ition.

In this manner, "favored" electrons spend a

considernblc time in the intcr:iction space and arc
capable of orbiting U1c cathode several times before
eventually arriving nt the anode.

In thi manner, "favored" electrons spend a

considcrJble time in the interaction space and arc
p035)Flg. 4.10.3 : Combined rfTtct or r.r. und stntic field on capable of orbiting U1e cathode several times before
electrons eventually arriving m the anode.

However, an electron of type b undergoes a totally

Jn the ab. cncc of the RF electric field. electrons a and b
different experience. It is immediately accelerated by
follow the pnlhs !--hown by the dolled lines a and b.
the RF field, and therefore the force exencd on ·it bYthe
rcspcct.ivcly. Bue the RF field modifies these paths.
de magnetic field increases. This electron thus returns

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-Treh-Neo rn.
Publications- "nuc
Authors in.<pire iI,1101";1rioa - - - - - --~.....A=:i££-4:ilCJJ7l111'lif JSHAHU
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 va Engineering MU· Som. 7. E&Tc
,.i~rowa 4-43 Mlcrowovo Tub09
thode even sooner limn it would huvc ,
(he ca in t 11c Jdystron.c1 caw,cs
10
of (he RF field. The cavity m11gnc1w11, like tI1c · '
nbscnce M the pha.&JC-
electrons to bunch, hul here 1hl11 l.~ known
equcntly spends n much shorter time in ll
11 cons 1c focusing effect.
, (ion space than the other electron. Hen .J ; favoured
iotefllC . . cc, 1l1is effect is rnthcr importilnl. WII iou1 1•
h its interncllon with the RF field ta1ccs as h
l))thoug . muc electrons would fall behind rhc phase change of rhc
from it as was supplied by electron a the
-0 , rem •
electric field across the gaps, smce such clcctroM arc
efar ,,c,:ver interactions of the b type because sue h
retarded at each inreraction with the RF field.
ns :ire always returned to the cathode afte
c1ectr0 . . r one,
sibly two, interactions. To see how this effect operates, consi·der another
orPo5
electron, such as c of Fig. 4. I0.4.
011 the other hand, type a electrons give up energy
Because the tangentiaJ component of the ticl d is not as
atedly. It therefore appears that more energy is
repe ·11 · th · . pomt.
strong at this . electron c con tn'butes· ·some energy
given to the RF osc1 at1ons an is take from them, so
to the RF field. However, it does not give up as much
that oscillations in the magnetron are sustained.
as electron a.
o.4 Back-heating As a result, this electron appears to be somewhat less
useful th~ electron a, but this is so only at first.
The only real effect of the "unfavorable" electrons is Electron c encounters not only a diminished tangential
that they return to the cathode and tend to heat it, thus RF field but also a component of the radial RF field, as
giving it dissipation of the order of 5 percent of the shown. This has the effect of accelerating the electron
anode dissipation. radially outward.
This is known as back-heating and is not actually a As soon as this happens, the de magnetic fi eld exerts a
total Joss, because it is often possible in a magnetron to stronger force on electron c, tending to bend it back to
shut off the filament supply after a few minutes and the cathode but also accelerating it somewhat in a
just rely on the back-heating to maintain the correct counter clockwise direction. This, in tum, gives this
cathode temperature. electron a very good chance of catching up with
electron a.
~ 4.10.5 Bunching (Phase - Focusing)
In a similar manner, electron d (shown in Fig. 4. 10.4)
will be retarded tangentially by the de magnetic field. It
LO. 4.10.2 Write a note on bunching process in will therefore be caught up by the favoured electron;
cylindrical magnetron.
thus, a bunch takes shape.

, ~ 4.10.6 Self-consistent Modes

LO. 4.10.3 What is self consistent modes in magnetron?

The magnetron has a number of resonant cavities 11.nd

must therefore have n number of resonant frequencies
and/or modes of oscillation. Whulcvcr mode is used, it
UD36)Fig. 4.10.4 : Showing how bunching takes pince must be self-consistent.

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·1ieo PubUr.arions..- ...... Where Authors inspire inuon1tiou

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 lil Microwave ~ - .
ineanng (MU - Sem. 7- E&TC) 4-44 Microwave 1~
For example . .
• it is not possible for the eight-cavity It must be realized that these arc oscillations ~
-.\~
magnetron (which is often used in practice) to employ will thus come. later in the cycle, when thi
s Pole·
a mode in which the phase difference between the instantaneously maximum negative, white at 1$
another
adjacent anod · • instant the RF voltage between that pole and the
e pieces 1s 300. If this were done, the total
llc~t
phase hi.ft will be zero.
s around the anode would be 8 x 30° = 240°,
which means · that the first pole piece
of phase with itself.
. would be 120° out
[a 4.10.8 Mode Jumping I
Simple investigation shows that the sma!Jest practicaJ
ua. 4.10.4 What Is mode jumping in magnetron. How Is
phase difference that can exist here between adjoining
it taken care of? MU· Ma 16. 5 Marks
anode poles is 45°, or 7t/4 rad, giving a sclf-consis1en1
LO. 4.10.5 How to Avoid Mode Jumping?
overall phase shift of 3600 or 2nn rad.

This n/4 mode is seldom used in practice because it Because the magnetron has eight (or more) coupled

docs not yield suitable cho.rocteristics. ca,·ity resonators, several different modes of oscillation
are po sible.
The mode is preferred for rather complex reasons. In
thi s mode of opcrnuon,
. the phase difference between The osci llating frequencies corresponding to the
adjacent anode poles is 1t rad or 180°. different modes arc not the same, but are very close 10

I 'a. 4.10.7 1t-mode Osclllatlon j

ench other.
Through mode jumping, a 3-cm 7t-modes osciJlation
which is nonnal for a particular magnetron could,
Self-consist7nt oscillations can exist only if the phase spuriou ly, become a 3.05-cm (3/4) ff-mode oscillation.
difference between adjoining anode poles is n7t/4,
The result might well be oscillations of reduces power,
where n is an integer.
at the wrong frequency.

Ia
For best results, n = 4 is used in practice.
The resulting ff-mode oscillations arc shown in 4.10.B(A) Mode Jumping Techniques ]
Fig. 4. 10.5 at an instant of time when the RF voltage on
the top left-hand anode pole is maximum positive. I. Strapping 2. Ri ing-sun anode structure ~
I. Strapping

St.r.apping consists of two rings of heavy-gauge wire

connected 10 the alternate anode poles.

These are the poles that should be in phase with each

other for the - ff mode.

The short circuiting the adjacent poles will always keep

these poles at same potential. The reason for the
effectiveness of strapping in preventing mode jumping
is the phase difference between alternate anode poles is
other than 21t rad in the other modes, these modes will
(l037}Fig. 4.10..5 : Field in then-mode or operation quite obviously be prevented.

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 MU- Sem, 7- E&Tc

11•crc nrc lwo lypc., of cavlrlc, ;

I. l.11rgc cnvl1Jc,
2. Small cavlrlu
11,e number of mode., In the rldng .,un ma~l/011 l•
the same 11,1 in lhe &tropped 1rwgnctrrm.
However, in the rising sun magnclron, t~II the ,nocJ,e,
arc such that rhe large cavlrJe!I control the f,equcocy.
and so the frequencies as.socio~ with rJ>e-.e m<«• arc
~trapping
nngs relatively low.

For the higher-numbered modes (eJtccpl rJic r. made).

the field patterns are such rJ,at rJ,e small c.1vitle1 control
the frequency, and so rJ,e frequencies associated with
these modes are relatively hjgh.

In the n-mode, the frequency is ,njdway between the

(1D38)Fig, 4.10.6: Strapping resonant frequencies of the two cavity configurations.

Thus, the rising sun structure increases the frequency
rr Limitations of strapping
separation between the n mode and the two adjacent
- Strapping may become unsatisfactory because of losses modes (one above 1t mode and one below 7t mode).
in the straps in very high-power magoetrons. Nore that strapping is not required wiili the rising - sun
- There are generally a lot of cavities (16 and 32 are magnetron.
common numbers), to ensure that a suitable RF field is
maintained in the interaction space. This being so, so
f a. 4.10.9 Hull Cut-off Magnetic FieId /
many modes are possible that even strapping may not
prevent mode jumping. LQ. 4.10.6 Derive the expression for Hull cut-off
condition.
2. Rising-sun Anode Structure
The inner cylinder of radius (a) is cathode and the outer
shell with radius (b) is anode. A de voltage (VJ is
applied between the anode and cathode.

V=O
cathode
Anode
V = v0

(1039)Fig. 4.10.7: Rising sun structure

- The way in which the rising-sun structure causes mode

separation to occur is not as easy to understand as the
strapping technique. (1040JFlg. 4. 10.8 : To rakul11tr hull c:ut-<>IT n<'ld

edi-Neo Publica1ion1_ _ WJ,u,: Authors ia.pirr i1111012tio11

-1 J.tGllVSH.ti/ 1;..11ur

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- -
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 Mlcrawave TubOt
4.47

(b)

Hull cut-off vollugc is given by 1

(b) = 130.595 mrob/m
cB0
(c) CJ),= m

:: 7.9155 kV Ex. 4.10.3

A two cavity KJystron Amplifier is toned at 3 Gffz. The
(c) cut-off magnetic flux density is given by drift space lenglh is 2 cm, beam current 25 mA, 11te cateber
~VOnve) 112 voltage is 0.3 times the beam voltage. It is assumed that tbe
gap length of the cavity less (<<) the drift space, so that the
Be== b(1-~)
input and output voltage are in phase (~ == I). Compute :
1
3 112
8 X 30 X 10 ) 1 (i) Power output and efficiency for N == 5 4 made.
= ( l.759 X 10\f X
8X 10-2(1-g'
4 )
(ii) Beam voltage, input voltage and output voltage for
1
I X 0.001168 =19.468 mWb/m 2 maximum power output for S 4 made.
Be = Q.06
@ Soln.:
Ex. 4.10.2 f = 3 GHz
A normal circular mugnetron has lhe following parameters Given :
Inner radius : R. = 0.15 m L = 2cm, 10 == 25 mA

Outer radius : R0 = 0.45 m 2

Magnetic nux density : ~ o = 1.2 mW b/m
(a) Determine the Hull cut-off voltage
(b) Determine lhe cul off magnetic Oux density if the beam P O<JI = ?
V2
voltage VOas 6000 V.
(i)
Tl = 0.58 y= 0.58 X 0.3 =0.174 or 17.4%
0
(c) Determine the cyclotron frequency in GHz.
@Soln. : 00 = yroL0 =27tN
(a) Cut off voltage

V0 = eB~b
2
m[1-f J
11
= 1.759; 10 X (1.2 X )0- 3) (0.45>2
6
2
2 v0 = 11.42 x 10 m/sec.
[
l-
(
o.45
0.15) ] = 50.666 kV
6
Vo = 0.593 X 10 -{Yo
-A SACHINSll4ll Yuture
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Iii Mlcrowavo Englnoo~ng \MU• Som, 7. E&TC) 4·40 Mlcrowavor
6
l l. 42 X l0 = 0.593 X 10(\~ LO. 4.11.2 What oro tho drawbacks of convonuo
nor
luboo?
Vo = 370.87V
(ii) r:r orowbocka ot convontlo,101 tubes like mag0 ...
..,ron
PO\ll = lo vl klystrons or TWT '
= (25 X 10_. 3)(0.3 X 370.87) Magnctrons and slow wave devices such a~ klystrolll
= 2.78W travelling wave tubes (TWTs) require Rlructures
'

(~)mu 3.68
= (2mt-~) = ~
3.68 smaller than the wavelength.

They nrc prone to overheating· or breakdown at high

V0 X 3.68 frequencics.
V l(rnu) = Piao Gyro devices arc based on the principle of ECR

370.87 X 3.68 (electron cyclotron rcsonancc).Hcnce they are also

= -41.38.Y
I X 32.98 known as "electron cyclotron masers", "cyclotron

[a 4.11 Gyrotron I resonance masers" or simply "gyrotrons".

Gyro devices make use of cyclotron resonance

condition to transfer energy from an electron beam to
UQ. 4.11.1 How does gyrotron tube differ from klystron
electromagnetic wave.
and magnetron tubes ? Explain the principle
of operation of gyro lWT amplifier.
MU· Ma 16. 10 Marks
I '29.. 4.11.1 Types of Gyro Devices

Gyrotrons are efficient sources for RF generntion at I. Oyrotron

high power levels. 2. Gyro-TWT
rr Appllcatlons for Gyrotrons 3. Gyro-klystron
1. Microwave sources for industry, medicine 4. Gyro-BWO
2. High power radar 5. Gyro-Twystron
3. Plasma diagnostics 6. Cyclotron Auto resonance Maser
4. Material sintering One to one correspondence is shown between linear
5 RF driver for high average power accelerators beam (O-typc) devices and gyro devices.

The high average power capability of gyrotrons is Refer Fig. 4.1 I. I.

significant in the millimeter wave region. IL shows one to one correspondence is shown between
linear beam (O-lypc) devices and gyro devices .

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 lWT BWO Twyslron

r---..::;,
Gyro-devices ~
~

Gyro-Monotron Gyro-Klystron
Gyro-Oscillator Gyro-TWT Gyro-BWO Gyro-Twystron

(ID50)Fig. 4.11.1: Linear-beam devices and corresponding gyro-devices souru

<T Gyrotron

It is often known as gyro-monotron. Refer Fig. 4.11.2. It shows gyrotron oscillator source.

gun
•-,
Main Laulldler
solenold

BadromagnetJc
wave,

(tDSl)Fig. 4.11.2 : Schematic diagram or gyrolron (Gyro-monotron) osdlJator source

rr Construction In MIG, the electron beam generation is based on the

It consists of: principle of thermionic emission.

I l. (The source of the electron beam) Magnetron An annular electron beam is generated by the electron

I 2.
injection gun
Magnets or main solenoid producing a static magnetic
beam source nonnally known as MIG (Magnetron
Injection Gun).

field High power gyrotron uses MIG.

3. Cavity The electron beam generated by MIG at cathode and is

accelerated towards the anode to form an electron beam
4. Collector solenoid
of suitable parameters.
5. Set of mirrors
The beam passes through the region for interaction
1. Magnetron injection gun with the RF wave.
Refer Fig. 4.11.3. It shows Schematic diagram of MTG
of gyrotron.

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 ,t,GO

For designing nn clcctr011 RIIII, the hcnm pnmmctcr.- 4. Collector 1t()lcnolcl

such tl'i beam dinmctcr, beam den ily, beam pccds etc.
arc 1.-on,idcrc<l. It ns a dump (or the :,pcrH clc,1t1in~.

Tiic collector is us111lly 1n, ul111c:d (mm the y,yrr~,1 1

main body.

n,is makes it pos~iblc 10 mcnsurc the rollcc1.or cu,1 r:t

and body current scparJtcly.

Modulating anode
ci.___~ Control anode
If it is axiaJ output coupling, the spent bcJin ,;
collected on the unifonn outpu1 waveguide section.

If gyrotron wiU1 1he radial ou1pu1 is used 1hcn RF

(1DS2)Flg.4.l l.3: Schematic diagram or MIG or gyrotron window is perpendicular 10 the gyrorron iui~ for Rf
OUlpUI.
2. Magnets or main solenoid
The magnc1ic field causes Ute electron beam 10 begin 10
The external magnetic field is produced by a
gyrate as the L-0ren12 force involves lhc cro product
superconducting magnet.
of elecLric and magnetic lields. Due 10 rapidly
It is located at the center of the cavity causes the
increasing magnetic field, rhe electron beam is also
electrons to gyrate.
compressed.
3. Cavity
This electron beam interacts with RF signal and
The gyrotron in1erac1ion cavity is typically a three- transfers n par1 of ils energy to Rf- wave.
section smooth walled open ended cylindrical structure, The quality of electron beam is decided by 1wo
wiU1 tapers of various sizes and lengths on both sides of paramclers.
the middle section.
I. Tnmsversc-to-a.'(inl veloci1y ra1io of electron beam
The gyrating electron beam travels 10 1he in1crac1ion
region. 2. The transverse velocity spread.

In the interaction region, due 10 beam-wave interaction, Keeping this aspect in10 consideration, cathode used in
a fraction of electron beam power is con\'erted inio RF the electron gun is opcra1cd in the temperature-limi1~
power. region rather than in the space-charge limi1cd region to

The magnetic field in the in1erac1ion region is tuned in minimize the velocity pread in the electron bcanL
such a way that the cyclotron frequency or one of its 5. Oulput Extraction
harmonics is close 10 the frequency of RF field.
h must be fabricated from a low lo s m:ucri:11.
The electron beam in1erac1s with RF field and transfers
it~ transverse energy 10 the RF wave. Due to 1he high power, the lhcnnal mtinagenk!nt OI Ull:
output window becomes significan1 aspect.
This 1r.insverse energy is very small in lhe gun region.
Thus a strong mngnctic field is required to conven 1he
axial beam speed acqui red from 1he accclcra1i11g
polcntial into the trnnsvcrsc speed of lhe bcn111.

Tec/1-Neo PuLliCJ1tioru........,_IPhcn: ,luthors in.rpirn ir11101.ttio11

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[i1 t,4(c(Owave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 4·51 Mlcrowovo TubOo

tP Case II : In the prc.<lCncc or 1r11n11vcrHC electric field <E)

1.2 Bunching Process
• . 1. 1• • J (orcc a1unl to
The electrons experience nn auu1t1ona
Annular electron bunchln~ eE. It causes few electrons to accelerate nnd orhers lO
l, , ha.se of the
decelerate depending on the re Ia11 vc P
consider a small group of electrons orbiting about the
electric field.
same guiding centre. Refer Fig. 4.1 l.4 (a) and (b).
Due 10 this process. bunching of the electrons occur. It
is as shown in Fig. 4.11.S(b) (cross-sectional view) and
Fig.4.11.5 (b) (side view).

2. The phase bunching

Consider a single orbit case. Refer Fig. 4 · 11·6· H shows

front view of one orbit before electron bunching.

In Fig 4.11.6,
0 Electrons 2, 3, and 4 are decclemted
(a) Annular electron beam (b) annular electron beam Electrons 6, 7, and 8 are accelerated and
0
with electrons in the random with electrons bunched in
phase (rront view) 0 Electrons 1 and 5 arc undisturbed.
phasc (front view)

(1053JFlg.4.11.4

(a)
00000000 (bl
7 3

(11) Annulnr electron bcnm

w1U1 electron.,; In the rnmlom
(b) Annular electron berun
wltJ1 electrons bunched In
-
E
--
E

phase (sltlc view) phnsc (side view) 5

(1D54)Flg. 4.11.5 (1055)Fig. 4.11.6: Front view or one orbit before
electron bunching
Pig. 4.11.4 (u) und 4.11.5 (a) show a cross-section of
the electron beam and side view of the electron beam. Cyclotron frequency is inversely proportional to
The situation shown in figure occurs at the beginning relativistic mass factor. Hence the frequency will
of the interaction region respectively. decrease for accelerated electrons and increase for
llcrc, in Pig. 4.11.4 (u) uml (b), decelerated electrons.

r :::: eleclron beum radius The electrons that gained energy lag in phase. The
r1= lnrmor mdius of electron beam electrons tJ1at loose energy advance in phase. It res ults
in phase bunching after few cycles.
P.0 c 111.i111uthnl component of electric field.
If the electric-field frequency is exactly equal to the
t:11110 I I In Ahscnco of 1111y electric Ocld electron cyclotron frequency, this bunching process
Tho clcclmns In this beam let will revolve nround the will cominucs. It progresses till the entire beam let is
guiding center with an 11ng11lnr frequency given by n•. bunched at a zero field phase point.

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 Micr~wave Semiconductor Devices

Syllabus

Diodes: Varactor, PIN, Tunnel, Point Contact, Schottky Barrier, Gunn, IMPATT, TRAPATT and
BARITT.
Transistors : BJT, Hetro junction BJT, MESFET and HEMT, Parametric Amplifiers and Applications ·

13
S.f Introduction (RF Diodes) ............................................ 5-3 5.5.1 Point Contact Diode as Mixer ......................................... 5-
5 3
LO, 5.1.1 What Is RF Diode? .................................................... 5-3 LQ. 5.5.2 Explain point contact diode as ~lxer........................ • 1
LO, 5.1.2 What are different types of diodes used frequently 5.6 Schottky Contact ............................................................ 5- 14
In RF and microwave appllcatJons............................. 5.3 LQ. 5.6.1 What Is Schottky Diode ? ......................................... 5·14
5.1.1 Diode Structure ................................................................ 5-3 5.6.1 Hetero Junction............................................................... 5-1 4
LO. 5.1.3 Draw schematic diagram of P-N junction 5.6.2 Equivalent Circuit of a Schottky Diode ........................... 5-14
structure & explain Its formaUon................................ 5-3 LO. 5.6.2 Explain equivalent circuit of a Schottky diode.......... 5-14
5.1.2 Applications of RF Diodes ................................................ 5-3 5.6.3 Energy Level Diagram .................................................... 5-15
LO. 5.1.4 Give applications of RF diode.................................... 5-3 5.6.4 Construction of Schottky Diode ...................................... 5-16
5.2 Varactor Diode ................................................................. 5-4 LO. 5.6.3 Explain construction of Schottky diode.................... 5-16
LO. 5.2.1 Explaln varactor diode............................................... 5-4 5.6.5 Difference between P-N Junction and Schottky
5.2.1 Construction and Behavior of Varactor Diode .................. 5-4 Contact ............................. ,............................................. 5-16
5.2.2 Application of Varactor Diode ........................................... 5-5 LO. 5.6.4 Differentiate between P-N junction and
LQ. 5.2.2 Give applications of varactor diode............................ 5-5 Schottky contact. .............................:........................ 5-16
5.3 PIN Diodes .............................................................., ........ 5-6 5.7 Gunn Diodes ............................................................ 5-17
LQ. 5.3.1 Write short note on PIN diode.................................... 5-6 UO. 5.7.1 Write a short note on : Gunn diode
5.3.1 Equivalent Circuit ............................................................. 5-8 MU - Ma 18, Dec. 18, 5/7 Marks ......................... 5-17
5.3.2 Applications of PIN Diode ................................................ 5-8 LO. 5.7.2 What Is Gunn Diode? .............................................. 5-17
LO. 5.3.2 Give the applications of PIN diode............................. 5-8 5.7.1 Gunn Effect or Bulk Effect........................................ 5-17
5.4 Microwave Tunnel Diodes .............................................. 5-10 5.7.2 Energy Band Diagram for GaAs............................... 5-17
LQ. 5.4.1 What Is Tunnel Diode? ........................................... 5-10 5.7.3 Manufacturing........................................................... 5-18
5.4.1 Diode Theory .................................................................. 5-10 5.7.4 Criteria for Negative Resistance .............................. 5-18
5.4.2 Difference between Ordinary and Tunnel Diode ............ 5-10 5.7.5 Current versus Reid Characteristic .......................... 5-18
LQ. 5.4.2 What Is difference between ordinary and LQ. 5.7.3 Explain current versus field characteristic of
tunnel diode? .......................................................... 5-10 Gunn diode ............................................................... s-1·a
5.4.3 V-1 Characteristics.................................................... 5-10 5.7.6 Domain Formation .................................................... 5-20
5.4.4 Negative Resistance ................................................ 5-11 5.7.7 Modes of Operation .................................................. 5•21
5.4.5 Working Principle ..................................................... 5-11 UQ. 5.7.4 State various modes of Gunn diode and
LO. 5.4.3 Explain working principle of tunnel diode ................. 5-11 explain any one of them in detail. MU • Ma 16.
5.5 Point Contact Diode ................................................. 5-13 Dec. 16. Ma 17, Dec. 17, 10 Marks ..................... 5-21
12
LO. 5.5.1 Write short note on Point Contact Diode................. 5-13 5.7.7(A) Stable Amplification Mode (n0 / < 10 / cmi .......... 5.2 1

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 Microwave Semiconductor~
Microwave Englneerin (MU - Sam. 7- E&TC) 5-2
5.7.7(6) Different Modes of Operation .................... .
Gunn Oscillatlon Modes 5.11.3(C) .............. s.33
(l ,a 2 14 2 (D) Blasing of a Transistor ...............................
O fem S(llo~S 10 /cm ) ............................... 5-21 5.11 .3 ..............5-3a
5 ·7 ·7 (C) TransIt Tlme Doi:naln Mode (fl= 101 cm/s) ............ 5-22 5.11.4 Frequency Response ..................................................... S.34
5.7.7(0) Delayed Domain Mode FET .....................................................................
5.12 . ........... s.34
(10•cm/s <fl< 101 cm/s) ......................................... 5-22 ua. 5•12•1 Write 8 short note on microwave FET.
5 .7.7(E)
Quenched Domain Mode (IL> 2 x 107 cmts) .......... 5-23 MU. Ma 16. 10 Marks ........................ s.34
5.7.7(F) Limited Space Charge Accumulation (LSA) Mode
. .1 Introduction of FET ......................................... ................ 5-34
7 512
(fl> 2 X 10 emfs)..................................................... 5·23 Difference between BJT and FET ................. .. ............... s.35
5 .8 5.12.2
IMPATT Diode ................................................................ 5-23
LO. s.12.2 Differentiate between BJT and FET. ........................ s.3s
5 8
UQ. · ·1 Explain working of IMPATT.
5.12.3 Family of FET ................................................................. 5-
MU • Dec. 16. 5 Marks .......................................... 5·23 35
5.8.1 What Is IMPATT Diode? ................................................ 5-23 5. 12.4 Important Types of FETs ................................................ S.3&
LO. 5.12.3 Explain types of FETs. ............................................. s.3g
5.8.2 Doping Profiles ............................................................... 5-24
5.12.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of FET ......................... S.l7
5.8.3 Principle of Operation ..................................................... 5-24
LO. 5.12.4 Give advantages and disadvantages of FET. .......... s.37
5.9 TRAPATT Diode ............................................................. 5-25
5.12.6 Construction of FET ........................................................ s.37
UQ. 5.9.1 Explain the construction and working
5.12.7 Microwave Range Operation .......................................... S.3&
of TRAPATT diode. MU· Ma 16. 10 Marks ........ 5-25
UQ. 5.9.2 Explain working of TRAPATT. 5.12.8 V-1 Characteristics (Functlonality) ...................................s.38

MU· Ma 18. Dec. 18. 10/5 Marks ....................... 5-25 5.12.9 Frequency Response ..................................................... 5-39

5.9 .1 Construction of TRAPATT Diode ................................... 5-26 5.13 HEMT .............................................................................. 5-4()

5.9.2 Operation of TRAPATT Diode ........................................ 5-26 ua. 5.13.1 Write short note on High Electron Mobility

5.9.3 Explanation of Waveform ............................................... 5-26 Transistors. MU - Dec. 18. 5 Marks ··············•........ S-40
5.9.4 Specifications of TRAPATT Diode ................................. 5-27 5.13.1 Introduction of HEMT ...................................................... 5-4()

5.9.5 Applications of TRAPATT Diode .................................... 5-27 5.13.2 Construction and Operation of HEMT ............................ 5-4()

5.10 BARITT Diodes .............................................................. 5-27 5.13.3 Functlonality.................................................................... 5-41

UO. 5.10.1 Explain working of BARITT. 5.13.4 Frequency Response ..................................................... 5-42

MU • Dec. 17. 5 Marks .......................................... 5-27 5.13.5 Difference between HEMT and MESFET ....................... 5-42
5.10.1 Construction of BARITT Diodes ..................................... 5-27 LQ. 5.13.2 Explain difference between HEMT and MESFET.... 5-42
5.10.2 Operation of BARITT Diodes ......................................... 5-28 5.14 Parametric Amplifiers and Applications .......................... 5-42
5.10.3 Application of BARITT Diodes........................................ 5-29 UQ. 5.14.1 Explain the working of a parametric amplifier and
5.10.4 Comparison of IMPATT, TRAPATT and BARITT explain Its application. MU• Ma 16. 10 Marks .... 5-42

Diodes ............................................................................ 5-29 UQ. 5.14.2 Explain the operation of basic parametric device.

LQ. 5.10.2 Compare between IMPATT, TRAPATT Is It phase dependent. What are the relationshlps

and BARITT diodes.................................................. 5-29 of the signal, pump and Idler frequencies

5.11 8JT ................................................................................. 5-30 for a parametric amplifier with an idler circuit

LQ. 5.11.1 Write a short note on microwave BJT...................... 5-30 operates as a degenerate amplifier.
5.11 .1 Introduction of 8JT ......................................................... 5.30 MU· Ma 17. 10 Marks .................................. ~
5.11 .2 Construction of 8JT ........................................................ 5·30 5.14.1 Parametric Up Converter ................................................ 5-43
LO. 5.11.2 Explaln types of constructions of BJT...................... 5-30 5.14.2 Parametric Down Converter ........................................... 5-44
5.11 .2(A) Point Contact Transistor .......................................... 5-30 5.14.3 Negative Resistance Parametric Amplifler ..................... 5-44
5.11.2(8) Junction Transistor................................................... 5·30 UQ. 5.14.3 Explaln the working of a negative resistance
5.11 .2{C) lnterdlgital Transistor ............................................... 5·31 parametric amplifier. .. .... 5-4-4
5.11 .3 Functionality ................................................................... 5-32 5.14.4 Degenerate Parametric Amplifier ................................... 5-45

5.11 .3(A) Types of BJTs .......................................................... 5·32 5.15 University Questions and Answers ................................. 5-46

5.11.3(8) Currents In the BJT .................................................. 5·32 Chapter Enda.. •••••••••••••••••••••••u••••••••..••••••••••..•••••••••••••--••............ 5-46

--:-:--=-::::--:----;;;;~:::;:====--------------~---
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 ~ ,-4;cro"'"' •-

Introduction (RF Diodes) The diode is fonned as discussed below :

In P-N junctions, an N-l~yer is deposited by epitaXial

~ Whal is RF Diode? ] growth over a N+ silicon substrate.

W}!en roost people think of a diode, they think of a Superscript + indicat~s the intense doping.
.,. sJJlall, two-element device that is used to rectify an ac Acceptor impurities (P+ region) are then diffused over
signal in order to get a de voltage at the output of a
the surface obtaining p+ N junction.
pc,wer supply.
Metal contacts are then deposited at the two device
for many low-frequency applications, that is still true.
ends, over the p+ layer and below the ~ layer.
If you look at what diodes are available for audio and
digital applications, you will see that these diodes are All these details are shown in Fig. 5.1.1.
designated as rectifiers that pass current in one. m~~ Ohmlo contact

direction but not in the opposite direction. ~ - - - ~ Depletion

When you get into the RF and microwave spectrum,

♦ ' '
however, the situation changes drastically and the N Substrate
diode does much more than simply rectify an ac signal. Ohmlo oontact

_ This section shows that a simple two-element diode can (1E1)Fig. 5.1.1 : Schematic diagram of P•N junctJon structure
amplify, oscillate, mix, detect, attenuate, and switch a
high-frequency signal if used in the appropriate circuit. I~
1
5.1.2 Appllcatlons of RF Diodes f
That may be hard to visualize if you are geared to low-
frequency applications, but by taking advantage of I LQ. 5.1.4 Give applications of RF diode.
modem solid state technology, such devices do exist
and are being used. Appllcatlons tor RF diodes

LO. 5.1.2 What are different types of diodes used

1. PIN diodes
frequently in RF and microwave applications.
2. Schottky diodes
- There are five types of diodes used frequently in RF
and microwave applications : 3. Varicap diodes (or Varactors)

1. Schottky (which mix or detect)

(1E2)Fig. 5.1.2 : Applications for RF Diodes
2. PIN (which attenuate or switch)
► 1. PIN dJodes
3. Tunnel (which amplify or oscillate)
PIN diodes can be found in RF switches, attenuators,
4. Gunn (which also oscillate), and
photo detectors and photovoltaic cells including
5. Varactor diode (variable capacitor) microwave switches, microwave variable attenuators

I 'B.. 5.1.1 Diode Structure I and limiters.

Band switching diodes can be found in surface mou~t
band-switching ·circuits and mobile and TV
LO. 5.1.3 Draw schematic diagram of P-N junction
applications including television tuners.
structure & explain its fonnation.

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 biased, ulmost any semiconductor d'
When reverse IOdt
► 2. Schottky dlodl's , . capacitance which varies with an..i·
has u JUnCIIOO ry11t4
Schouky diodes nrc often used in high frequency reverse bias voltage.
npplicntions, nnd specifically for the gain control stages
·octc is rnanufactured so ns to have suit~~'-
in the RF pnr1 of a cell phone. lf such a d1 -~
. haracteristics, it is usually Called
microwave c ~
They can also be found in power rectifiers and solar
cell applications. varactor Diode.
To have · ce
capac1tan variations at mi,__
.. _,V'N~1e
► 3. Varicap diodes (or Varactors)
•
frequencies, basic rectifier diode is modified b:'f
Varicap diodes are often used as voltage-<:ontrolled
• two stntctures shown in Figs. 5.2.l(a) ._
following •.,,.
capacitors. They are found in parametric amplifiers and
(b) which are (I) Abrupt varactor (2) HyPC~
oscillators and voltage-controlled oscillators as part of
PLLs and frequency synthesizers. varactor.
V aractors are found in TV tuners in order to Mainly to constntct varactor diode, GaAs is prcfCTTtd
electronically tune the receiver to different stations. because it has advantage such as higher maximuin
operating frequency and better functioning at lowest
11 ~ 5.2 Varactor Diode II temperature.
Both advantages are mainly due to higher mobility o(
I La. 5.2.1 Explain varactor diode. charge carries exhibited by GaAs.

The term varactor can be said as "Variable Reactor" When varactor diode is forward biased, it behaves as
which enlightens the property of it which results in normal rectifier diode.
variable capacitance of reverse biased junction.
Doping Doping
A varactor diode is a P-N junction diode that changes level P++1 - - - - - 1 N• level P..
N N
its capacitance and the series resistance as the bias
X(Depth from anode - X(Deplh lrom anode ➔
applied lo the diode is varied. terminal) terminal)
(a) Abrupt varactor (b) Jlypcrabrupt nnctor
The property of change in capacitance can be utilized
(1E3)1"ig. 5.2.1
to achieve a change in frequency or phase of an
When varactor diode is reverse biased, reverse cWTClll
electrical circuit.
flows.
~ 5.2.1 Construction and Behavior Reverse current remains constant, for small value oC
of Varactor Diode
applied reverse bias. Then it increases heavily abo,t
avalanche point.
Varactor diode is a P-N junction device specially
designed to give variable capacitance al microwave For varactor application, the region of interest lie$
frequency when it is reverse biased. between reverse sacurntion point, which ghu
maximum junction capacitance and point just aro,t
avalanche at which minimum diode capacitall(."C ~
obtained.

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 ;;,.,--
~~ ---•-=-:~::....:.;.___..,;;~'----

"1 .j;,.ro"'ave Engineering_(MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC)

~ IV'"' ..
. ,,, 5
.r
ct oev1ces
Microwave Semfcoociu or -=
~ V-I characteristic and variation of capacitance with
ed reverse bias voltage is as shown •
~PPli m
figs. 5.2.2(a) and (b) respectively. F.quivalent circuit of
varactor diode when reverse bias is as shown in

fig. 5.2.3,

Forward
current (m}Fig. 5.2.3 : Equivalent circuit ofvarador when reverse
biased

At this point of discussion we can conclude tbat

Saturated reverse depending on frequency, by varying applied reverse
current
bias only, capacitance of varactor diode can be varied.
Avalanche
current The main electrical parameters of varactor diode are :
-I
(1) Reverse breakdown voltage and reverse saturation
(1E4) (a) V-1 characteristic
current.
(2) Capacitance value and capacitance voltage change
Forward
current behaviour.
(3) Quality factor of figure of merit.

The quality factor, also known as figure of merit and is

an important parameter for a varactor diode since it
determines the frequency limit applicability for the
-V-------11-------++V
diode.

(b) Variation ofvaractor capacitance with applied bias voltage

(1E5)Flg. 5.2.2
I-a. 5.2.2 Application of Varactor Diode

As we already studied, when varactor is reverse biased, ILO. 5.2.2 Give applications of varactor diode.

it offers \'ariable capacitance whlch is given by

Appllcatlon of varactor diode
Equation (5.2.l).

.. . (5.2.l) (1) Varactor diode ·as frequency multiplier

(2) Varactor diode as FM modulator

(3) Varactor diode as PUMP SOURCE

C(O) = the capacitance with no reverse bias applied In parametric amplifier

n = ½for abrupt and is 1/3 for hyperabrupt junction (tE7)Fig. 5.2.3(A) : Application of varactor diode

VT = maximum reverse bias voltage

VR = applied reverse bias voltage

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.,liliiiii=:aM...,lc=row=n•v.,o.Enslg~ln;;o,;;ot~ln;J9,.(N;4U~-S~o~m~-~7==
11111
~~~~
· ;;E&~T~C~)-=-~6;.;;·0;._.-i::aa.--=- - -M•lc•row_o_vo_${1111ro.lc1111100.id•uc-.to;_;r
► (1) Vl\n1ctor diode ns lrcc111cncy mulllpllcr ► (3) Vnrnclor cllodc u'I l'UMI' SOUJ<c;~ In 1'
pnrumclrlc nmpllncr
Frequency multiplicntion is the phenomenon which
results from nonlinear chnrnctcristics of either Pnrrunctric amplifier uses n device wh<>".c reilCL\nc,. ,
-tt
resistnnce or rcnctnnce. varied in such a manner that amplification mufh. -~
varnctor diodes ure used ll'i pump source in p:ua~r'
It is more efficient when impednnce is pure rcactance. t
amplifiers.
As we hnd already discussed, capacitance of varactor
diode varies with applied reverse bias, the diode acts as
u nonlineur capacitance. TI1is characteristic of varactor
diode is used to get frequency multiplication.
I a 5.3 PIN Diodes I
- The varactor diode is very useful device, especially '-I _La_._s_.3_.1_ _w_rt_1e_s_ho_rt_n_o_1e_o_n_P_IN_d_lod_e_._ _ J
since it will operate at frequencies much higher. A PIN diode is obtained by connecting a highly doJlCQ
► (2) Vnrnctor diode as FM modulator p• layer of semiconductor. n long intrinsic (I) layer ilnd
a highly doped ~ layer.
Carrier frequency is generated by crystaJ. As we had
Although, ideally, the I layer is intrinsic, in practice the
already discussed capacitance offered by vnrnctor
presence of impurities is unavoidable, making it
diode, changes according to applied reverse bias. This
slightly P or N doped.
change in capacitance contributes change in frequency
which is proportional to applied bias [which is nothing - The presence of a long intrinsic section increases the

but frequency modulation]. breakdown voltage of the device thus allowing high
reverse voltages. This is advantageous when handling
Fig. 5.2.4 shows very basic circuit diagram for FM
high input power.
modulator using varactor diode.
p'
Coll t -······----'---"-'
d
Cc Cc
HO f-<, FM
0Ulj)U1
Crystal

Coll Cc
l Ampllllor
Modulating (1E9)Fig. 5.3.1
Input A
VD
The intrinsic section is also responsible for an almost
constant value of reverse bins capacitance, which is
(1E8)Fig. 5.2.4 : FM modulator using varnctor diode also comparatively smaller than thnt for P-N junctions.

R1 and R2 develop a de voltage that reverse biases On tl1e other hand, the intrinsic semiconductor c!.,hibits
a variable resistance :L~a function of forward bias.
varnctor diode VD, and determines the rest frequency
of the oscillator. Many applications of tl1c PIN di<Xles stem directly from
this property, 'PINs' being often used as variabk
The external modulating signul voltage adds to and
resistances or vnrinhle nuenumor.;,
subtract from DC bins, which changes capacitance of
For u rclntively high value of forwanl bins, the
diode und thus frequency of oscillation. Thus f-M
resistance of the intrinsic section is 11oticc11hly n."<.luccd.
modulntion.

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 ~ M~wave En l.ne~rln (MU-Sem. 7. E&TC 5.7 M~ It "NIJVO-so,nlC()nduefOf --
- -

·t bing apphcauons, between reverse b'IIISCd (no

$WI C • • TI1c potential, V, ls obtalnCAJ by ln1cgro1lng 1tJc cJc.ctrlc
~nduction or high resistance) state and fo,wn
..... rd b'
·~~ field. A linear vnrlntlon h obtained In 1hc I ,cg.wn
_-,1 conduction or low resistance) state
(govu , nrc also (Fig . .S.3.2(c)), the potential Is parobollc between - "
p055ible, and O and between w, nnd w, + "•• lllld cbcwhcre ltie
,,.
w thermal equilibrium lhe p• and w
reg1ons
• .
w11J potential is constant.
"' ,espectively, diffuse holes and electrons into th~
intrinsic region, leaving ionised impurities. The energy band diagram is shown in fig. .S.3.2(d).

, In each of these two regions lhe space charge zone will The resulting po1cntial barrier is higher than in P-N
have a reduced extension, since both are highly dOped • junctions.
Since the intrinsic component is not d0 ped, Its .
er Reverse Blas
correspanding density of net, static, charge is equal to
Space charge zone is very narrow in lhe r• and N•
zero.
regions due 10 the high doping density, while the
_ 'fhe charge density profile, therefore, develops as
intrinsic section is entirely depleted. Thus, for any
shown in Fig. 5.3.1.
reverse bias it is possible to make the approximation
_ The electric field variation along the device, obtained
wd = w1 , the junction capacitance being gii en by:
1

by integrating Poisson's equation, is shown in

Fig. 5.3.2. EscS
CJ=~
As can be seen, the electric field, E, takes a constant
value along the intrinsic part of the device, due to its Unlike the case of a P-N junction, the above
zero static charge density. capacitance is almost independent of lhe bias voltage
p
and, due to the large widlh of the intrinsic region
w1 • has a small value. This gives impedance, useful for
switching applications.
The avalanche breakdown voltage, Vi,, is given by:

where Ee is the critical field strength.

Due to the large w, , the breakdown voltage is high, so
V
the PIN diode can utilise high reverse bias voltages.
♦
er Forward Blas

The resistance, RI, of the intrinsic zone is :

2
w,
2µtl,

The intrinsic resistance, R., is therefore inversely

proportional to the forwnnl bias current, 1,, und it is this
relationship which enables the diode to be used 115 a
(1E10)Fig. 5.3.2
variable resistor.

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 ~ Microwave Engineering (MU. Sem. 7 - E&TC) 5-8
Microwave Semiconductor De~

Since the intrinsic zone is not doped, its conductivity is

notably smaller than that of the p• and N• regions
resulting in a capacitance, C1,

where w41 is the extension of the depleted zone in the I

region.

For reverse bias wd1 = w1 and the capacitance C1 tends

to infinity - its effect therefore disappearing in the
context of overall device performance.
In forward bias, the I region stores a charge Q
composed of charge carriers. (1E11)fig. 5.3.3

If the diode state is abruptly switched to reverse bias, a

The diode equivalent circuit is then reduced to the
non-zero time, t ,, is required to purge the I region of
these charges. This is the diode switching time which intrinsic component of the model, i.e. the Variable
will be higher for longer lifetime, t and larger intrinsic resistor R1 and the parallel capacitor C1.
region width, w1• The value of R1 decreases rapidly with increasing
When switching from reverse to forward bias, the time forward bias, so for relatively high bias voltages, the
needed for carrier injection is notably smaller. equivalent circuit reduces to a small resistor. This is

Ia 5.3.1 Equivalent Circuit I well suited to switching applications, the high.

impedance state being provided by reverse bias.
The equivalent circuit for a PIN diode is, principally,
composed of two parallel circuits in series
1 a. 5.3.2 Applications of PIN Diode

I' combination, one circuit accounting for the two P-N

junctions and the other for intrinsic section. I LO. 5.3.2 Give the applications of PIN diode. ]
In reverse bias, the part of the equivalent circuit
Applications of PIN diode
representing the junctions is reduced to. the junction
capacitance, Ci, alone.
1. PIN diode as a switch
Here the diffusion capacitance, Cd, vanishes for
2. PIN diode as an Amplitude Modulator
negative bias and the current source supplies negligible
current. 3. PIN diode as a phase shifter

The equivalent circuit representing the intrinsic section 4. PIN diode as a limiter
also disappears since, the capacitance C1 tends to
infinity and short-circuits the resistance R1• (1E12)Fig. S.3.3(A) : Applications or Pm Diode
In forward bias, the diffusion capacitance short-circuits
the non-linear current source.

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 ~ t-.4ie(Owave Engineering (MU. Sem. 7 • E&TC)
5.9
1. PIN diode as a switch it ~.-owave Semiconductor Devices

hence the amount of carrier passed beyond diode

It can be used either in series or in shu h
- n1· 1n t e first circuit towards the output varies as the input value of
case when the diode is reverse biased rw· i h . , modulating digital.
' ., I C IS off or
open and when it is forward biased it 1,5 d
- c1osc . The
bias is changed by a suitable con1ro1system as shown
in Fig. 5.3A. Pin diode
Carrfor AM
Input output
Blas
control '\. Low frequency
modulating
signal
L
1/P 0
A
(tf15}Flg. 5.3.6
D
► 3. PIN diode ~ a phase sbi/ler

The Circular coupled phase shifter is shown in

(1mJFig. 5.J.4
Fig. 5.3.7. Here S represents a PIN diode switch.
- In the second case when the diode is forward bin..~d. it
The input signJ.! tra\'els a distance equal 10 L or L + I
offers a short circuit. Hence energy is fully reflected
depending on whether S is closed or open respectively.
back and no power flows to the load. Hence switch is
Therefore between the 1wo conditions we have a phase
open.
shift of 2 8 (the signal has to travel to permanent short
- If reverse biased the diode is open. Hence the load and return). By adjusting I phase shift can be adjusted.
receives the power i.e. switch is closed as shown in It finds applications in phased array radars.
Fig. 5.3.5.

Circulator
L
0
1/P A
D

(1E14)Fig. 5.3.5
(1E16)Fig. 5.3.7
► 2. PlN diode as an Amplitude Modulator
► 4. PIN diode as a limiter
The diode is kept at low reverse bias and in series with
The inpu1 power (Pu,} \'IS output (Pout) power load is
the low frequency modulating signal.
shown for a PIN diode.
The modulating signal amplitude is kept smaller than
We see that when the input power is moderate, output
the RF carrier signal.
follows input power and for larger Input the diode
- The modulating signal changes the RF resistance of absorbs power and outpul will be limited i.e. will not
diode so that varying amount of mismatch results. very much with the input power.
Hence the amount of carrier power reflected back and
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 Ji] Microwave Eng1neertng (MU - Sam. 7 - E&TC) 5-10
Microwave Semiconductor Devi~
¾
into which particles penetrate through at the same
energy level.
This is the tunnelling phenomenon which is re~ponsiblc
for the behavior of the diode over the region of interest,

10 a s.4.2 Difference between

Ordinary and Tunnel Diode
10 20 30 4o Pin(dB)

42
LO. 5.. What Is difference between ordinary and
(1E17)Flg. 5.3.8
tunnel diode ?

'a..5.4 Microwave Tunnel Diodes The tunnel diode is a semiconductor P-N junction

diode.
I La. s.4.1 What is Tunnel Diode ? It differs from the usual rectifier-type diodes in that the

The tunnel diode is a negntive-resistnnce semiconductor materials · are very heavily doped,
scmicondu~tor P-N junction diode. perhaps as much as I000 times more than in ordinary

The negative resistance is created by the tunnel effect diodes. This heavy doping results in a junction which
of electrons in the P-N junction. has a depiction layer that (with a typical thickness of

The doping of both the p and n regions of the tunnel 0.01 µm) is so thin as to prevent tunnelling to occur.
diode is very high impurity concentrations of 1019 10 In addition, the thinness of the junction allows
20 )
10 atoms/cm· arc used and the depletion-layer barrier microwave operation of the diode because it consider-
at the junction is very thin.
ably shortens the time taken by the carriers to cross the

a 5.4.1 Diode Theory junction.

The V-1 characteristics of both the diodes differ as

In case of P-N diode, unless energy is imparted to shown in Fig. 5.4.1.
electrons from some external source, the energy
The ordinary diode characteristic is shown dotted while
possessed by the elecrrons on the n side of the junction
is insufficient to permit them to climb over the junction that of Tunnel is shown by continuous line.
barrier to reach the p side.
Quantum mechanics shows that there is a small but
I '5. 5.4.3 V-1 Characteristics j
finite probability that an electron which has insufficient
A current-voltage characteristic for a typical
energy to climb the barrier can, nevertheless, find itself
germanium tunnel diode is shown in Fig. 5.4. I.
on the other side of it if this barrier is thin enough,
without any loss of energy on the part of the electron. rt is seen that at first forward current rises sharply as

In addition to the barrier thinness, there must also be voltage is applied, where it would have risen slowly for
filled energy states on the side from which particles an ordinary diode (whose characteristic is shown
will tunnel and allowed empty states on the other side dotted).

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 (MU. Sem. 7. E&TC)
S-11
A}so, reverse current is much tar Microwave Semiconductor Devices
ger for com
back bias than in other diodes d I>arable Second since this negative resistance occurs when both
• ue to the thin
the junction. ncss of the applied voltage and the resulting current are low,

the tunnel diode is a relatively low-power device.

2 mA ---- A I
I A quick calculation shows that in order to stay within
the negative-resistance region, the voltage current
variation must be restricted to
0.2 mA B
~-;-,,:-:-:::-:-::-===-:--:-,~~~~~~~~~~'.:..~v Voltage variation = 300- 50 =250 mV (peak-to-peak)
, 50mV
I
= 88.4 mV (nns)
: Ordinary
: diode Current variation = 2 - 0.2 = I.8 mA (peak-to-peak)
I F'tgures Shown
I
I
tor germanium
I = 0.63 mA (nns)
I -l
Power = 88.4 x 0.635 =56 µW
(1£1f)Flg. 5.4.1 : V• I charactrristk or tunnrl diode

. . begins
The interesting portion of the ch:un ctenst1c . at
I'a. 5.4.5 Working Principle I
the point A on the curve of Fi1ro · 5.-..
• 1. Th'1s .IS the LO. 5.4.3 Explain working principle of tunnel diode.
voltage peak.
In ordinary diodes the Fermi level exists in the
As the forwrutl bins is increased past thi point, the
forbidden band. Since the tunnel diode is heavily
forward current drop and continues to drop until point
B is rcached; thi i the valley voltage. doped. the Fermi level exists in the valence band in
p-1ype and in the conduction band in n-type
At B the current Sl3.Cl.S to increase once again ~nd does
semiconduc1ors.
so very rapidly as bins is incrc::tSCd funher. From this
point the ch:tr.1cteri tic resembles that of an ordinary
. - - - - Open----
diode. Vo
Apart from the voltage peak and valley, the other two
parameters nonnally u ed to specify the diode behavior
are the peak current and the peak-to-valley current
p N
rJtio, which here are 2 mA and 10, respectively. as
shown.
Ec--Fo_:_i_~~-e-n-..._ {-----.:;;=,;,~---- }-
---=---- --, Vo
, ~ 5.4.4 Negative Resistance ,..,..,..,,.,..,...,,.,..,...,..:,.....,,.,..,...,~..J. EF
Ee
The diode voltage-current characteristic illustrates two
imponant properties of the 1unnel diode.
First it shows that the diode exhibits dynamic negative Distance
resistance between A and B and is therefore useful for
(1E19)Fig. S.4.2 : With no bias
oscillator (and amplifier) applications.

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 ·· - -"lC'"'"'""'\L\MV • ~om, r • t:&lvJ -~·~
Under open-circuit conditions or 111 :r.cro-biu~ Eo
I'
N
------------------ "'
F.D. Cg
c-quilibrium, tho upper levels of electron energy of hoth
Ev e,
the P typo und n typo nro lined up ut tho snmc fcrml Tunnollno
e,, Eo
level IL'\ shown in rig. 5.4.2.

When tho tunnel diode is forwnrd-binsed by u vollngc Volonc

between 1.cro nnd tho vnluc 1h111 would produce pcuk

tunnelling cu1TCnl 111 (0 < V < V 1,), the energy diagram
~ V•Vp

is shown in Fig. 5.4.3. I lcrc, the polcntinl barrier is (1f21)Fli:, 5.4.4(11)

decreased by the magnitude of the npplicd forward-bias p N
Eo
voltage.
~
A difference in fenni levels in hoth sides is created. E,
Ee
EF
Since there arc filled stutes in the conduction band of
the n type at tho same energy level ns allowed empty
stntcs in the valence band of the p type, the electrons
tunnel through the barrier from the n type 10 the p type,
Vp <V<Vv
giving rise ton fmward tunnelling current. (1E22)1•'1g. 5.4.4(b)

V Jf 1he bias voltage is further increased, the condition

shown in Fig. 5.4.4(b) is reached.
The tunnelling current decreases as shown in Fig. 5.4.1.

F.B.
Ev _ _ _ __._....._.
EF,...,,..,,.,,.,..,-rr,.,..,-;'77"."7.n

(1E23)Fig. 5.4.S

Finally, at a very large bias voltage, the band structure

(1E20)Fig. 5.4.3
in Fig. 5.4.5 is obtained.
As the forward bias is increased 10 VP' the picture of Since there arc now no allowed empty states in the P
the energy band is as shown in Fig. 5.4.4(a). type at the same energy level as filled states in the 0
. d
A maximum number of electrons can tunnel through type, no electrons can tunnel through the barrier an

:I the barrier from the filled states in the n type to the

empty states in the p type, giving rise to the peak
the tunnelling current drops to zero as shown in
Fig. 5.4.1.
I. I current Ip in Fig. 5.4.1.

--------:::;--;-:-;~~-;:::;.::;;;;,-;--------------=.-·~.,4is.sA:«C.1J'HJ.1A'NiSHAH~iurere11;;;;
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the forward-bias voltage V is increased above This is connected to top brass contact which is cath~e
,, ~evtlaJleY
., voltage Vv• the ordinary inJ' cction current at of point contact diode. Th'1s type at the construction
tb n junction· starts to fl ow. Th'is mJcction
· · current is
h rore they are
increases speed of operation and t ere,,
tbC p- .all .h
·ocreased exp0nenti Y wit lhe forward voltage as used at microwave frequencies.
~(iicated by the curve from point B of Fig. 5.4.1. Such diodes can be fitted into co-axial or waveguide
. b h above frequency of
jhe total current, given Y t e sum of the tunnelling mount and arc available at and
" ,urrent and the injection current, results in the volt- 100 GHz.
aJllpere characteristic of the tunnel diode as shown in
fig. 5.4.1.
a 5.5.1 Point Contact Diode as Mixer

'fhe ratio of peak current to valley current (IP/ Iv) can

LQ. 5.5.2 Explain point contact diode as mixer.
theoretically reach 50 to 100. In practice, how-ever,
· ntact diode is
this ratio is about 15. The very famous application of point co
ountcd across
diode as Mixer. This diode cannot be m
- ~ 5.5 Point Contact Diode the end of waveguide or located 10
.
• the top of the
h f the diode with
waveguide. This is due to m1smatc o
•

waveguide.
Write short note on Point Contact Diode. . th · t contact diode is
The overcome this problem, e porn
_ Point contact diode mainly used as mixer and detectors • kn "Diode Mount"
mounted in special device own as
at microwave frequencies. which is shown in Fig. 5.5.2.
~ocoutput
_ As the name suggests in basic construction of diode to
contacts are done on point basis. Waveguide

- The construction of a typical point contact diode is as

shown in Fig. 5.5.1. It consists of brass base on which
small pellet of semiconductor material.

Ceramic envelope
"""><111---1--- Gold plated tungsten wire
tr=~-+-- Silicon pellet (1E25)Fig. S.S.2 : Diode mount

Metal contact anode

The requirement for diode mount is it must provide a
complete DC path without unduly upsetting the RF

(1E24)Fig. S.S.l : Diode construction fields in waveguide.

A fine gold plated tungsten wire with a very small It means diode mount must not constitute a mismatch
diameter and sharp point makes contact with the which causes high SWR.
polished top of the semiconductor pellet and is pressed
down on it slightly for spring contact.

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[ ~ 5.0 Scholllcy Conl•c1: )

JIU ,,t, ·r l
[to. t\ 1.1
--------- - - Wh~ I\ ,<1/v ._ ]
(I)
It
1U 1r.,
f
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•I
,m
lll(" ~ lw'lltl., J,,,.k h.11, 1 dl ffnr r,1 l)f,r r,( ccnurvcu,..,,
5.6.2 Equlvilctnt Ct,cuft of
f rnm ... hat U\.Ullf ) I\ CIIC• IOn!<lrrl "' llh ('(~ \ CttJf,(W Schottky Olodo

-
8
.,,,,\(-,
LO. 5..6.2 E,~ o-r7;,, .,;,,r t CJt""..V r • ~J'r,t",,,
I1.1. ,1 '< rruc"l IOdoo nr rruz tcruh arc - J.r>r -..11.h dl0dO
1mpun11~, 111 11u l .c one uic pmrw,1y p(l\1UH' (r) and
the o lllC1 \Ide OCC:lll"c (N )

lnc 1&a o f 1mpun11c, :ind doptng i, , cry 1mporu.n1 to

the opc,:i11on of the l'N wucturc.
TI\C Sc:hnu l. y JUnctJOO. on the ooicr lund. COMiM.S of a
..c:m1oooduc tor (u\u:i.lly N-typc) and :i met.al that comes
1n contact 1.1.11h the -.cm1conduct0r.

Tiic: Scho11~y diode 1\ the w )f",C of the RF :ind f10'1)t ii, 5.6.l: u 1uln.knt <irnrll r,I ■ Sch,,nk' dir-..ds
m1cn11.1.:ivc dmdc i:ommun11y It " :i gcncr:iJ-purpo<,c
Fig 5 61 ~ \I, \ t!IC cqu1Hlcnt Cl!C\llt ,,! .t c;..:.x,:'J.)
diode th:it u,u:illy i\ u-.cd for mucr :ind dctoctor
dio.k ll.Ild 1l1e p.1n.rnctc-l" lhJ.! tf'..iic up t!c re-:.
••rrlicJIIOO\ JI Lho-.c hwhcr frcqucnc1C\
Tilc..c pu.lmetcrs art the "-Ctle\ 1nduc.1..111Cc, ~x >C"ICl

~ 5.6.1 Hctero Junction I re, i \Uncc . the Junct ,on c 3pJC •~c. IUlll
called the o,crlay c.1p.JC1W1CC.
II pY.t:x::t

When 114 o mJtcn:1h v. llh di1) c,cnt b.ind ~tructurt: art 1l>c \en" 1nducuncc, L, 1, tt.c 1nJJCt..!Xc (){ e.c
JCllncJ to~cthcr. Lhc ,c~ultmJ,! JUOClltlfl I\ J.lkd iu bondmg 1.1. 1rc\ th.u go from lt.c a.du.ti t!lC.Jc cL;, t.:> a
hctcro JUlldlllll connccuvn, to the IJUt\ldc: V.(J(ld n u, p.::~.:t :..:1

T1.1. o !)pc~ o f conwd\ : t)r1c-1l , ..due, (;( (J -t LI fl., nit n,I\ ,cry u::...a.!.l , ......:
14Cll c.vmrollcJ dunnl the mJ.nul.JCtL..rl."1 pn ~n., ~
( 1/ Sc1111-cooJuctor-~miconJuetOf ( P-~ Junctiut1)
u~I) I) COn.\1\1.Cn t from UCII lO urul
( 11) M d.il •)C m1condu...t0f' (S ho!tl y cont.rt)
nie -.tnn rtHU-1n..C In Uc ~t. ◄ Ll~ .L...\.k Ll De t.'Cl.

ft"\tu...n...c 1n the JJ .Jc. ,n.. b J.n ~ t:..u ...t ei:

'>CmKooJ.A.U,f' JJlJ tl,c "'' lf;a'C 1"1 ... .... h l."'lc .!.. ~ .\
rnc-.ntctl l )p,\,.J , .Jue, l uf uu, p.ir-1.:r-.:-trr , ~ ..:-:: ~ '

111) p•n junct h,n d ludc Cb) Sc-111,tll.) d ltJdc to 6 U Thi \ f',l!JJ11etcr ~ppr:.u, ,n "ti,.,
flf..--C1I g. 5.6.1 : I•- and Srio(;(tl..) dludc ~l)Cct,

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"1 t.l~w:r u MIC.ttfflfr"ff 91,mUftJtldv-

(,J junction cnpncitnncc is the cnpncltnncc lhnt h

f1lC l!lc Iron, (111111 111(1 tem luJM•H. lt~ 111utrJ4 1hJt 11 du:r.
, _,. ncross tho uc1u:1I junction bclwccn lhc
01
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ir • oductor nm t 1c mctn. Vuluc~ for Junction
tu lhc jun tlc,o ,.nlMlc will ( tm• II. k 'lini hof • In rt"'
<Cl'liCO
· ciUU1ce, c1rnngc from OJ lo 0.5 pP. ~ rnlconductor.
,om
'flJC Schottky junction hns ,mother p11mmclcr thnt mu~t 11,c effect of thh h mo<llfk d ukrlC.t Qfitl ttir1'1!1G.t i<r"t

' chnractcrizcd 0nd tnkcn into nccount. llint b3nd cncrg·y lcvch nc:sr 1hc lnlcrf11CC.
tie I . . .
~.rnnietcr is t ,e JUncllon rcsistnncc_, Ri, the nnturnl
I"""- When mct.il-scmicondue1or come intn cr,ntX ( ,f,.rt
. tnnce of the area where the scnuconductor nnd the
fCSIS
(llCtal come together. fermi -lcvels arc aligned.
1
'{'he last parameter is the overlny capacitance, c 0
, of the Becnusc of higher concentrntion of hok 1 neu ~

de,•ice. It is the value of capacitance produced from the junction, the vnlcncc band bend.~ tow.in.I the fc:.rml·
5chottky junction to the metal contact of the opposite
level.
(end of the diode (not the lead where the Schotlky
junction is located). As a result of lower electron conccntr.11fon rhc:
conduction band bends away frorn the fenni lc\'cl.
Energy Level Diagram Work funcrion (W) = Fn.-c electron energy level _ frnni level

The number of electrons in metal is much higher than The metal has higher work function i.e. lower fcrml
n-type semiconductor. level.
The number of energy levels are also so high that very But the semiconductor has lower work function i.e.
few energy levels are occupied. higher fenni level.
In semiconductor though number of electrons are less, Electron affinity (X) = Free electron energy level - Conduction
there available number of levels are also less. Thus band level
occupation density is high in semiconductor. .. .(5.6. 1)

- When metal and semiconductor come into contact, the Buildinpotentialis Vd = (VM-x) -V, ...( 5.6.2)
electrons from semiconductor tend to diffuse into the
metal but not the reverse. Where V, = Vy I n ~ .. .(5.6.3)

Free oloctron onergy lovol The space charge width is

'-.. in

L.!.~...t~~c ds = {2: (Vd~Dv .,)} .. .(5.6.-4)

: F
wF_ l Wr

Metal
l lWv
The junction capacitance is

!n-,,loonductor Metal
... (5.6.5)
d,

(a) Metal and Sfflliconduclor (b) Mellll-scmlconduclor

do not interact contact
(lE21)Flg. S.6.3 : Energy level diagram bc(ore and nncr contact

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 Microwave Semiconductor De~
Ii} Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem." 7 - E&TC) 5-16 4c

( 'a.. 5.6.4 Construction of Schottky Diode j

L[:::LO:-~S~.6:.3~-=Exp~lai:'.'.·n~co~ns~tru~cti~·o~n~of'._:S~ch~o~ttky~d~iod~e:.._
. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _]

Metal contact
Depletion
Metal contact
region

A-:
_1,
,,
n
- - - - - - - I "": ,

r---+-,-------1 __ .------~,
~ --------
n', - type substfcite
' ,
I
I'

,\Metal oontact Metal contact

(1E29Jfig. 5.6.4: CrosHectionaJ ,iew or SI Schottky diode

Schottky diodes are manufactured in Si or GaAs.

The bulk semiconductor is a highly doped n+ substrate, with a width of several microns.
Over this substrate, a thin n-layer of the desired width is epitaxially grown.
This layer is protected by means of an oxide layer (Si OJ.
A hole is etched in the Si02 over which metal is deposited.

Suitable metals are aluminium and gold.

Upper metal contact is anode and lower is cathode.

'a. 5.6.5 Difference between P-N Junction and Schottky Contact

LO. 5.6.4 Differentiate between P-N junction and Schottky contact.

Sr. No. P-N junction Schottky contact ·

The structure of a diode using P-N junction is shown in The structure of a diode using this contact is shown in
Fig. 5.6.5. Fig. 5.6.6. Metal contact

+
N Substrate n•. type substrate

Ohmic contact
Metal contact
(1E30)Fig. 5.6.5
(1E30)Fig. 5.6.6

2. The P-N contact has a charge accumulation problem. No charge accumulation problem.

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 '1 t,l~\18 Engineering (MU -Sem. 7 - E&TC) 5-17 Microwave Semiconductor Devices
' . '" ~' .. .
. \.. ...~'." ~ , P-N ..
~-·::}
\ ,
Junction'. ''".....
..
-~· .- :.• · .,. ... ... . ' -
"'• No-,' , ' \ '· ·
\

~ .. •·· ' \) J

:.:.. . ,... .:_.

\

~ i' • t· ,.__ • · / .. : , :· ' . Schottky co1i"tad · .:"~ · -·

~ ll has higher value of built in potential. (<l>o = 0.7 V) It has low value of built in potential. (<1>0 - 0.4 V)
~ Reverse current in this contact is Jess.
.....--
s. The avalanche breakdown voltage is high.
It has a high value of reverse current.

The avalanche breakdown vollage is low.

~
6. The junction capacitance is high. The junction capacitance is small.

---- 1. Operating frequency is low. It can be operated at higher frequencies.

---
fr-s.7 Gunn Diodes I N-type material. This effect became known as the
Gunn effect, or bulk effect.
The Gunn diode is the main device that utilizes this
ua. 5.7.1 Write a short note on: Gunn diode
effect to its fullest.
MU - Ma 18. Dec. 18. sn Marks
LC. 5.7.2 What Is Gunn Diode ? Ia. 5.7.2 Energy Band Diagram for GaAs
In the 1980s it was said that the properties of
Gunn diodes are manufactured using ill-V compound
semiconductors depends on junctions. And as long as
those junctions had to be made thinner as the semiconductors, such as GaAs or Pin (Phophorus-
frequencies increased, high-power semiconductor lndium). They exhibit a negative resistance,. related to
devices at microwave frequencies never would be the multi-valley nature of their conduction bands.
possible. In the conduction band of this material, a main valley,
Well, the adage "Never say never" applies here. 1.45 eV above the valence band, is surrounded by six
Devices have been developed that do not depend on a satellite valleys with 0.36 eV higher energy
junction for operation. One such device is the Gunn (Fig. 5.7.1).
diode.
Electrons residing in the main valley have lower energy
It is in a class of devices that exhibit microwave power and higher mobility compared with electrons in the
properties that depend on the behavior of bulk
satellite valleys.
semiconductors rather than junctions.
Main valley - lower energy and higher mobility
Ia. 5.7.1 Gunn Effect or Bulk Effect Satellite valleys • higher energy and lower mobility
E
- The Gunn effect is the main representative of that
group of devices, which was discovered in 1963 by
J.B. Gunn. COND.

- He found that when a de voltage is applied to the

contacts on the end of N-type GaAs or lnP, the current
AsGa- N
first rises in a straight line (linearly) from zero and then
begins to oscillate when a certain threshold is reached.
VAL
- The time of those oscillations, that is, the period for
one cycle, is very close to the time it talces for carriers
(1E32)Fig. 5.7.1: Energy band diagram for GaAs
to travel from one contact to another through the
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 6·10 Mlorownw, ~~

Mnnufncturlng
2. •n,e M:porollon energy hc1wcct1 the 'falfe '°'~~
,runllcr 1lr11n lhc g11p energy lictwc.cn th,.) , ~~ ~
nn<l v11 1cncc h11nch . Thor jq ~ t.-~r,.
Cnltlng Lhc device n ~llodc, h1)wc,·cr, I, conru,hlf., .,
61.! < fJ,
bccnu~c there Is no junction, which 11II other ,liodc~
ex.hibit. Other•wi'IO 1hc .temlc:omJu<.'t,11 wlf1 break d,
become hlr.hly concJucrlvc before lhc eke ""'~ 11,.,
Fig. 5.7.1 ill II cruss•. <'Ctlon or n Gunn diode, ~howing lrflf\:. ~ . "'
,rnn~fcr IO the upper valley, l1te11u~ hoJe-ckc t•~
the individual lnycrs.
formal ion is crcutc<l. trr.q ~

Gunn J iock s 11rc mnnufacturcd in three layers, with nn 3. Electrons in the lower valley rnu,t l1avc f ,
11gh rr.r
N-dopcd layer embedded bc.twctn two, thinner, N+ small effective mass. and a lcr.,,, ,1-,.,
.
:.tit
U(;.,, rty Cif 1,
doped layers. Whereas those in lhe upper valley rrn.i~ ,~
t' . ~~,. ,.
f
mobility, large c 1ect1vc ma\~, and II high "~
It can be seen that tJ1crc arc only N layers present in
state. dcr.~11'] ~
this device (fhc plus and minus signs indicate how
heavily the N-typc material is doped; a plus sign means The two most useful scmiconducto"'
1IC, I ,l • \ (

it is more heavily doped. a minus sign means less gennanium do not meet all these criteria. So~ ~ ~
semiconductors, such as gallium arsenide (G¼) ~
doping). There is no PN junction 10 be seen anywhere. • i..~
phosphide (lnP) and cadmium telluride (CdTe) do ~llll
Metal contact these criteria. Others such as indium arsenide n~
. ,..::,.J
gallium phosphide (GaP), do not.

N+
a 5.7.5 Current versus Field
Characteristic
N-

N+ LQ. 5.7.3 Explain current versus field characteristic

11
Gunn diode.

Metal contact
Fig. 5.7.3 shows a possible current versus ~
(1 E33)Fig. 5.7.2 characteristic of a two-valley semiconductor.

Actually, the device is called a diode simply because J 1/ Original bulk resistance value
it has two leads, just like all other diodes. '
'''
"") '
~ 5.7.4 Criteria for Negative ~ Jlh •••• J' Negative resislance region
·en :
Resistance a; :
'1J I

c
A particular material exhibits the negative resistance ~::,
0 JV . I
I
property depends on : I

'
I
I
I

I. The separation energy between the bouom of the lower I

I

0 t-....!._.:__ _ _ _...!.......____:_ _ _ _ _ _E
valley and the bottom of the upper vaJley must be 0 E., Eth Ev Eu
several times larger than the thcm1al energy (about
Electric field (E)
0.026 eV) al room temperature. That is
(1E3')fig. 5.7.3: Curn:•nt wrsus field rharacttristkoh

~E > kT or > 0.026 eV two-,·nllcy semiconductor

Tcch-Neo PuLliu tion, .•_ ,_ "1,crc Author, inspirt innon1tion

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 MU· Som. 7 • E&TC 6·10

1'11C rclntivc conccntrntions of electrons In 1hc lower 0 'l'hlt1 glvM rl11c IO tho name lrnn._, terrtd-i!ltdron
nod higher energy vnlleys depend on the electric ncld trfccl , which 111 ()(lt fl glvc11 tu 1hl11 phcnomcr1c,n,

strength. fllcclrons l111vo been -" (rom the

rrunq crrc.u
0
'
1'hCSC concentmtions nre denoted by n1(E) for the conduction bond to o hlihcr energy brintl in which
lower energy v11lley nnd n2(E) for (all) the surrounding they ure much Jess mobile, on<l r!lc current ha;

vnllcys of higher energy. been reduced as a result of a voltng_c ri1;e.

~ Three different ranges of electric field strength may be 0

As some of the electron~ in the lower cnt:rir/

considered. valley acquire sufficient energy 10 reach tJic hjghcr

valleys.
(a) For OS ES Eth
0
The total number of electrons ·ts then d'Js tn·buted
0 Consider a Gunn diode connected to an external
between the low and high energy valleys, i.e.
bias source. As the bias voltage is increased from
n (E) = n 1 (E) + n2 (E) .
a low value, the electrons acquire a higher energy
and their velocities increase. 0
The higher energy valley has a lower mobility.~.

o The greater the potential across the slice, the due to the collision effect described above and the
higher the velocity with which the electrons move current density is, therefore. given by :
toward the positive end, and therefore ihe greater
J = (µ 1 n1 + ~ n2) eE
the current. The device is behaving as a normal
positive resistance. o The ratio n2 (E) / n (E) increases with increasing

o Herc all electrons occupy the lower energy valley, electric field.
so the total electron concentration n = n1• o The current density however, dccrcac;es since the
reduction in average electron mobility (due to the
o The electron velocity, in this regime,
increases linearly with increasing electric field, i.e. increasing proportion of slower electrons)
v = - µ1 E. This corresponds to the electrons in the outweighs the effect of the increased electric force
lower energy valley acquiring more kinetic on each electron.
energy. The current density is, therefore, given by;

o All electrons occupy the higher energy valleys. so

n = n2• Since there is now no trans feren~ of
electrons from lower to higher energy v3.lleys,
o When the field strength reaches a threshold, Elli,
electron velocity will again increase with applied
electron collisions become sufficiently frequent field, i.e. v = - I½ E. The current density is now
(due to their enhanced velocities) that their given by:
predilection to drift in the electric field becomes J = I½ CO2 E
significantly impaired, in short, their mobility is
o Fig. 5. 7.4 shows menn electron velocity plotted
reduced. This corresponds to electrons in the against applied electric fich.l strength.
lower energy valley being transferred to the higher
o The bchuvior of velocity arises due to the non-
energy valleys, which is normally empty. linear variation of mobility ,L~ a function of th~
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 Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem, 7 - E&TC) 5-20 Microwave Semiconductor D~

7
applied field · . .
• i.e. v = - µ (E) E. This results m a
negative differential resistance
. •
across it large enough to induce transfer of electrons to the
higher energy band.
'
V x10 CITVS
V
+ - -,
--------i----.. ~

1.5
0.75 ; I
I I
0 I

0.5 ''
> I
I 0
'I
I I
0.5 I I

0.25 '

0 2 E, 4 6 8 10 E (kv/an)

(1E35)Fig. 5.7.4 (b) Electric field above threshold

I
(1E37)Fig. 5.7.5: Electric potentiaJ versus position along Gunn
diode
& 5.7.6 Domain Formation
Electrons in this region will be slowed down due to
Provided the electric field remains below the threshold their transference to the higher energy valleys.
value Eth, the electric potential decreases smoothly
The slow electrons will bunch with the following faster
along the device (Fig. 5.7.5(a)).
electrons giving rise to a negative space charge
V
accumulation.

Every delayed electron gives rise to a negative charge

,A deficiency in front of, and an excess negative charge

''' behind, its location had it not been delayed. This effect
'I
''
I
is cumulative and the negative space charge

ic::d
(1E36)Fig. 5.7.S(a) Electric field below threshold
accumulation is compensated for by a positive space
charge of equal magnitude.

The result is a space charge dipole that moves from

It is reasonable to expect that the density of the doping
cathode to anode al the electron-saturated velocity
material is not completely uniform throughout our
(Fig. 5.7.S(b)).
sample of gallium arsenide.

Hence it is entirely possible that there will be a region, The potentiaJ now drops unevenly along the diode, the
perhaps somewhere near the negative end, where the gradient being greatest across the dipole (Fig. 5.7.5(b))
impurity concentration is less than average. and the electric field along the rest of the device
In such an area there arc fewer free electrons than in necessarily remaining below the threshold value.
other area5, and therefore this region is less conductive The reduced value of electric field away from the space
than the others.
charge dipole prevents more than one dipole forming at
As a result of this, there will be a greater than average any one time.
potential across it. Thus, as the total applied voltage is
increased, this region will be the first lo have a voltage

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 I.
I
~~ro:w~av~e==E;;;in:;f;;gl;;;;ne;;;;e;;;;ri_ng;;;;;;;;(M_u_-_s_e_m_._1_-=E&=T;;;;C~)====~s-~2~1=========.JM~l~cr~o:w~av~e~s:e~m:lco~nd~u~ct~o=-ri=D=ev==lc._e;;;;as

1~0UoWS, therefore, that the negative resistance just - For GaAs and InP devices, .the boundary condition
,,. described is not the only effect talcing place. The other between stable field distribution and space charge
. phenomenon is the formation of domains.
instability is given by,
When the slowly moving dipole reaches the anode, a 12 2
n0 / = IO /cm
current peak is detected as shown in Fig. 5.7.6.
I
Modes of operation of gunn device I
Wben a pulse is received by the associated tank
cireuited starts it into oscillations. 12 3
(i) s1able amplification mode (no I < 1O / cm )
_ Jt is actually this arrival of pulses at the anode, rather
(Ii) Gunn oscillation modes
than the negative resistance proper, which is (10,2/cm2 S' (nol)~ 101•/cm~
responsibl_e for oscillations in Gunn diodes.
(iii) Transit-time domain mode (fl= 107 cm/s)

~ ---------------- · - e
(Iv) Delayed domain mode (10 _cmls <fl <
107 mis)
c
107
(v) Quenched domain mode (fl> 2 x cm/s)

(vi) Limited Space Charge Accumulation (lSA) Mode '

7
(fl> 2 x 10 cm/s)

(1E39)Fig. 5.7.6(A) : Modes or operation or gunn device

(1E38)Flg. 5.7.6: Gunn current versus time_
a 5.7.7(A) Stable Amplification Mode
f a 5.7.7 Modes of Operation (n0 I< 1012 / cm3)

ua. 5.7.4 State various modes of Gunn diode and - When the no / product of the device is less than about
12
explain any one of them in detail. )0 / cm2, the device exhibits amplification at the
MU - Ma · 16, Dec.- 16. Ma .17, Dec. 17. transit-time frequency rather than spontaneous
oscillation.
Gunn devices can operate in different modes, This situation occurs because the negative conductance
depending on factors such as doping concentration, is utilized without domain formation.
doping uniformity, length of the active region, type of
There are too few carriers for domain formation within
load circuit and bias range.
the transit time. Therefore amplification of signals near
- The fonnation of a strong space charge instability (i.e. the transit-time frequency can be accomplished.
space charge dipole) requires enough charge, and
sufficient device length, to allow the necessary charge a 5.7.7(8) Gunn Oscillation Modes
12 2
displacement within the electron transit time. (10 / cm s (n0 /) s 1014 / cm2)
- The boundary between the different modes of operation
is denoted by the product Do /. Most Gunn-effect diodes have the product of doping
and the length (n0 L) greater than 1012 / cm2•
Where Do is boundary carrier concentration for a given
device length, I. When the product of no L is greater than I0 12 / cm2 in
GaAs, a high-field domain is formed and moves from
the cathode to the anode as described earlier.

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!r
,.t,JIJ
I
 ~
(
i I <

The frequency of oscillation is given by the relation The high-field domain drifts along the specimen UntiJ it

f - vdom
reaches the anode or until the low-field value dr0ps
- Letr below the sustaining field E, required to maintain v
'as
Where vdom = the domain velocity and Leff = the shown in Fig. 5.7.7.
effective length that the domain travels from the time it
The sustaining drift velocity for GaAs is v, = 107 Cl'llf
is formed until the time that a new domain begins to s.
Since the electron drift velocity v varies with elctfric
form.
field, there are three ·possible domain modes for the
- The normal Gunn domain mode (or Gunn oscillation
Gunn oscillation mode.
mode) is operated with the electric field greater than
the threshold field (E > E111).
V a 5.7.7(C) Transit Time Domain Mode
7
(fl= 10 cm/s)
I
,8.
~ 7 When the electron drift velocity is vd is equal to the
·g v, = 10 cm/s
j v, =----~:-:: sustaining velocity V 5, the high-field domain is stable
I • ~
'C:
: I
Q I In other words, the electron drift velocity is give~ by,
o.__,:_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
I

7
0 E1 Ett, E vd = v, = tL = IO cm/s
Electric field
(1E40JFig. 5.7.7 Then the oscillation period is equal to the transit time.
that is,

(■) Transit time mode

___j• --------·------· :Ill

To •T1

0
_____________
. I
This situation is shown in Fig. 5.7.8(a). The efficie~cy
0 ~ t is below I0% because the current is collected only
V
when the domain arrives at the anode.
(b) IHl■yed mode
To>T1 a 5.7.7(D) Delayed Domain Mode
6 7
------------· ~ (10 cm/s <fl< 10 cm/s)
--· ----·---·.---1·---------------. E,
00 t t
When the transit time is chosen so that the domain is
collected while E < Eth as shown in Fig. 5.7.8(b), a new
(c) Quenched mode
T9 <t1 domain cannot form (delayed) until the field rises
--··- - ·-- ------:-----------·--·-· Elh
------:--------------· -· Es above threshold again. In this case, the oscillation
0----~----,
0 Tt period is greater than the transit time-that is,
V

(d) LSAmode
t0 < t1 ' This delayed mode is also called inhibited mode.
-· . --- . --- . :----------------- ~
to• Jtd --- ----- -·· ~--·-------------- E,
0 '
The efficiency of this mode is about 20%.
0 ~ I
(1E41JFig. 5.7.8 : Gunn domain modes

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(

~ ft,d__rJHa'lfJ ~ ( M U · ~-7 • ~TC)

The diode befmte1 J.ile a ne~ve--reaJ.-patl ~

5,1.1(E) Quenched Domarn Mode
7
-
-Z,. (fL>2X10 cm/a) · wiWM producing pul.r.es,
- Or,cillitiorJ freqoency is dc:termfned by the ~
,,, Jf the ~ field drops b,;,low the tw.:uiin-ing fJdd E, circuit, I..SA mode operdlOO yiekh much higher
during the neg.caive half-cycle a1 £D"YND in efficiency than that obtained from dipole tr.anit.
fit, 5.7.Uc), the domain col~ before it reaches the
- Furthermore,~ is oo tr.msit time Jirnit.dioo 00 the
ar,ode.
maximum o.sciJbtioo frequency.
_ When the ~ field swing,; b-.ck above thrC$hoJ.d, a
re'H domain its nucleated and the process re:peats. Ex. 5.7.1

Toerefore the ~.£illatiom occur at the frequency of the In a Gunn diode with ..c:tive .length 2D µm • the drift velocitY
of electrons is 2 • l 07 cm/s. Calculate natural frequency of
reo.,onant circuit rather than at the lrdll$it-time
the diode.
frequency,
@ Soln.:
- It ha1 b--..en found that the resonant frequency of the
7 (f2
circuit is M:Ver.tl times the transit-time frequency, since f _ !. _ 2 x 10 X l _ l GHz
- d - 20 x 1Cf 6
one dipole does not have enough time to readjust and
atr..orb the volt.age of the other dipoles. Theoretically,
the efficiency of quenched domain oscillators can reach Ias.a IMPATT Diode I
a
13%,

5.7.7(F) Limited Space Charge

I UQ. 5.8.1 Exp1am wooong ol lMPATT.
f.1U - Dec. 16. 5 Marks
Accumulation (LSA) Mode
7
(fL > 2 x 10 . crn/s)
Ia 5.8.1 What is IMPATT Diode?

- The LSA mode assumes large dynamic swings around

the operating point - IMPAIT diode provides negative resistance using the
phase shift between current through the device and the
- A high frequency, large amplitude, voltage reduces the
electric field during the cycle to a value sHghtly lower applied voltage. (Negative resistance is obtained when

than E, that suppresses the formation of dipoles. this phase shift is greater than 90°).

- The frequency must be high enough to prevent the IMPATI (Impact Avalanche and Transit Tune) diodes
dipole formation (i.e. there must not be enough time for are very powerful microwave sources, providing the
dipole fonnation).
highest (solid state device) output JX)Wer in the
- The electric field across the device rises above and falls millimetre-wave frequency range.
back below, the threshold so quickly that the space
- They exhibit a dynamic negative resistance based on
charge distribution does not have sufficient time to
form. transit time effects and they are often used in the design
of oscillators and amplifiers when hi~output JX>Wer is
- The mean resistance over one cycle, however, must be
negative and to fulfil this condition, the electric field required. They are manufactured in S i , ~ and InP.
must not fall to values much lower than E,, which
requires a limited space charge.

~~~~-=----;;;;--;-::--:--:--.----.--------------
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==~~==M;;ic;;;ro~w~a~v~e~E~ng~l~ne~e~rin~g~(~M~U~-~S~e~m~.7
~ .E~&~T~Ci)==~5~
-2~4~=======·=M=lc=ro=w=a=ve=S=e=m=lc=o=n=du=c=to=r=O==ev~
i~
. + +
These diodes exhibit a differential negative One possible double drift structure is P PNN . The
resistance by two effects : central P-N junction operates in avalanche breakdown,

1. The impact ionization avalanche effect, which injecting electrons that drift along the NN+ region and
causes the current and the ac voltage to be out of holes that drift along the p+p region. Other possible
phase by 90°. profiles include the Read configurations.
2. The transit-time effect, which further delays the
Although IMPATI diodes arc manufactured in both Si
external current relative to the ac voltage by 90°.
and GaAs, higher efficiencies are obtained with the
A combination of de_lay involved in generating
latter.
avalanche current multiplication, together with delay
due to transit time through a drift space, provides the 1 ~ s.8.3 Principle of Operation
necessary 180° phase difference between applied
voltage and the resulting current in an IMPATI diode. The cross section of the active region of this device is

\ ~ 5.8.2 Doping Profiles I shown in Fig. 5.8.1. Note that it is a diode, the junction
being between the 'P+' and the N layers.
V
1MPATI diodes are manufactured with many different - - - - - - - - - - t i l t - +_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _..,
doping profiles. In all variations, however, avalanche and
drift regions can be distinguished.
1. Single drift profiles N
Anode Cathode
2. Double drift profiles Junction
(avalanche region) Drift region
1. Single drift profiles
(1E42)Fig. 5.8.1 : IMPATI Diode
. + + + +
It occurs m P NN and N PP structures, the fonner
being preferentially manufactured, since N type A device with an P+NIN+ profile (Fig. 5.8.l) is
analysed here to illustrate the lMPATI' s principle of
substrate is the more common. In P+NN+, the P-N
operation. Assume a reverse bias V = Vb is applied to
junction is biased near avalanche break-down.
the IMPATI device, where Vb is the breakdown
The P region injects electrons into the NN+ region. voltage.
along which they drift at saturated velocity. The reverse bias is such that it generates a high
The holes injected from the N region do not drift. potential gradient (400 kV/cm) across the diode
Hence the name of single drift profile. causing a flow of minority carriers across the junction.
A sinusoidal waveform is then superimposed, resulting
For single drift devices Read propose-0 N+PIP+ and
in a total device voltage.
P+NIN+ structures. The later is analysed below.

2. Double drift profiles

We may consider the effect of a positive swing of the
Double drift devices provide a higher efficiency and a
RF voltage superimposed on top of the high de voltage.
higher output power.

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 MlJ_ · Som. 7 • E&TC
WllCll V(t) > V1,, rcsulling In lhc gcncroliun of clcci 11 m, flcc11ucc 11f 1J~ t'Gvet~ tii~-:-. 1/id r.tttr nl p,dq! fl<"-" ~w
.,. hole pnirs, A flow of minorily cn1Ticr.i begin~ ncn_1,, lhc 1
IIKl Q!lw11Jc. el 9 d1Hl itdnGily t~ patt~nt ti. ~ '

junction. prctrlk: of Iha llll!JI ,j,1 fli1itf.

i1te velocity of electron nnd hole now bccomt..\ &o hi1th The rime 1i1kcn hy ,i--, p11l,:t.i 1-11 t" t. t1i '

111111 thc.o;e cnrriers Conn nddi1ior111I hole.~ nnJ clcclron, clcpcn(l\ on the vcloc:lty 1.\11<'1 t1i,o 1tl' i MC"~ t.if ,,
by knocking them Olli of lhc cryslnl structure. So 1hc ln~•ct.
process is called us impact ioniiat.lon. TilC rhlcknc..\ \ of the: dri(I rcg,l¢o I'- ·.c:lcdol ,<J rl rr:
_ These ndditionnl cnrriers continue the process at the rime 1akcn for the current pul~ ltJ MTl~C at ttlc c;:.>:r✓-..-f.-.
junction. nod it now snowballs into nn avalanche. corrc..~ponds 10 n funhcr 90- pha•-c J,ffcrcoc<

If the original de field was just at the threshold of As shown in Fig. 5.8.2. when 1hc:: cum:nt 17ul:.c ,a,cu,.;iil;t
allowing this situation to develop, this voltage will be arrives at the c.1thodc terrnin:ll. the RF volt_ugi: 1~ ~ IL~

exceeded during the whole of the positive RF cycle, negative pe:ik.

and avalanche current multiplication will be taking The voltage and current in the JMPATJ' diode a.re 00<..,
place during this entire time. Since it is a multiplication 1800 out of phase 11nd n dynamic RF ncg..u1·, c
process, avalanche is not instantaneous. resistance exist.
As shown in Fig. 5.8.2, the process takes a time such Such a negative resistance makes it useful In o-.cillaton
that the current pulse maximum, at the junction, occurs or amplifiers. Because of the short times lnvo h·cd.
at the instant when the RF voltage across the diode is these can be microwave.
zero and going negative. It results in 90° phase Note that the device thickness de1em1ines the lr.lllsit
difference between voltage and current. time, 10 which the IMPATT diode is very scn:.itive.
V(l) Unlike the Gunn diode, the IM PAn· diode i,
vmu --------:.;-__,_-
I
I
essentially a narrowband device (es pecially when u<,cd
: DC vott,,90 (aval4nch<l lhroshold) in an amplifier).
VD ----------t---------- ----------,----------
'
I
I
I

----------~----------1--------
:• 90• '• oo•
I
I
I

.
I
I
I
I
I

(a)
I a 5.9 TRAPATT Diode I
ua. 5.9.1 Explain the construction and worklng; ol
TRAPATT diode. MU· Ma 16. 10 Mark.s

Current pulse
currant pulse ua. 5.9.2 Explain working ol TRAPATT.
at cathode
maximum l\1U • Ma 18. Dec. 18. 10/5 Marks
.,.t,en VE -Vmu
when V" 0

(b) - TRAPATT stands for ..trapped plasm::1 .i~. l..m-:l"ae

Current
pulse triggered transit mode"
drihs to
C8lh0de
It is derived from IMPATT diode-
It is a high dficiem:y m kn.lWlWC g<ncmtor. h b
11w1Flg. 5.8.2 cupabh: of opcr.lting over the nuigc ut' sc,cm.l MHt to

- The currenl pulse in the IMPATT diode is situated at scvi:ml Gl-11..

the junction. However, ii does not stuy there.

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 La. s.o., Construction of TAAPATT Dlodo

11 h P• • n • n• ,tmc1tm: mndc of S1 or GriAs mnlcrinl. FO - • Chorgin,

Rcfor Fig. 5.9. 1.

1 ~ 5.9.3 Explanation of Wovoform J
Squoro wavo current drive
,\t point ,\, the electric field i, uni form throughou~ 01o;
snmple. Its magnitude i~ le.\~ thnn th:it of rcqulmJ ftrr
p n n nvalnnche breakdown.
-l ,. 2.5 to •I
50 µm for CW
and 750 11m for
low freq. high At ,\, diode current is turned on. Titi~ cum:nt i, the
2.5 to 12.5 µm
doplotlon loyor poakpower
7.5 µm result of the charge carriers due to thcnn:il i;cncrntion.

(1U9)Flg. 5.9.J : Schematic ommgemcnl ofTR,\PTf diode Hence charging or the diode stnn.~. It is ~imilnr 10 the
linear capacilor charging. II <lrh·cs thc voluigc nbo,-c
The n type depiction region width varies from 2.5 µm
to 12.5 Jlm Ilic breakdown vollngc.

The doping of depiction region is done in such a way When sufficient number or chnrgc currier.. 4Ie

thm. diodes :ire well punched through during gcnera1ed. 1hc charging current exceed~ the c.ttcrnaJ
breakdown. curn:nl.
p • region is kept thin of the order of 2.5 ~lm to 7.5 µm. The clcc1ric licld is dcpn:ssc<l tl1roughou1 the depiction
The diameter of lhe diode is from 50 Jlm lo 750 fllll. n:gion. Hence volrnge dccn:ascs. Curve BC in
Smaller diameter diodes ure used for CW opemtion Fig. 5.9.2 shows this.
whcrc1L-. larger diameter diodes are used for high peak Charging
Plasma formation
power devices.
Plasma extraction
E B Residual extraction
a 5.9.2 Operation of TRAPATT Diode !II
t::
:l Charging
u
"O
C
m A
High field nvnl:mchc z.one propagates through the C,
O>
g
diode. It fills the depletion region with den e pla.sma of
~
electrons and holes.
These charge carriers become trapped in the low licld D
0 r/2
region behind the z.onc
11me
Refer fig. 5.9.2. It hows voltage and cum:nl (1£50)Fii:. 5.9.2 : Volluge urul rurrt nl Wll\tlonns for
waveforms. TRA l~ATI' JIode

In the wuveforrn During lJC intcn•al, the ckctric field i~ well :11xl,·c the

AB -> Churging breakdown \'Oll:tgc, hence t1\'.1l:im:hc hre.11..J->wn

ro11tin11011~. Dcn,c phL,11111 of clcctn.rn, ttml hl1lc$ i.s
OC -> Pl11rn111 formution cn:utcd.

DE -> Pl n~n111cxlrnction
- - - -- -- - - - - - - - - - - : - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - ---;, SIOll.l'SILIII frnt1trr
Tcd1-Nc11 l'uLliealion•m--•·· Jrlirrr 1luth11r, i11,pirr 1i11111nti1111

.h---==--- - - -- - -- - - - -- -
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~ wave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 5·27 Mlcrowavo Somlconductor Oovlcos
!Bl f,41Cr0
,;,> sorne of the electrons and holes drift out of the ends of a s.s.4 Specifications of TRAPATT
' the depletion region. Due to this the electric field is Diode
decreased further and "traps" the remaining plas ma.
Voltage decreases till point D. (1) CW power: 1-3 W between 8 GHz lo 0.5 GHz

for removing plasma completely, large time is needed (2) Pulse power: 1.2 kW at I. I GHz
as compared to time required for charging. (3) Operating voltage : 60-150 V
At E, plasma is removed completely. But residual (4) Efficiency: 15 to 40 % (8 GHz) (0.5 GHz)
charge of electrons and holes is present at each ends
(5) Noise figure : > 30 dB
respectively.
(6) Frequency": 3 to 50 GHz
_ Once this residual charge is removed, voltage increases
from E to F j B. 5.9.5 Applications of TRAPATT Diode ]
_ At F, all the internally generated charge is removed.
This charge needs lo be equal to or greater than (I) Low power doppler radars
external current supplied. (2) Local oscillators for radars

_ If it is not greater then voltage will exceed that al (3) Microwave beacon landing system
point A.
(4) Radio altimeter
From F to G, the diode starts charging again.
(5) Phased array radar
At point G, diode current becomes zero for half a
period. The voltage at that point is VA• till the current ~ 5.10 BAAITT Diodes
comes back.
Once the current comes back the cycle repeats.
UQ. 5.10.1 Explain working of BARITT.
- The avalanche zone velocity is given by, MU - Dec. 17, 5 Marks

dx J It is "Barrier injected transit time diodes".

vz = dt=qNA
The similarity between the [MPATI diodes and
Where, J = current density BARITI diodes is that both of the m have long drift
regions.
q = Electron charge = 1.6 x 10-19
NA = Doping concentration I~ 5.10.1 Construction of BARITT Diodes

- The avalanche zone will quickly sweep across most of Several structures arc available in BARlTI diodes.
the diode. Hence transit time of carriers is They arc p-n-p, p-n-v-p, p-n-metal and me1nl-n-mctu.l.
L r:JI" For p-n-v-p Barltt diode
-r;, = V
s
Forward biased p-11 junction cmi1s holes into v region.
Where, V, = saturated carrier drift velocity These holes travels (drifts) wi1h satum1ion velocity
through v region.
L = length of the specimen
They arc collected at the p contact.

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 Microwave Semiconductor De~
Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7. E&TC) 5-28
....
The diode shows a negative resistance for transit angles Por microwave oscillations to occur, following
between rt and 2n. conditions should be satisfied :
Optimum transit angle = l .61t.
I. The potential barrier of the forward biased metal
Refer Fig. 5.10.l(a) and (b). It shows construction of semiconductor contact should be decrea<;cd. Due
Baritt diode and V-I characteristics of Baritt diode. to this rapid increac;c of carrier injection proec~
It consists of an emitter, depletion region and collector.
occurs.
n-type Si wafer is sandwiched between two P S
1 1
Sch_ottky barrier contacts. 2. A 3rr/2 transit angle of th~ injected carrier that
crosses depletion region need to be obtained.
MetaJ-n-metal structure is shown in Fig. 5.10. l(a).
Fig. 5.10.l(b) shows V-1 characteristics.
L
.p •n C Rapid increase in t.enninal current is observed with the
n type P·"
(SI wafer) applied voltage (above 30 V).
I
I
I I
I
•"
I I
I E I B I Drift region I It is due to thermionic hole injection into the
r1I I I• I I C
I
I
I
•• semi conductor.
I
I
I
I The depletion layer of the reverse biased contact
I
Electric : reaches through the entire device thickness.
field I
I
I The critical voltage is given by
I
2
- Distance Ve = 92NL •.. (Approximately) ... (5.10.J)
Es

(1E51)Fig. 5.10.l(a) : Construction of BARIIT diode

Where N = doping concentration

L = semiconductor thickness

r Es = semiconductor dielectric permittivity

The breakdown voltage is given by,

2
vbd = 2Vc=2 · gNL
2Es

8'
...1 I= Leakage ... (5.10.2)
current
- Diode voltage M The breakdown electric field is given by,

f:;" _ vbd _gNL

(1ES2JFig. 5.10.l(b): V-1 characteristics of BARIIT diode '"'bd - L - ... (5.10.3}
Es

, ~ 5.10.2 Operation of BAR ITT Diodes I Performance characteristics

1. Frequency: 4-10 GHz

The earner crossing the drift region are generated by
2. Power: 50 mW at 4.9 GHz
minority carrier injection from forward biased junction.
3. Efficiency : 1.8 %
4.
Noise figure : 9 dB at 6.35 GHz with 15 dB gain
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 29
---.: ~~~=;:~;~; . .:,~-~""-'~"·~:.:_' Diodes
ip__~ _·~E-=&~T=C~);'::_':"~~S-~
Ap~ication OT BARITT ~===~~~~~~~ Microwave Semiconductor Devices

Used for amplifiers as it has 1

ow efficiency.

Comparison of IMPATT T
' RAPATT and BARITT Diodes
L.0, 5.10.2 Compare between IMPATT TR
' APATT and BARITT diodes
Table s.10.1 : Com . ·
Panson between IMP
ATT, TRAPATT and BARITT diodes
I •
Sr. .-Parameter
IMPA.TT

1. Abbreviation Impact ionisation al

av anche transit Trapped plasma avalanche Barrier injection
time
triggered transit transit time
2. Operating 4 GHz to 200 GHz
l to 3 GHz 4GHzto8GHz
frequency

3. Output power l Watt CW and> 400 Watt pulsed

250 Watt at 3 GHz, Few mill watts
550 Watt at l GHz
4. Working Avalanche multiplication Plasma avalanche Thermionic
principle emission

5. Efficiency 3% CW and 60% pulsed below 35% at 3 GHz and 60% pulsed at l 5% (low
l GHz GHz frequency),
20% (high
frequency)

6. Noise figure 30dB About60dB About 15 dB

7. Advantage High power capability, reliable Higher efficiency, very low power Less noisy
output dissipation

8. Disadvantages High noise figure, high operating Not suitable for CW operation due Narrow bandwidth,
current, high spurious AM/FM noise to high power densities, high noise limited few mW of
figure, upper frequency is limited power output
to below millimetre band

9. Applications Voltage controlled impatt oscillators, Microwave beacons, instrument Mixer, oscillator,
low power radar system, injection landing, systems, local oscillator in small signal
locked amplifiers, cavity stabilized radar. amplifier.
impatt diode oscillators.
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 tf )~ I J/j ~I ,y,.,.
r:,11" .... ,
n.11 t\.JT

I\
I 111111 l •

0 t., \ \ \Mil• 1
1> 1, 11\ 11 ''"" .~, I'll " ... .. .,. I J1

{ , ,, , ., l n h t7~• tl t\O o f I\J1 ]

I \~ ll't\ 1t 111 ,,n11:i111u111 i,tlll c111 \ , :,.11 •h 1 <NI 1111

}\( II l 111 II .... II\(~ 1 IC

I 111,, i: tllflt ~u.lu , u, ..11,111 11•1.j u.,.,,~ . ( ~ot,(f•CJ

l

fh•I (ht !l.•'tl 11! , u11r1,1 1h1•1\•1 l1 a 10.:t1 l,e1 11.lJ c

, w,hH!kJ II a 1h11J, I ;,,,.\ • 11• 1d )1.J \it 1!1(' Jc-, JAt'

11,r r)ct 11111"1\I .,. , ,r hi lr .. j 1, 11 f,nJ ua.: u,1, 0 5.l 1.2( 8) Junc tion Trlln•ls tor
" ,-r ,i• . tpw J 1,1 11:01 , 1l111J t knirnt • tW 1tu.1 "' " I.J
n-.,11,• tlll" " ' ' "' "' , 111rnt 1111,,,tla ell(' rc-m A:,1.,.m I:, l'H) \\ ~I ·d Jq ,. I 1.' ..·.J ~ I J{,o'.f • ·~ ~
,"t )I.J ,)r :..t1j<t ('I, f t!.r J'-• h.., II J ' 111 t , t•~ t .1,., f 1 r: ,IIIC

, l l•c t:.:.."11t•.n ,nu ..- ti' , 'i y I •! • II;.?.. u

h:.~ :&J, ll.!ll rJ lll\J 11111111111 J l!it' m r,J,

~\Id'

~ 5.11 .2 Construction of ClJT

:.: - ! .... ., • 1.)

~ 5.11.2(A) Point Cont11ct Tra.ru ls to r

t:,.c-e l ,e, 111 1 •

·n ,,~ dr , H t" II II) " 1:1:_i ~ l ilt :.1 .1,tu. ! h ',It ~1,c
cln Ut 11,lL > lluiu:,lf > l ,r... 11.,~c 11 J Ull 1.1:.r•J IV It p'. u,IC

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 Mll!IH\Yl\.Ytl UttlillUUllMl UH!l

1
M IYl"211 tJI 111H 1JW 11v,3 111111liltil@i 1h111 '!V11lv,1,1 n, 1111
,, d1!! Jw1c11,m 01m1i11i1t11 ,,,., 111,,1110' 11nt1 ,,1,1111 1111
II 1111111

vvioJ~l•ll9, tJw111•>111•·•1111111,m •l•:Yh11, )1111~•• 1,1tl,iy,

,r ,'.! pl11m:r tl•tVl•~a!, ,,~ lt ti 11 11 1"'1 h ty~, h11~1111 II~ •!111111••111~

1
1
J11 tho;! WHl!l Jlhlll•J, l1IU, 1, 11 I ,~ ti h,1~1, 1 !111111111111 ,11 II

j)l!l.llill (J!!Jl~I~t, II I l=t11IIIHI

E11tllh11
M1l1~,11 , 111, 11,1ll1h11illttlll1I tltll\~ll lll'lhlll

'I h111111h,,1 t11111 h,11111h11 •111I h\1

d) 11•1111,11111111111 111111~1111\l111 ,11 111h1 , 1ll•P llt
tlll lty 1h11w11w11111. 111,1,,1111,1111 11,,w111111111,11111h II
111 111
" 'I h,11•111111,11 11,1~11 1111111111111 111 ii 1111111d1,1111 111 ti \\ 1~111111
1 1 1
wllh ,,111111111l111wll11111!111111111 II 111h11t 111111¼111111 1' 111111 l'
I'll!- 5,11 ,J I I, 11l,,J11•t Jl•jHI 11,1n~l~f1t1 l1\\\·••ll'tl1 Ill ,11,, ,•111111111 111\\\ 11111 1h1,111µhII 1·1111 IIP
1 1
- ·n,c dupc<l 111utcrl11l q HI'' ,111 n1~1•tl 111111 llt•• d11vl1 •! ,11 1h1 1 1111h1t 1, 1il, 11t,1 11\111111111111~11 It\ 1h1 11 ,111~1~1111 11 \ll\\'\lh ll
1
1

1 1 11
proper loc;11irJ11 ~ t<J 111101 thr l111ni1 ,111,I ••1111111 11 11,1 •lltlltl\, 'l'hnl ,~ •' "t,·11~, whnl 1h11 1111,1 11111~11 ,11 ~11111 11111 11111 11
The cullcclrn clc111c11t in ,,1 tho 11111111111111 tit•• tl 1•vli 11'. 1
It ,11111 h,, ~•'•'II Ill tli.1 1111111,1 111111111\l·h \\1111111 1 ' " "''"" 111
11t,1 11 ,111~1~1t•1 ,~ ,11111,1,1,I 111111 ~111111111111 ~1111111111,, with
1
The cpiluJ1iul device In rd111ll11r ti J lh•J plt1w11 11 1111~1~1111 ,
1 11
with Lhe c~t:cptiull ,,r 1111 1,rlrJl1i111111I 111111 l11y•11 ,11 1,11\' c,111h ~11\'lh111 h,1v1t1p. 1111,11th'l1l,11 \\111M11111'1 111111'1 11111 h
1

1111111'1~ ,111• p,11 1111,11' I11,, h II 111 11111111111 \1'1111,I,1111•1 1, 111111 11

1 1 1
comlucLi vily muterlul 111 the collcch11 1•1~hlll, ·1ill)
1 1
epiWJ:ial device ;.. plllhuhl y Ilic 111•1~1 whl •ly 11r.111I lilllll n11111ll, 11 th,111 tlll\' 11111 1 111 lh,1 111 hl1ll11\lh111ll\ If 1111 1111
11 1 1
or hi gh•frC{1uc11cy 11a11~intor co111,11ucthm 1w•tl l 1d11y, 1
111111\11~ 1lh' Il l ~11111•1 1,1nlhlt11h'11 , 1h11 1111111\11hl"ltlll11 11 \1\1
11
ll!~ihlillh'•' 111' 11111 Ill 11\\1 111 \\ll11\fl11I 11\1 11]11 \111111 1111111\ \ 1
~ 5.11.2(C) lnterdlgltol Tronolotor ,,r il1 ,111i111 ~ 111 1h~ 11 ,111 ..1..1,,,
1 111,11 1111' 1111\1 1l111w111,,
11
, 1111
1

1 1 1 1
1111111 '''"'"'"""'' 111 1h11 11 1111111 1· 1111, 1 \1 1!11111 111111 1, 1111
The type of bipolar trrurnir,lor ur.etl 111 1111111y HI' 1111d 111111111 ,111\1 h1w 1111lij11 1h1 1h 1\
1 1
1llc••llt1 111 ~,,1,t 111111\11

microwave upplicution~ in the low-Jtoir,c II 11nqlqltlr,

111 11\,1 ,111111,1 11)11'. 11111 1111,11111111,1111 111 1h11 11111111 Ill 1\111
1<11
This type of device mu ;t ,upply u ce1tol11 111111)11111 ,,r
111\l\hll,111111 hllll\11111,1 1.. ,\1'1111,111 11111111111 11\I 11111 w 1111\111~
gain and al Lhe same 1i111c, c~ hll.Jit n very low level 11(
"r the 111111t•111111. ·\'h111 11 , 1111.. 1111 111 h 111111,,11111111 k111l1111
1 1 1 1 1

noise. 1 1
l!IIII yllltl 111111111 h•~~ 1•111111111 1111111 It II -..11111111 -.., 111\111 f\11·
- The low-noii:c in Lhc device ir; Lluc to illl i111c11li11llnl
th,~jlll\11\111111~ ll>i.1 11,1

construction of the device in which the emlllcr 11ml

Wllh 1111111 1\1' lh11>i.t1 p111t111111h1lli, 1,111\11111111\ 1 111111 11111\\1111
base regions of 1J1c trunsistor arc ful.H icut cd In 1111
1~1hll'c1I hy lltill 111 th 1 1111~111\1111111 111111111111,1,
1

intcrd.igial manner.
'l'hc h1w.111)I~1 1111111i\1111111 h111i 111111w 11111, 1111111\1111-.. 111
- The erniucr and the hasc of the tra11~iRlor urc Rpiit 11110 11
c,1111111t111tl!tlllllm1 1~1111\1 11... 1lw ti,w 1111\-..,1 11,1111il1i11w
1

series of "fingers". It is shown in Fig. 5.11 .4,

lll1tlr1 111111\Y ~lllh111I ,111111\1111111111" 111 HI\ 1111\ 111\\\'\\\'\'t 1\1111
- That spli1Ling of the paLhs for current rc!lUIIJi In luw-
wli •lcR'1 fl)'AI 11\\q,
ooise characteristics. hecau~e the bcsl noise source you
can get is a resistance with current flowing thruugh il.

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 Microwave Semiconductor r..vi.-....
~~ ~ ,;.:_
~

Ia s:t 1.3(B) currents In the BJT J '

With n-p-n cr.m....istor with fon,·aro :ictivc mode (\\ilh
B-E junction is ion\'ard bias :ind 8-C junction is
re,-w--c bi~'Cd). the ckctrons from emitter ~ inj~tC\l
[ -:::._ 5-11.S(AJ Types of BJTs ] into oo..~ which tr.l\-els tow:uili the collector.

TilC t-.'l...~ is of p-typc where some of the electrons fmtn

ln ~ ~ :tre. t\~ ~~ (.'\f tntru-ist\..--n:
cmittcr will n.,"Ombinc with holes. The current due
10
i'I ;'X'I ~...._"'1..~'-- (ii) pnp tr:m..--im-r
these hole$ must come from base tcmlin:ll. denoted by
lbcir ~-m~'1$ ~ ~wn in F.g. 5. l LS.

Some of the holes from b:lse are injl'Cted into emitter

~c _ )~

s I· s l e
resulting in current 1; •

The n:,·er.;c bias acro:-S the b:l5¢-<.:ollector junction

causes the noml!l! n:verse s:itur:ition and leakage
\ S) apa ~ lb ) ll'lP tnnsistor currents oi now between collector and base. This
cum:.nt 1cso is usu:tlly sm:tll and neglected.
In c;-.:i tr.m.~-:ror lb: cm.i~ 3.lld colh--i:o.r ~ rn..<><lc of n All these currents :ire shown in Fig. 5.11.6.
~~ n-:me M..~ is oi p ty~ ~CQndu-7ton;...

E 6 C

le

Fr:g. 5.1L6: Cwnnt:s in npn transistor in forward acth-e mode

_ 4S.4CIIIA'SHHl l~true

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 ~.,_~ Englnoonng \MU • Som. 7 • E&TC) G·JJ

s(C) Olfforont Modos of Oporntlon

arc thrte modes of operation :

~
forward nctivc mode (nomutl mode) :
(t)
Herc B-fl junction is forwant biased Md B-C junction
is rc,-cn:e bitL~.
(iv Rc\'Cl~ sctivc mode :
0
VoE
Herc 8-E junction is reverse bin.o;cd while B-C junction
(b) Input characterbtlc or transistor
is forward biased.
164 >la.,> 1112 > 101
(ui) Saturation mode :
Load llnO - I /Re
Herc both B-E and B-C junctions arc forward bia.,;cd.

~ 5.11.3(0) Blasing of a Transistor

- Biasing arrangement to fix the operating point

(Q point) is shown in Fig. 5.11.?(a).
- The resistance R8 and de supply Vue decides the base
current. The KVL at the input gives
(c) Output charactcrb'tlc or transistor
... (5.11.1)
Fig. 5.1t .7 : Setting opera Una point (Q point)

v11F. v"" On the input characteristic this represent a line joining

le = - R +R--+ y= nu+c
D D
V /R on 18 axis and V811 on V,18 axis.
88 8
m = - I/ R11 and c = vno/Re TI1is line is called as load line. 'The line intersect~ the
input characteristic at point Q where the base current
0
Ic(r and volwge is IQ and v as shown in fig. 5. I I .7(b).
8 llE

Ac The KYL at the output the gives

...(5.11.2)
Ra
+
-=-Vee
Voo-=-

(a) Blasing or a BJT lrus line is druwn in output ch:i.ruderi)ti s ll .\ :,}\O" n in

Fig.S.11.7 contd ... Fis. 5. l I.7(l:). ll1c inte~l:tion of the li,;c "ith ICJB
curve is the Q point whue colkctor cumnt anJ voltage
Q 0
is le nnd Vrn .

Tedi-Nee Puhliatioo,,_ ln,r.re Aut/wr, in.,pim innon,tion - ' !WJII.VSIWJ fnr,.,,.

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 Microwave Engineering (MU. Sem. 7. E&TC) Microwave Semiconductor DeVicea
5-34

'a. 5·11 ,4 Frequency Response = emitter and collector capacitances

The small signal current gain (i/ib) of a BJT is

i
2) 't =~
D T) Dn
frequency dependent as shown in Fig. 5.11.8.

At low frequencies the value of i/jb is h,c and almost where, d0 = base width
constant.
8
0 = diffusion constant of electrons in the
n
As frequency increases to fp, the current gain drops to
h,/-{2. base

Further increase in frequency decreases the gain. Tl = constant depending upon doping

At the frequency fT the ic / ib falls to unity, this profile.

frequency is called the gain-bandwidth product or

= 2 for uniform doping
transition frequency or sometimes the cut-off
frequency. = 80 for highly nonuniform doping
Frequency fT is related to the transit time as follows,
3)
l
fy = - ... (5.l l.3)
't
where, wc = B-C junction space charge region.
Here 't is the transit time defined as the time required
vs = saturation drift velocity.
· for carriers to travel through the emitter-collector
structure.

The emitter to collector structure consists of three

I '5.5.12 FET
I
regions namely emitter, base and collector. Each of
these regions will contribute to t. Thus, ua. 5.12.1 Write a short note on microwave FET.
MU· Ma 16. 10 Marks
....(5.11.4)

1 ~ 5.12.1 Introduction of FET I

I
I
- Both diodes and pnp/npn transistors work on the
I
:
I injection principle. In this base-emitter junction
I
:
I generates (injects) either free electrons or holes, which
:
I
I
are being collected by the collector connection and the
--··--------"'--------•·••----
I

: base connection controls it.

- In contrast, the Field Effect Transistor (FET) controls

Fig. 5.11.8 : Frequency dependence of the current gain (ijib)
the electronic conduction in a solid by an electric field.
Three delays in Equation (5.11.4) are obtained using Several types of semiconductor materials have been
V ~ , used for making FETs like Si, Ge, GaAs, and others
1) •e = rEC=t (CE+Cc) ~ le (CE+Cc)
have been used. But the most widely used is silicon,
where, rE = emitter resistance followed now by gallium arsenide.

Tech-Neo Publir.alions-..-Wl,ere Authors iospire io11on1tion

- .A S..4CHINSll4H rei,ture

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 ' .....

li1 ~ave Engineering (MU· Sem. 7 - E&TC) 5-35 Microwave Semiconductor Devices
p.:
----------------
Difference between BJT and FET

~.12.2 Differentiate between BJT and FET.

::;;a- ~
Sr.No.
~ -- BJT
. . . ~ . - . -FET .. -
- .
- ( .

1.
1c Io

-
(Control current)I8

...
a.rr =
+
I

(Control voltage)Vas
.
FET
I

-
'C

-
As shown in figure, BIT is a current controlled As shown in figure, FET is a vol~ge controlled device
device where Ic is controlled by I8 • where J0 is controlled by VGS·
2. Its input impedance is less. Its input impedance is high.
3. These devices are less temperature stable. They are more temperature stable.
4. They are big in size as compared to FET. They are scnaller than BIT.
5. Voltage gain of BIT is more than FET. Voltage gain is less than BIT.

I~ 5.12.3 Family of FET

Different types ofFETs are as shown in Fig. 5.12.1.

Some important types like JFET, MISFET and MESFET are discussed in the next section.
Field
1~ effect
~ transl stor
I
I I I
. . Insulated Junction Metal
gate semiconductor
FET . . . FET
FET
I
I I I I I
GaAs Silicon
Hlgh electron
MESFET MESFET · mobility
h'a!lslstor ·

Low power l7 High power

---- Single gate _·, L . srngre·gaie

GaAs MESFET GaAs MESFET

____ . Dual gate

GaAsMESFET

-
Tedi-Nee, Publitaliom_
· Where Authon iaspire irmo1'11tiOD
Flg. 5.12.1: Clasmication ofFETs

-A SACHJNSIMH f'mture

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~=~~~~l---~--=-=~-~~
Iii
[a
M......_

l
~ (MU - Som. 7 • E&T5/
5.12..4 Important Types of FET•
5-"6
(l) Ju_nct1on fT.T (JnT)
CAn(O)
~

[;a. 5.. 12..3 E.~in type,, ot FEl a. ]

(I) Mtsnrr . Mrtal ln.ulator Sc-m.kooduc1or n:T

Herc- ratr I l'-01:ated from "-uh,.t.ntc uuni; l05Ull10f

bd'li'ttfl lhcm . p
n
\\'hen the: in"-ubt ii iO, 1hr de, 1 r ii c.dkc:I .u
MO nrr.
I
~~
~
It n w.cJ 1n k)'li :lnJ nlC\1,urn frrquC"nc10 upe11 I (ti I ;

Tht- h1rb fl"t'Ct,tr. , t"pe"n!t<m " IT me1nl Jur to htth

C'~jl~"'1t:.."' fonnc-.J l'C'l ll'C'C"J'I mct.:al plC' :ul..l , u, ~ ~ r
due t<> tr,>>,u J;!(-.

t b) ~ modo
f1:. S.. t !.J : HT.T

Hae •~, 1~ 1 l.itC\J I n.'\ffi h.lnncl u ing r-e\·cnt bi1seJ

Jl-0 JU1l.:l i t.' 1l r nlf'Ctt) . hcl\C'C lhc n:unc: junction FET
OFET).

lk rt:\r~ bi:bCll Junction offers wge ,-apxiu:xt

Md thu opcr.ition i1 rblncud IO low and medium
frrquroc-ic .

(3) ~1rW ~mlronductor Fl:., (MESfl:T)

(b)~ modd lien: p-o junction in JFET is replaccd by $dJO(!kY

flt,. 5. JU : !-d a.od ~ modd ol MISFET COol3ct :tS ~ wn in Fig. S.12.4.

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!'1 ~lcrowave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 5.37 Mlcrowavo Somlconductor Devfcas

~ Heavily doped (ijj) Input impedance is high and hence 11uitable for
n-type region
prcamplifiers.

(iv) Drain current is more linear as compared to e~ponentiaJ

collector current of BJT.

(v) Upper frequency limit is high as compared to BIT.

(vi) The power consumption is smaller as compared to arr.

er Disadvantages

Metal (i) They have smaller gains.

(tungsten) Substrate (ii) Due to high input impedance, the matching networks

are difficult to construct.

(iii) Power handling capacity is small.

(a) 2-d model

Gate Drain
1 ~ 5.12.6 Construction of FET )

It is fabricated by first growing a pure, semi insulating

buffer layer on a semi-insulating GaAs substrate.

Then n-doped epitaxial layer is grown over it which is

used to realize the FET's active channel.

Three connections are made to the channel. These are

called as source, gate and drain.
The source and drain are ohmic contacts while gate
(b) 3-d model contact forms a Schottky diode junction.
Fig. 5.12.4 : MESFET The epilayer is made thicker than necessary for the

Due to absence of insulator or junction under the gate channel and is etched to the correct channel thickness
the capacitance is low and thus the device can be used in the gate region.
at high frequencies (typicaJly 60-70 GHz).

The operating frequency can further be increased Source

(above 100 GHz) in HEMT device.

~ 5.12.5 Advantages and Disadvantages SIGaAs Butter

ofFET
SIC3aAs Substrate

LO. 5.12.4 Give advantages and disadvantages of FET.

~ Advantages (n) Constructional detail,

Fig. 5.12.S Continued'"
(i) Better temperature behaviour.
(ii) Noise performance is superior.

Tedi-Neo Publicatioos____ Jf'herr: Authora inspire innol'lltion .......4 S.4CHJN S11MI Yeatun:

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 Large gate widths are usually reserved for ~igh J>ower
applications.
The depl~tion mode devices are suitable in µw
applications.

n.. Contact
a 5 _12_8 V-1 characteristics
n• Con1act (Functionality)
region region
Depletion region
rrtype active channel
LowV08
Semi - insulating GaAs substrate
-----1!11-+--~
Vos
D
(b) Simplified cross-sed.lon

I 1111
I I I I I I
It I f 111
I I I 11 I I
11 I I I 11

(a) OperatJon in the linear region

High v08
v~j1j1 + D
Sooll - inw!ating Ga.As &bstrata

(c) The JongitndinaJ view

Fig.. 5.12-5: Constructional detalls or MF.SYET

~ 5.12.7 Microwave Range Operation

(b) O ~tlon in the i;aturation region

GaA.s MESFET can operate at higher operating Fig. 5.12.6: O~ratirm under bia'l cimdltion
freqoency as comp--d!ed to Si devices. This is due to
r;,- Functlonallty : (Linear Region)
high carrier mobility in GaAs. Typically above I GHz
Oower range of the microwave region) GaA.s The gate is applied with negative voltage with respect
transistors are used with adYantage. to source.

At microwave frequencies the dimensions of the device The drain is made JX)Sitive with respect to source.
are small. The space cruuge region is formed below Schottky
To work properly at µW, the gate length Lz: must be gal!:.

less than about (0.1 to l µm). Th.is affects the current flow from S to D.
The length decides the rruru.mum operating frequency. The space charge e.1.tent can be rontroJled by VGS·
For low noise applications, small gate width is UY'...d.

Ted:i-.1ieo Pablic:a:tiom- Wh~ Au~inspi« irmnratim, ____,I .~'ArlllN.\IIA/1 Jl,.,,tan:

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~ rypicallY for GaAs-Au interface V4 .: 0.9 V. The maximum value of IDNI occurs when Vas = 0. ~l
},!ea available for ele.ctrons to .Oow.
I
'
A = (d-ds)W

'Jbus the resistance R between S and D is,

I L
R = oA ~a (d - ds) W where; 0 =q Jli.No
- The transfer characteristic Oo Vs Vo:J and output
_ The drain current is, characteristics {10 Vs V0 ,) are shown in Fig. S.1 2·7 ·
. losa1 / loss.
Vos f
Io =R =G<l_1 -
_ Thus in the linear region,

Io oc Vos

Here

(a) CJrcu1t symbol (b) Tmosfer dla,acteristic.

er Non-linear region

- When V 00 increases, space charge region increases. Io Unear Saturation

,-A
I
-..~
I
The space charge region becomes nonunifonn. ~----Vos=O
- Now d 5 is not constant, it is a function ofy i.e. d5 (y).
.J-----}vos d>
where y is measured from left to right.

Area for conduction at a particular distance y is,

A(y) = {d-d5(y))W (c) Output characteristic

Fig. 5.12.7 : .V•I dlarademtia of MESFET
When drain voltage is further increased the space

-
charge extends over the entire channel depth d.

The drain source voltage for this situation is called as

Ia 5.12.9 Frequency .Response I
drain sawration voltage and the curre.nt associated is For fast -0peration the mobility -Of electrons (µ,,) must
drain saturation current. Denoted by, Vo.as and l0sar be high.
2
InGaAs : _µ,, = 8500 (cm N-s)
2
Si :.J.ln = 1500 (cm N-s)
wbere, VTO ⇒ Thresho1d vo1tage
- The above numbers clearly tells why GaAs js .preferred
over Si.
2
qN0 d At low values of Vos, when Vos is increased the
V p = Pinch off voltage-=~
electric field -under the gate increases causing velocity

I°""' = G1 [i- (V4 - V<;&) +

3 -Jv; (V._- V-GJYl]
of electrons to be increased.

--4 SAC/IJNS/l4IJ Yw,,n:

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--~.:.::;;;=M-=ic::;;r;;:o~w~a;;;v~e~E~~
ngmeenng {MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 5-40
-~~-~ ~~~~~~~~==~~~========:M~ ic=ro~w~a=v~e=S~e=m=i=co..n~d;;;:u;;;ct~o~ro~e~
.
After a certai al these respects HEMT i_s identical to a GaAs l\,tEs~
n v uc of V 05 (usually only a few tenths • er
of a I) (Fig. 5.13. l(b)).
vo l , electrons in GaAs cannot exceed a velocity
called a saturation velocity. It also decides the high
frequency response. Due to saturation velocity electron
will take time ('t') to travel through a channel of gate
length (L). This time is usually referred as transit time,
given by,

L (1E"')Fig. 5.13.l(n) : HEMT device

't = .. .(5.12.1 )
Source Gate Drain

The transition frequency is given by,

fT = _L_ N GaAsE i
. .. (5. 12.2)
2m SiGaAs Butter

I B.5.13 HEMT I SlGaAs substrate

(b) MESFET device

UQ. 5.13.1 Write short note on High Electron Mobility (lE45)Fig. 5.13.1 : Constructional difference between HE.MT and"
ME.5FET
Transistor. MU - Dec. 18, 5 Marks
Operation

la
tJr

5.13.1 Introduction of HEMT As shown in Fig. 5.13. l(b), the channel for caniers is
formed by a simple epitaxial layer. In HEMT this
The latest addition to the lineup of solid state devices is · channel is fom,cd by a heterojunction as shown in
the High Electron Mobility Transistor (HEMf). Fig. 5.13.l(a).
REMT or heterojunction field effect transistor (HFET) The heterojunction is a junction formed by different
is a MESFET based on a heterojunction instead of a bandgap materials. The N•AJGaAs l ayer is a higher
simple epitaxial layer. bandgap material while undoped GaAs is a lower gap
This device is an excellent candidate for microwave material.
and millimeter wave analog applications and high Because of the bandga_p difference the electrons from
speed digital applications. the higher bandgap material (N• A/GaAs) transfer to an
adjacent lower gap material (GaAs).
"& 5.13.2 Construction and Operation
At the interface, on the side of GaAs, a very thin
of HEMT
potential well is formed. due to mismatch of eoergy
bands.
r::r Construction
The potential well is so thin that the electrons
Fig. 5. 13.1(a) shows a cross-section of a typical HEMT
transferred in GaAs fonn a two dimensional electron
device. gas (2DEG) in the well.
1t has three metal contacts at the gate, drain and source
Because the electrons drift in the undoped
terminals. The source and drain tenninals are ohmic
semiconductor, they are not experiencing collisions
contacts. The gate contact is a Schott~]' contact. In
with impurity ions and therefore their mobility is
higher than in a doped semiconductor.
. - "!Jierc Aulhorsinspireinnonllion .....A SACJJINSIWI l'e111U1t
Teeh- Nco Pu bl.,ca 1I005----·- " ·

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 -l
,,,.·

(t '-1 t,C!CfOwsve Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 5-41 Microwave Semiconductor Oevtces

! ~ [Dakes a HEMT faster than a conventional 300

t .. ?Jl35Fm'.
250
gEMT rnade using InP technology are operational up
iii
.§.
to ZOO GHz. 200

I -
The A}GaAs - undoped GaAs device is usually called a
pseudomorphic HEMT, or pHEMT, because of the
lattice mismatch between AlGaAs and GaAs layers.
i
C

rI!
150

100

Other types of pHEMTs are possible, as wen as devices 50

with multiple heterojunctions. The advantage of
0 0 .8 1.2
0 .0
multiple junctions is increase in channel charge density - 0 .8 -0.4 - 0.2 0

and thus malcing device useful in power amplifiers.

[~ 5.13.3 Functionality I (b} g.,, V, VP for HEMT

i1E47)Fig. 5.13.2
From a macroscopic point of view, 1-V characteristics HEMf devices are popular due to their lower noise
of both MESFET and HEMT are quite similar. The characteristics at higher frequencies. For example a
drain-source current (l.J dependence on gate width is GaAs FET may have a noise figure of l .O dB at 5 GHz.
also observed in both devices. but the HEMT will have a noise figure in the range of
- When I-V curves are similar, their equivalent models 0.4 to 0.5 dB.
are similar. However, the gain of HEMf is less than FET. At the
A particular HEMT feature can be observed in the 1-V same 5 GHz, the FET has a gain of nearly 20 dB, but
output characteristic is shown in Fig. 5.13.2. Here as HEMT has 15 dB. This is shown in Fig. 5.13.3.
Vgs (for constant Vds) increases beyond a certain
pcint., the corresponding increase in Ids become
smaller. This represents a degradation of the device's
20
---- ····-··- OaA9
--
------- fET .
.........._
i:::r-.....,..._~--+---+---+·~•;:.:·-:..:.--t-
transconductance (gm) (see Fig. 5.13.2(b)}. This is an .......___ t - -
HEMT feature not found in MESFET. t---...__
HEMT -~---I
400
Tmnsoonduclanoe degradation

~~~:)
,,--- ---- - ---- ______':-::--., _---------- V
300 , __
= 1.0 ~
2m
i~
31---------------
21-- -+---1--4---4-----4-
~ GaA8 FET
Vgs=0.6 ----- ------- - -
...__ _.__ _2-..._ _.._3HEMT
_ _..._4_ ___.5_ _ f (GHz)
100 V91 :0.2
{1E48)Fig. S.13.3 : HEMT versusGaAs FET
Vgs:: --0.2
From the curves in Fig. 5.13.3 we say that there are
2 3 4 5 6
tradeoffs in the decision of which device to use for ·
Vm(V)
{1E46) (a) 1-V graph
which application.

1eda-Neo Publicati9n,_ 11'bcre .4ulllors iDspire inDonhon -4 SACHJNSIL4/J r~,urc

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 The threshold voltage js often much hj ..~
g ·· - -· ··· , , .. , _ __ ,,.. • - -· . - ,

3)
st'1110 npplkntJons require the low-noise figure , while . &1Cr (ic
more positive) than m MESFETs. It is Possible f~
\:llllci-:; ,lo ""' nccll that ns u critical parameter. On the
it 10 be dose to or even greater than zero, creatie
,illlc.r h:u~_I. I-lime npplications need as much gain as
enhancement mode devices. g
J\\\~:;ihlc. 'Ilic choke of I !EMT or FET depends cntirely
on the :ipplirntion. 4) The knee voltage of the gate-to-channel junction is
usually greater. Consequently, the maximum
~ 5·13,4
&ate.
[ Frequency Response f to-source voJuge is greater, and the Isat value
the gate-to-channel diodes is greater. Of
As in ,·:isc ,,r MtiSFIIT, the hiih frequency respo nse of
5) The drain-to-source resistance of HEMTs is
llliMT is llctcnninc<l by the tmnsit time. It is 1hc time
generally lower than that of MESFETs, and this
n"<)llil\"(I for c:irric,n; (ek-ctrons) to tra\'crsc unde r the
tends 10 mask dispersion effects.
~me i.e. :i dist~tll'C cqunl to g:itc length (L,).
With :1 Yclocity of vut and lcn)!th of Ls· the time
~
~ 5.14 Parametric Amplifiers and
l'l'\lll il\.'lf iS
Applications
~
t =-
ua. 5.14.1 Explain the working of a parametric amplifier
Knowing "s.a1 din."Ctly proportion:il to ckclric field (E), and explain its appttcation.
MU- Ma 16. 10 Marks
ua. 5.14.2 Explain the operation of basic parametric
device. Is it phase dependent. What ate the
relationships of the signal, pump and ~r
frequencies for a parametric amplifier with an
idler .......
~.;, ..,,. operates as a degene,ate
amplifier. MU -Ma 17, 10 Marks
where it.. = mobility of e.J.ectrons..
- The parametric amplifiers uses ooo-linear ~
a 5.13.5 ()jfference between
(capacitive or inductive) or time VciI).'ing reactance for
HEMT and MESFET
its amplification.

LQ. 5.13.2 ExµLain difference between HEMT and - ActuJlly parametric de,ices are based on the
MESFET. possibility -Of increasing the energy of the signal at ooe
frequency by supplying energy at some other
Althou_gb ~ orer..rin_g frinciple of rolh de,ices is
irequrncy.
s:uI)!, there 3.I'e some ditfmoces t-ern"ttn mo.
- ft is a low noise amplifier as no resistance is invomd
I) The ~'t3!l\.~ of a HE.\ IT ~'S 3
m ~in.g process.
~ ~~ romparedto ~IESFET.
- Also there_ i.il1 be_ no thermal noise. ~ the ac:iil-e
2) As ~ ,~~ in:...~ ~-m ~ m:
clement ns.ed is reactive.
dc!,~--e rums oo IIID..il roore :?hropcly thlo a
~fES.FET. Tnis is dDe to its hrgb:r
- .,\mpl.i.fic!rion is obtained if the reactance is varied

rn.~ndi k'.'t~oce. cltUi OlL:c..dl) in pre-<ket miI,;d ma:rmer.

- ' £KIJlfsmJI, ~

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 .~ --~~:£~ MO -Sm:l. '1 - ES.TC) 5-43 Microwave Semkx)nductor Devices

~
.., --'""""'"".-
~
~

k~ ~ ' .....-n:;..,. .~.:,._.,_

...._, ~
.........~ ~~ ,-a--;aw- .an3 a:
nm m::m?S that., energy tllCO
~ w 1he J;igna] 411 signal
from pump soun::e is
mquency. Hence with
complcle input circuit and load. amplification is
... ~'\!'~~~~ ~~
~

.. 1:-: - -
,~~~,_,. .£.~ ~ ~~ ~ l!S .m; ~ ~ l!!
. --tft.~ ~1fi.-z l! is 1ih!,wn in Fi~ 5.14.2.
Idler d,cuit
... l!'iilt\:.,) ~ ~r.nl :a: ~~- ¼, 11Ild :!. small mI¥>IITDi• ~ ciralit ♦

~~~~~;~~~ l:)lir
~'i!,.~Jl....~

~ "' ~ $...~....~ ~~ -:an... .,.~ 'i.d ~ 9f1Sa1 .&

~"¢ISL d.~~ "C'.hs~ in .anp1i5-a::i'JD

flt " ~"l.t -fil..~ : i s ~ b i.es ~

_, -
"'i'lano::;;' m
~--6...'\t~~.rls:,.±an~t
~ ':ill~ ,- : i s : : _ ~ ~ :-.:-:a;~an,- ~ ~ ;; fun=:i:m elf

~~~~~
(154)Fi:,..5.l.U: Equmdeo1 ci.ralit [or a parametric amplifier
~ ....'\~~~~~~ ~ ~ey

~'\llllb-u~s ~ .!t - .a.-1: ~:i~~:rat ? ~ r.ig.5J 4. L

l "5. 5.14.1 Parametric Up Converter j
Wh::n th: freq_u..,~es ~ (signal frequency) and fP
(pump fr- -ncy) are mixed in the nonlinear capacitor
..,qu..
C.. ioar -dif:fel""...nt frequencies are obtained.
"'t:rodyin_g principle).
{SuperlL,

Tney 11re 1s, ¾,, m-4 + nf.. m-4 - of,

If resistive 1oad is connected across the terminals of the
~ circm1. oatpm 'l'Oitage at freqoency f O can be
g:n:cro:-1
,: ....1 -
-· ~ - ---_., llis f,, can re written -as.

•.. (m and n are positive integers)

-·
..!

...I Iff0 > i. ~ ~,i.ce is parametric upconvertor.

...
Iff,, < ~ ~ ~ vice is parametric downconvertor.
4- ~
J ~
..... -\~.- 1 - - ~f~ Fig. 5.14.2. It shows e.quivalent circuiL
' 1 tlui1:llC.
::r- P r o ~ of parametric upconvertor

L 0lllpII1. frNJo·ncy == sign.al frequency + pump frequency

tiCSJi':(;.. ~'tC ::-~tt:m?Wiffi.:miuti ~~ ~
~~

~~~1"): ;:t· tJ.. - .. - . -A SM:IllKSllUI Yazture

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 i1 Mierowave §l9ineerin (MU - Sem. 7- E&TC) 5-44 Microwave Semiconductor De'Vices
2.
There is no power flow in parametric amplifier at
1a. s.14.2 Parametric Down Converter]
frequencies other than f.,. f, and r,.
~ PowergaJn
_ To activate this mode of parametric amplifier, si&naJ
fo X frequency f1 = f~ + f0
Gain =
f, ( I + "1+i)2 This means that input power must be feed into idler
Where fo = circuit and output power move out from the signa)
~+f,
circuit
f,
X =- -('YQ)l r:r Power gain
fo

I It is given as
Q =
2lt f. C R.t
f• X
Gain
= fo (f +{i+x) 2
R.i = series resistance of p-n junction diode

yQ : figure of merit for nonlinear capacitor a. 5.14.3 Negative Resistance

X
Parametric Amplifier
( r + -..ff+xf = gain - degradation factor
uo. 5.14.3" Explain the working of a negative resistance
parametric amplifier.
MU - Dec. 18, 10 Marks
f0
: . Gain for lossless diode= f. - If significant power signal is present at f,. fP and the
idler frequency f;.a regenerative condition occurs.
Practically ·r'Q could be equal to IO.
rr Noise figure - This means, there is a possibility of oscillation at both
the signal frequency f, and the idler frequency f;.
Noise figure of parametric apconverter is given as,
Actual.Jy f; = fP - f,
F = I+ zrd[_r
To
+-1-]
(yQ/
yQ When the mode operates below the oscillation

Where Td = diode temperature in °K threshold, the device behaves like negative resistance
parametric amplifier.
T0 = 300° K =ambient temperature
r:r Powergafn
yQ = figure of merit of nonlinear capacitor
It is given as,
rT Bandwidth
4f; Rg · R; a
Gain = T ·Rr. Rn · ( 1 - a )2
It is given as,
Where, f, = signal frequency
BW = 2 - f ~
f; idler frequency

fp = pump frequency
R, = generator output resistance
redi..f'<eo Pul:&.atioDJ- lnen: Jut.l,on nupire iaJHMfioD -A S1Cl//NS/llll Ycature

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------
 MU I ~ott1 ' ' t" . ~.;.

Ri !ee i1llr,t ~mu "'Iii t111''11" tt rii•t ~•v<e

"-t, "" hll..t1 -C..tl f'\ tttitilJ!Nt 111 f t

lt,, !,e l ~ 111 tl(lll"~ ftt.lt.1 11'l(,e ~ (,

.li..
I .,,
~.
,.\nd ..
" c· tt,,
"'•
{._
m.

It h p vcn at.,

T,[ I
I + ! - - .. - -t 2]
T,, yQ (yQ)

WhCf'c T, • dir« 1t111pe:ni1urc (In "K)

TO • .imbient tcmpcrnturc

o( )1pul J'."C'1Xr.rtf)( I en U)
rQ • figu re of merit for the nonlinc:u apxitor

17 Bandwidth Tabw 5. IU : Compartw)a ol ~ e rk • pe'.-•""-"'

Sr. Paramc:tric up Ne-pt.It•~•

No. (Oftnttrr pa-ratniirk am ,,.1"'"'

llW -_ l
2
~'
f, • pin rul..1t.c:r11I ,.ublc: n 1uU1..1J un\u:,tc ~,""c:
I.
de\ ll"t'
( a. 5.14 .4 Degen erate Pnrametrlc Amp lltter I 2. \\'llk:b.l.n.J11,i.dul N..i.rro b.ln.J .,..uh I
ln lhiSC4!.e
3. Low glllf\ 111th Jt ialn

-t . C u-cu1 mx- I) OOl U'C"IJL!.or- I~ na:d,._~

nccJcJ. I

Bui f, = (
~
-( . 5. NO( ~ i ubte foe Su.1...1.bl.c: for t. s ~
I lugl-:-t f r ~ . frcquc-n,;:111n
= :; fr
From T:ilik 5. 14. l. It L\ lc.u- lh..1 r h.:.pi tni,.~
Where f, = signn.l frequency i!.ppliOOOC:\ hl_c rad.u• ~ \ t' ~ l ~ "'-.,C ('ll.'l:.~

5.mphf IC'l l) u_ie.i.

fr = pump frequency
Wbro lo"" 00tic fi~1: h ~~ ..x-~--:-~
f1 = idler fn.-quency
~nctn .imp{Jf~, i) u><J. 1 ~ tJ " ; ~ -1.,._, 1 -~ it.)

Power g11in llild hnndwid1h i s ~ me b ftfU.l t' ~ ,o .. Lt

Ith that or "-.) t~ ~~ t ~ffl. b::1C'> lo.)

parame1ric up conven er.

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 . _,...,, ,v""''"'"avi:, ~om1conductor De~
'Gcncrai ~ n s include-:
(i}

(ii)
long range radar
·satellite~ stations
, . May2017

a. 4{b) Explain the operation of basic parametric device. Is

'
it phase. dependent. What ·are the relationat,1pa,
(iii) ·Radio1e1esco~
•ttte signal, pump· anct idler 'frequencies lor ~
(iv) Artificial satellites parametric amplifier with an Idler circuit operates
a degenerate amplifier. as
(v) Microwave gtound wave communications (Ans; -: RefersectiortS.14) (10·Mllrb)
(vi) Radio astronomy etc. -0-.-6(b} Write short ·note on: Modes in Gunn Diode.
(Ans.: Refer secfion 5.7.7) · {10\tar1ce)

&. 5...15 University Questions and II. . Dec. 201-7

Answers
a. t(d) Explain working of BARITT.
(Ans. : FJefer section 5.9)
(S Marica)
• May-2015
a. 3(a) State various modes of Gunn diode and explain any
one of them.in detail
0. 1(b) Explain any two mOdes of operation Gunn diOdes · (Ans; ·: RefersectiCJttt·5.7.7and 5.7.7(8))(10 Marta)
With schematics.,
(Ans. :'Refersection~~-7. 7 amt 5.7. 7(8)) (5 'Marks) II. . May.20.1&
0.. 4(a} Explain the working_ of a parametric amplifier and ·a. ~A) •Expfairrwooorrg-otTRAP'ATT.
&xplain its application. (Ans. : Refer section 5.10)
(Ans. : Refersect,on S:.f4) {TO Marks) (10 Marks)
0-. 5(b) Explain the construction amt working- ot TRAPATT a. 6(CJ Wme a short note on : Gunn diode
diOde. (Ans.: Refer section 5.9) (10 Marks) (Ans.: Refer sections 5.7, 5.7.1. 5.7.2 and 5.7.3)
a. 6{b) Write a short note on m1crowave FET: {SMari<s}
.(Ans.: Refer section 5.12) (10 Marks) 11• Dec. 2018
I I

O. t{A} Write-a·short note-on- TRAPATT.

Q. 1(d) Explain working of IMPATT.
(Ans. : Refer section 5.9) (5 Marti)
(Ans. : Refer section-5. 8) ·(5 Marks} Q; 't(B) Wrtte a short note- orr 'high electrorr mobttity
transistors.
a. S(a} State various modes of Gunn diode and explain any
one of. them in detail.. (Ans. : Refer section ~ 13) •(5 Marks)
(Ans.: Refer-sections 5.7.7 and 5.7.7(8)) a. 3{B1 Explain the working of a negative resistance
(10 Marks) parametric amplifier.
(Ans. : Refer section '5. f4".3) '(lO Marki)
Q. G(A} Write a short note on-: Gunn-diode
(Ans.: Refersection 5.7) (7 Marks}

Chapter Ends.. ..

□!JO

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 Microwave Measurements

-vSWR, Frequency, ·Power, Noise, ·o-:i=at:tor, ·1mpedance, A1tenuation, ·Oiefectric'Constant; Antenna·Gmn.

·t:o. 8.~.'t Explain methods of mlcrowave·rrequency _ _a-to

e.1 Introduction (Microwave Measurement Devices) ............. 6-3
measuremeru-. - - --- -- --
LO. 6.1.1 Explaln In brief about microwave measurement 6-10-
6.4.1 W8'¥emetet Meltlod ...................................................... .
(levtceS. ...................................................................... 6-3
.................. 6-ff
6.4.2 Slotted Una Method...................................... .
6.1. f $Totted Una with Tuneable Detector.............................. 6-3
11
6.4.3 Down Conversion Method .............................................. 6-
6.1.1 (A) Slotted Line Waveguide................................................. 6-3
_ _....6-t.2
MlaowaveP.ower MeasUfM\80l- - • - --
6.U (B} Tunable.Detector ------·---·-----6"3 6.5
La. 6.5.1 Write short note on : Microwave power
LQ. 6.1.2 Write short note on : Tunable detector ..................... 6-3
measurement ........................................... ····· ·········· 6-l2.
6..1.2 VSWR Melara- -- --------- 6-4 Measurement of Low Microwave Power......................... 6-12
LO. 6.1.3 Write explanatory note on : VSWR meter.................. 6-4 6.5.1

6.5.2 Measurement of Medium Power using catorime_ter ....... 6-13

6. 1.3 A Microwave Power Melaf ............................................... 6-5

LQ, 6.1.4 Wr1ta nots on : Microwave power meter••.................. 6-5 6.5.3 Measurement of High Power .....•....:............................... 6-14

6.1.4 F,equency Meter I Wave Meter........................................ 6-7 6.6 Noise Measurement ........................................................6-1'5

LQ. 6.1.S Writs explanatory note on : Frequency meter. ___ 6-7 LQ. 6.6,1 Explain In brief : Sources of. noiS&............................ 6-15

6.2 Mlcfowave Measurement Setup....................................... 6-a 6.6.t Noise Factor................................................................... 6-'t6

·s.3 VSWR Measurement.. ...................................................... 6-9 LQ. 6.6-.2 Define Noise Factor................................................. 6-16

'lQ, 6.:U Describe In detail the techniques used for ...................... 6.6.2 Measurement or Noise"Temperature by.YF actor
VSWA measurement ................................................ 6-9
Method ............................................................................ 6-16
8.3.1 Measurement of LDw VSWR's (S < 10) ........................... 6-9
· LO. 6.S-.3 Explain Y factor method of noise temperature

6.3.2 Measurement of High VSWR (S > 10)- using measurement .......................................................... 6-16.

Da.Jble Minimum Method ................................................. 6-9 6.7 0 -Factor Measurament·..................................................'6-17

6.4 Microwave Frequency Measurement............................. 6-1 o

11 1
./..i i
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 Microwave Engineerin (MU. Sem. 7. E&TC
6-2 Microwave Measurerneoia
LO.. 8.7.1 s:..... ,_,_
~ any one 0-tacto, measurement LO. 6.10.1 Write short note on : Measurement of
method. ······••............................................................ 6-17 Dielectric Constant. .................................................. 6-21

6.8 ~ Measurement........_ _.._____. 6-18 6..11 Antenna Gain MeasuremenL.

LQ. 6.8.1
Explain any two methods of measuring Impedance LQ. 8.11.1 Explain antenna gain measurement methods
ot a terminating load In a microwave system........... 6- t 8 In detall ..................................................................... 6-23
6.8.1
Measurement of Impedance using Slotted Une............. 6-18 6.11.1 Absolute Method for Gain Measurement........................ 6-2J
5 92
· Measurement of Impedance using Reflectometer ......... 6-19 6.11.1(A) Two Antenna Method ................................................ 6-23
LQ. &.a.2 Explain rellecto,neter method fo,
6.11. 1(8) Three Antenna Melhod.............................................. 6-23
measurament of nT1Jedance.................................:.. 6-19 ·
6.9 · Attenuation Measurement 6.tt.t(C) Soutt:85ofError ........................................................ s.24
·········..................................... 6-19
6 1 6.11.2 Comparison Method (Gain Transfer Method) ................. e.24
LO. ·'· Explain attenuation measurement techniques

In detail...- ...- .•..~ ....................... ~ ............................ s- 19 6.11.2(A) Sources of Error ........................................................ 6-24
6.9:1
Power Ratio Method....................................................... 6-20-
6.9.2 RF Substitution Method .................................................. 6-20

6.1 O Measurement of Dielectrlc Constant ............................:. 6-21

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 .
(
I i,J.~ Engineering (MU- Sem. 7 - EATCJ 6-3 Microwave Measurements

The tunable detector is sliding on the rectangular

-z,. 6.1 Introduction (Microwave -waveguide with travelling mechanism along this stot.
Measurement Devices} Al!lc:tmett .,..
deledlnO tnmmri
sloctedaediol'I
of~
t.O, 6.1.1 Explain in brief about microwave
measurement devices.

In the measurement involving microwaves we require

following devices.

"l,. 6.1.1 Slotted Line with Tuneable

Detector

_ Sloned line with !unable detector is very famous and

user friendly measurini; cquipmenl. This is mainly used
10 dc1cct standing wave paltem at the microwave
frequency. To do 1his slotlc<l line have following 11Uin flfT)Flg. 6. I. I : Slotted Une
pans and is !Jlown in Fig. 6 .1.1 with proper labelling.
As we know 1hat the s1anding wave pa1tcm is fonncd Ia 6.1.1(8) Tunable Detector }
within waveguide due 10 mi mJtch bc1wccn wavci;uidc
impedance and lo:id impedance connected to I LQ. 6.1.2 Write short note on : Tunable detector.
waveguide.. This p:iu.cm is periodic in nature.
The function of tunable detector is to detect the square
In this pattern disuncc be1ween two m:u.ima and
wave modulated microwave signal.
minima is fixed which is '}.J2.
For sake of detection it consists of point contact or
Thus if we have any mech.3.!1ism with which we can
loc:ite cit.lier m:uinu or minima .ilong with disunce Schottky Barrier diode. Thus with the help of tunable
between Lhcm. this give us wavelength of the detector microwave signal gets converted in low
microwave signaJ. frequency signal.
Also knowing the maxima and minima we can find out This low frequency signal can be observed on the
VSWR. From this we can measure various parameters
oscilloscope or can be connected ro the voltmeter for ·
such as frequency, unknown impedance.
the funhcr measurements. There are followin~ three
- To CMT}' ou1 these measurements the sloued line h:ive
different types of tunable detector as shown in
following various parts.
Fig. 6.1.2.
Ia. 6.1.1(A) Slotted Line Waveguide l. Tunable waveguide detector

2. Tunable co-axial detector

- It is rectangular waveguide. On the top wall of the
3. Tunable probe detector
guide-slot of length 'N}..'. is made. Here N > 0 and is
an integer.

T ~ Publiati0111- ~ Authors irzspire irwot-atioa -A £4CIIINS1U/f Yeatare

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 Mlaowavo Moa.&ir~

The m~n P:ut of the tun:,ble dettctor 1~ ~~or. This

scru ..
sor as inserted in the waYcguldc vin !.lot which Is
nude on the top of lhc w:wcguiJc.

The sensor detects the Stllllding wove pallcm which

exists withtn w11Yeguidc.

This pottcm is further given to the diode detector. As

length of the tunable dctt.ctor C.'.lll be adjusted for the
m.:uimum power, it is called as runable probe.
(lfl)flg. 6.U.: VSWH. mct.u

er Standing wave ratio

To know more abollt SWR Meter, it is necessary that

you understand the basic cooc.epl of Sunding wi-VC
Ratio [SWRJ.
In a communication line, Standing Wave Ratio is
defined as the ratio between the amplitude of a partial
standing wave at antinodes [max) to the amplitude of
the adjacent mode [min). Thus the ratio calculated is
also-called the voltage ratio or Vollllge Standing Wave
(b) Fiml boffd lmtd tinted~
Ratio (VSWR].
If we get a ratio of 1.5: 1, it means that the maximum
standing wave amplitude is 1.5 rimes greater than the
minimum standing wave value.

Like Voltage SWR, we can define SWR in terms of

Current [ISWR] and Power [PSWR]. PSWR will be the
square of VSWR.
(c) Tuaablt wavq:aldc (II) FIIta wavqulde matched
dcett1or dd«111r mo1111t SWR is commonly expressed to measure the efficiency
(1F21fig. 6.1.2 of a coromunica1io11 line. The lines also include other

1~
cables that pass radio frequency signals, and TV cable
6.1.2 VSWR Meters
signals. It is also used for connecting radio transmillers

I LQ. 6.t.3 Write explanatory note an : VSWR meter.

and receivers with their antennas.

When a transmission line is set. the impedance in the

SWR meters are used 10 measure and denote lhe cables will always be out of match. This will cause the
standing wave ratio in a communication line. radio waves to be reflected back towards the SOOl\"e

Thal is, the meter will denote lhe exact mismatch end of the cable.

between the transmission line and the load, thus - The SWR meter is used to dc1cn11ine the amount of
helping to know the degree of effectiveness of the radio frequency energy that is being reflected bact ro
impedancr marching efforts. the lransminer compared ta the amount tha1 is being

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 ,

Engineering (MU - Sem. 7'- E&TC) 8-5 vicrowave ~

s,e;nt out during operation. If the ratio is high. the The test impedancc will be increased until the bridge
trallSmitter will get damaged for sure. circuit is oo)arv:ttl, that is the test impedanCC will' be
equal to the reference impedanoc. Thus. with the help
The maximum standard rating for a SWR meter where
of a bri~c circuit we can know wbctber a SWR is
a uansmission can v.;thstand is J.S: J. The ideal rating
is J: I that is the power reaches the destination and JmSCt!torDOL

~ects no power back. " Problems wtttt SWR Meters

er otrectional SWR meter - The actual impedance of any load is the reactanCC and

_ A directional SWR meter is used to measure the resistance to~ctber. But. the SWR meter cannot
magnitude of the transmitted and reflected waves by measure both. instead ~ the mismateb.
.sensing each one scparalcly. with the help of _ . ~ more ---tcx Tadio
To measare the ~· ""'llJ.l''
directional co uplers. The circuit diagram of a f ~ meawring devices must be used.
Directional SWR Meler is shown below.
For the SWR meter readings to be accurate. the device

must be mat.cbed on to the line impedance.

Arly transmission line ~ill have a c.eiwn loss- When.

TX this loss OCClllS, the reflected sig:nal will be attenuated
when it tra\·els back along the line. Thus. for the SWR
metC'r to be efficient. it must be conocctcd very near to
REV J.hr- aotcooa aDd further away from the Joad.
GND
- lne value of SWR will be more when it is neaICC io the
(t~Fig. 6.U : DirtttJonal SWR Mrter
load.
From the diagram, we can see that the transmitter and Wbc.o using a passive type SWR meter it is always
antenna are connected through an internal transmission better to remove the device from the line. As these
line. devices h:n·c diodes and other harmonics prodocing-
- The line is also electro.magnetically coupled 10 two compooeots., intermodulation may occur.
directional couplers, which are then connected to the ·
resistors at one end, and diodc rectifiers at the other. Ia. 6~1.3 A Microwave .Power Meter I
- The resistors help in matching the characteristic
impedance of the sense lines. At the same time, the
diodes help in convening the magnitudes of the
j 1.a. 6.1.4 Wme note on: Microwave power meter.
l
- A microwave power meter is an instmment which
forward and reverse waves to their corresponding DC
measures the electrical power at microwave
voltages [FWD and REV].
frequencies.typically io the range t 00 MHz to 40 GHz.
- These DC voltages will then be smoothened with the
Uswilly a microwave power meter will consist of a
help of capacit~.
~ head which contains the actual l)OWCT
" SWR bridge circuit sensing clement, conncctcd via a cable to the meter
- A typical bridge circuit can be constructed for proper, which displays the pow.er 11:ading.
determining the SWR impedance.

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t· · ' "'Mvwave tngil)eering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 6-6 -- -·-111ent3
~
Tbe be:¼d m:iy be refem.."d 10 as :1 power senq)r or The.re nrc 3 variety of diffcrenl technologies Which
mount Differcnt power sensors can be U$Cd for have been used as the power ~cosing clement. Each ha,
different frequencies or power levels.. advantages and disadvantages.

Hisloocally the means of operation in most power er Them181 sensor

sen..~r :ind meter C"Ombin:uions w·as that th\! sc1L~ r
Thcnn:tl sensors can generally be divided into t11;o
\\"Ou.Id com--ert the microwave power into an analogue
main citegorics. thcnnocouplc power sensors ¾1
voliage which. would be reJd by the meter and
tbermistor-bast.--d power sensors.
convened into a power reading.
Therm:tl sensors depend on the process of absorbing
Several modem power sensor beads contain electronics
the RF and microwave signal energy. 3Ild sense the
10 mate a digital output and c:m be -plugged ,ia USB
resulting b~t rise. Therefore. they respond 10 true
into a PC which acts as the power meter.
average power of the signal, whether it is pulsed, CW,
1ficrowave power meters have a wide bandwidth they Ai\.t/F~.f or any complex modulation.
are not frequency-selective.
Thermocouple power sensors make up lhe majori~y of
To measure the power of a specific frequency the thermaJ power sensors sold at present. They are
component in the presence of other signals at different generally reasonably linear and have a reasonably fast
frequencies a spectrum analyzer or measuring receiver response time and dynamic range.
is needed.
The microwave power is absorbed in a load whose
temperature rise is measured by the thennocouple.
Thermocouple sensors often require a reference OC or
microwave power source for calibration before
measuring; this can be built into the power meter.

Toennistor-based power sensors are generally only

used in situations where their excellent linearity is
imponant, as they are both much slower and have a
smaller dynamic range than either thermocouple or
diode-based sensors.

(tf5}fig. 6.1.5 : Power meter Thennislor-based power sensors are still the sensor of
r:r Sensor technoJogles choice for power transfer standards because of their DC
power substitution capabilit)'.

Other thermal sensing technologies include microwaYe

calorimeters and bolometers, and quasi-optic pulsed
microwave sensors.
c:4" Diode sensor

Many microwave power beads use one or more

diode(s) to rectify the incident microwave power, and
(1F6}Fig. 6.1.6 : Power sensor
have extremely fast response.

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., .

wave Engineering (MU-Sem. 7 - E&TC) s-7 M"JCrOWave Measurements

'fhe diode would generally be used in its square-law

1~ 6.1.4 Fraquency Meter/ Wave Meter J
., region and hence give an output voltage proportiona] to
tbe ineideDt RF power.
Jn order to extend their dynamic range beyond the
I LQ. 6.1.5 Write explanatory note on: Frequency meter.]

Frequency meter is used to determine and display the

square-Jaw region, linearity correction circuits or
freguency of the microwave signal.
multiple diode stacks are used.
The frequency counter can only count a single
With advancement in comprehensive data
frequi:ncy. If multiple frequencies are present. the
compensation algorithm and diode stacks topology,
coUDler cannot make a measurement
diode sensors like is able to respond pro.J>Crly to
complex modulated signals over a wide dynamic range. Basic structure of frequency-meter is as shown in

Like thermocouple sensors, they often require a Fig. 6.1.7.

reference source . The heart of this frequency meter is the resonant cavity

<r Type of microwave power meters

and for any particular cavity size, a singJe frequency
resonance will be "supported".
The two main types of microwave power meters are:
If the cavity size can be varied, ..resonance al the whole
Avemge power meter - mea~ures true average power of
range of frequency can be obtained. In our frequency
the s ignal and displays the power much like a digitnl
meter, the micrometer changes the resonant frequency.
vo ltmeter
11,c cavity is connected to the source of energy where
Peak and avemge power meter - has the feel of an
frequency is to be measured.
oscilloscope. It displays profik or envelope power of
The cavity has a small window which allows some ·
the signal versus time and can make triggered
energy to enter.
measurements.
The energy is often said to be absorbed by the cavity
In addition to pe.uc. average and peak-to-average power
and hence the name absorption type.
measurements, high end models can make automated
pulse measurerneoL~ of a pulsed RF signal such as The maximum absorption takes place when the cavity
pulse average power, riselime and falllime, pulse is tuned exactly to the frequency of energy to be
width, duty cycle, pulse repetition rate, overshoot, measured.
droop, edge del ay measurements. It can also make For greatest accuracy, the ' Q' of the cavity is made
marker measurements as well. very high, often as high as 10,000. It indicates that the
~ Display tuned circuit is extremely sharp absorbing the
maximum of the energy at the- exact frequency and
Power meters generally report the power in dBm
much Jess at slightly different frequencies.
(decibels relative to 1 milliwatt), dBW (decibels
relative to I watt) or watts. At exact dial settling. where the maTimnm or. peak

Manufacturers of microwave ])OWCT meters include: absorption takes place and accurate frequency
measurement can be made.
Aeroflex., Keysight.. Anritsu, Bird Technologies,
Boonton Electronics, Giga-tronics, Rohde and The indicating meter in the circuit indicates the energy
Schwarz, Tektro nix and TEGAM Inc. level and shows . a drop in such level the moment
energy is absorbed by the frequency meter cavity.

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 Microwave Measurements
Microwave 'En ~neenn u·-Sem. 7 ·. E&TC)' 6-8

J. The signal generator is a microwave source w~

Dip• occurs of tiic m
· dicnting
· meter
· and U1cn rending the
llllcromcter pos"ti
1 on nnd the corresponding frequency output is of the order of mill watlc;. It could be a Gunn
diode oscillator, e backward wave oscillator or a reflex,
from the calibration "' w, prov1'dod with
"hn.. , Ilic frequency
meter. · klystron tube. Jl can provide either a Continuous Wave
(CW) or square wave modulated at an audio rate which
is nonnally J KHz. In some. cases it may hav~
provision for sweep oscillator which allows the output
frequency to bo varied periodically.
2. The· precision nttenuator can provide· 0 to SO dB
attenuation above its .insertion Joss.
. 3. The variable flap attenuator is also used in addition,
whose ca1ibration can be checked against readings or
the precision attenuator.

4. A frequency meter is used· for direct reading of

frequency tllat consists a single cylindrical cavity
which can be adjusted to resonance and is slot coupled
to the waveguide.
11F7)1i'ig. 6.1.7 ~ Frequency meter
! I
5. The crystal detector, inserted in. the E probe of the
slotted line is contained in tlle crystal detector mount at
~ 6~2 Microwave Measurement the· end of the waveguide run, is used to detect the
Setup
modulated signal.

6.. The. SWR (Standing Wave Ratio) indicator is basically

The general set up for measurement of any parameter
a sensitive turned voltmeter tllat provides direct reading
in microwaves is normally done by a microwave bench.
of tlie SWR or its equivalent value in decibels.
Such a set-up·is shown in Fig. ~.2.1.

Standing
wave
indicator
"!j - ,;II
Yariab.le
.precisloo Crystal
attenuator detector .probe.

,
,---------,.---
, Crystal
d&tector
I - -------- I ~ mount
. .
..,:Signal lma;--:D;-.....__-4
...__ _... Termination
1generator 1
---------------- Slotted
line

11f'8)Fig. -6.2.1 ~-GeMral sd-up ofmicro,.ate bench

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 1 '

Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7. E&TC) 6-9 Microwave Measurements

[ "l!I. 6.3 VSWR Measurement I As an example, a FSD of 10 mV corresponds to a

VSWR of 1. The travelling probe is adjusting to ge
minimum reading on the meter.
JOmV
LO. 6.3.1 Describe in detail the techniques used for If this corresponds to 5 mV, then VSWR - 5 mV = 2.
VSWR measurement.
If it is 3.3 mV, VSWR = 3, if it is 2.5 mV, VSWR = 4.
Depending upon the value of S, there are two methods If it is 1 mV, VSWR = 10 etc. i.e. such a calibrated
VSWR meter gives an expanded scale up to an VSWR
(i) Low VSWR measurement (S < l 0)
of 2 but for VSWR > 10, the meter will be congested
(ii) lEgh VSWR measurement (S > 10) and the measurement will not be accurate for
VSWR's > IO. Hence this method is not useful for
~ 6.3.1 Measurement of Low VSWR's
(S < 10) VSWR' s> IO.

~ 6.3.2 Measurement of High VSWR

Values of VSWR not exceeding IO are very easily (S > 1O) - using Double Minimum
measured with the set up show~ in Fig. 6.3. 1 and can Method
be read off directly on the VSWR meter calibrated as
shown in Fig. 6.3.2. For VSWR's > IO, we use what has come to be known
The measurement basically consists of simply adjusting as the double minimum method. In this method, the
the attenuator to give an adequate reading on the meter, probe is inserted to a depth where the minimum can be
which is a D.C. millivoltmeter. read without difficulty.

The probe on the slotted waveguide is moved to get The probe is then moved to a point where the power is
maximum reading on the meter (corresponding to twice the minimum.
vm..). Let this position be denoted by d 1• The probe is then
The attenuation is now adjusting to get full scale moved to twice the power point on the other side of the
reading. This full scale reading is noted down. minimum (say di) as shown in Fig. 6.3.2, we get,

- Next the probe on the slotted line is adjusted to get pmin oc v2

min
minimum reading on the meter {corresponding to Vmin) 2
2Pm1n oc V
gives the VSWR. X

2
I V.
...
man
2 = ---r
VX
2
or V
• = 2 (Vmin)'-

or v. = "2-vmin
(1 F9)Fig. 6.3.1
Further for TE 10 mode
The meter itself can be calibrated in terms of VSWR.
In this case the probe carriage is moved to give Ac = 2a
maximum deflection (FSD) corresponds to a VSWR
Ao = df
ofL
Tedi• Nto .rn._Lli . • ffJI. ~ h . . . _.-;
UD cations;.._.... _ wuere·11ul 0TS msprre mnu,..uOD .....A SACHINS/LUI Yea~

,,
I
--:-- --=-- - - - - - ---,,- ---=-=:-:-----=--- - -- - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- ....;'I d/
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 ' I

Ex. 6.3.2
Two identical directional couplers are used in a waveguide
to sample the incident and reflected powers. The output of
Then VSWR can be calculated using the empirical
relation, the two couplers is fo~nd to be 2.5 mW and 0.15 mW. Find
the value of VSWR in the waveguide.

VSWR = 0 Soln.: We know,

- /Pr
p =
"\JP.
P = ~ =✓0.06 = 0.244
Vx= ../2.vmln
I
.!..±.Q I + 0.244
I
I
VSWR = 1 - p = 1.0244 = '- 64
I
I
I
vmin ---------1-- 1
a 6.4 Microwave Frequency
I

d1 d2 Measurement
Distance (ems)-.
(1F10)Fig. 6.3.2
LO. 6.4.1 Explain methods of microwave frequency
Ex. 6.3.1 measurement.
TEIO wave is transmitting inside a transmission system
Microwave frequency is measured using a
operating at 10GHz. Dimensions of waveguide are 4cm x
commercially available frequency counter and cavity
2.5cm. Distance measured between the twice minimum
wavemcter.
power point is Imm to a slotted line. Calculate the standing
wave ratio of transmission system. The frequency also can be computed from measured
@ Soln.: guide wavelength in a voltage standing wave pattern

Given: along a short circuited line by using a slollcd line,

f = 10 GHz; a.== 4 cm; b = 2.5cm
For TE 10 mode,
Ia 6.4.1 Wavemeter Method I
Ac = 2a =2 x4 = 8 cm
10
A typical wavcmctcr is a cylindrical cavity with a
C 3x 10
Ao = f - 9 =3cm variable short circuit termination which changes !he
!Ox 10
resonance frequency of the cavity by changing the
cavity lengt11.
TE 10 mode is most suitable for wave meter because of
We know,
its higher Q and absence of axial current.
Since this is higher order mode, possibility of
generation of lower order modes exits. Hence for
For double mjnimum method VSWR is given by, practical purposes dominant TE010 mode is used in
R_ \ = 3.236 ::;; _ wavemcter applications, Wav~mctcr axis placed
10 3
vsw - 1t (C½ - d1) 7t (1 X 10-l)
perpendicular to the broad wall of the waveguide and

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 Microwave Engineering (MU - Sam. 7 • E&TC) 6-11 Microwave Measurements
-
coupled by means of a hole in the narrow wall as
)... =
Ao ... (6A.3)
2 for wavelength
shown in Fig. 6.4. l. ' ✓ [I - (Ao/ 2a) J
This excites TE01o mode in the cavity due to the ,..,
1 Ao 'al ,.
= ~ for coax• me
...(6A.4)
magnetic field coupling. E,

.. A block of absorbing material (polytron) placed at the and measuring the by dmin by the slotted line probe carriage.

1~ 6.4.3 Down Conversion Method ] ·

bade of the tuning plunger prevents oscillation on top
of it. Thus the cavity resonates at different frequencies
for different plunger positions.
An accurate measurement of microwave frequency can
_ The tuning can be calibrated in terms of frequency by
be done by means of a heterodyne converter.
known frequency input signals and observing the dip in
A heterodyne converter (Fig. 6.4.2) down convertS tbe
the display unit (power meter) connected at the output • • ·th an accurately
unknown frequency f1 by llllXJOg WI
side of waveguide.
known frequency fa. S uc h t hat the difference
Shorting plunger fx.- fa= fIF is amplified and measured by the counter.
· 1ym
The frequency f1 is selected by first mu 1tip · g a local
oscillator frequency (known) to a convenient frequency
f, and then passing it through a harmonic generator that
produces a series of harmonics of f1.
The appropriate harmonic · se1ccted by the
· nf1 - f• 1s
b Waveguide tuning cavity such that r. can be added with fIF and
a Coupling hole display f, (counter reading + f.). the unknown
Circular cavity frequency, Ia practice, the system starts with n = 1 and
the filter frequency is selected by a feedback
(1F11)Fig. 6.4.1 : Wavemetcr method of frequency measurements
mechanism from IF stage until an IF frequency in the
The accuracy of such a wavemeter is in the range of 1 proper range is present.
% to 0.005 % for available Q of 1,000-50,000,· _ Typically f 1 = 100 to 500 MHz for a range of fx. up to
respectively. Since the power is absorbed in the 20 GHz. For better accuracy a low noise osciJlator and
wavemeter at resonance this is called absorption type noiseless multiplier are to be selected.
wavemeter.
f,t nf1 Main gate

1~ 6.4.2 Slotted Line Method

Since the distance dmin between two successive minima

Main gate
of voltage standing wave pattern in a short circuited line is . FF

half wavelength A.8 /2. Frequency can be ·determined from.

the relations.

f(GHz) = 30fAo <cm> . ..(6.4.1)

... (6.4.2) (tFt2)Fig. 6.4.2 : Down conv~rsion method

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 -. l

Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 6-12

Microwave Measurements
-
~ 6.5 Microwave Power
A
Measurement

LQ. 6.5.1 Write short note on : Microwave power

l
measurement.
--+Temp
Depending upon amount of power to be measured,
there are three measurement setups: (1F13JFig. 6.5.l(a)

(i) Low power measurement

(ii) Medium power measurement
A
(iii) High power measurement
i
a 6.5.1 Measurement of Low Microwave _.remp
Power
(1F1')Fig. 6.5.l(b)

Devices such as bolometer and thermocouples whose

Bolometer is mounted inside the waveguide as shown
resistance changes with the applied power arc capable
in Fig. 6.5.2, where the bolometer itself is used as load,
of measuring low microwave powers. Bolometer are
with the operation resistance as R 1 Q.
most widely used among these.
Now the low microwave power which is to be
Bolometer is a simple temperature sensitive device
measured is applied.
whose resistance varies with temperature. These are of
two types viz Barretters and Thermistors. Some power absorbed in the bolometer load and
dissipated as heat and resistance changes to Ri- This
Baretters have positive temperature coefficient and
change in resistance (R 1 - R2) is proportional to the
their resistance increases with an increases in
microwave power which can be measured using a
temperature as shown in Fig. 6.5.1 (a).
bridge.
It basically consists of a short length of fine platinum
Inaccuracy is introduced due to bolometer non-linear
wire mounted in a cartridge, like an ordinary fase. It is
characteristics.
a very delicate device.

Thennistors have negative temperature coefficient of

resistance and their resistance decreases with increases Low microwave
power
temperature as shown in Fig. 6.5.l{b).

Thermistors are basically semiconductor.

A bolometer such as crystal diode in a square law Bolometer --+

1
device and it produces a current that is proportional to
the applied power i.e. square of the applied voltage,
rather than the applied voltage. (1F15)Fig. 6.S.2

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Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 6-13 Microwave Measurements,

V In the balanced bolometer bridge technique, the microwave power change because the resistance ~
,,, 1>0Jorneter itself is made to be one of the anns of the will be equally reduced.
!,ridge as shown Fig. 6.5.3. Thus more current will flow through the bridge i.e. the
current through R3 will be lowered and so will its
temperature thus restoring the balance.

atched
µw. load
Power in
(1F16)Fig. 6.5.3 : Measurement using bridge
11F171Flg. 6.5.4 : Measurement using directional coupler
Initially, the bridge is balanced by adjusting R5, which
varies the de power applied to the bridge and the c:r Limitation
bolometer element is brought to a predetermined Barretters and Thermistors, both are limited in their
operating resistance before microwave power is power handing ability to about 10 mW, so that power
applied. Let the voltage of the battery be E1 at balance. greater than 10 mW cannot be measured with them
- The microwave power is now applied and this power directly. However power measurement range can be
gets dissipated in the bolomcteL increased by using a directional coupler as shown in
Fig. 6.5.4.
The bolometer heats up and it changes its resistance.
Therefore the bridgebecomes unbalanced. If a 20 dB directional coupler and a l O dB attenuator is
used then the power received by the bolometer
The applied de power is changed to Ei, to get back the
elements will be 30 dB down (1/IOOOlh of the power
balance and this change in de battery voltage (E1 - E:i)
fed the matched termination). This method extends the
will be proportional to the microwave power.
range of power by 1000 times.
Alternately the detector 'G' can be directly calibrated
in terms of microwave power so that when the bridge is The only limitation of this being the limi~d power
unbalanced, the detector reads the microwave power handing capacity of directional coupler itself.
directly.
~ 6.5.2 Measurement of Medium Power
r:r Errors using Calorimeter
Since bolometers are temperature sensitive some form
of temperature compensation has to be used to avoid Medium power in the range of 10 mW to 10 W can be
errors. measured by c~lorimetric techniques.

- By ~. and R7 resistor this can be achieved. R6 is The principle is very simple wherein the temperature
identical and close to R3 i.e. both are bolometer rise of a special load is monitored is which is
e!ements as shown and subjected to the same ambient proportional to the power responsible for the rise as
temperature R3, (even in the absence of applied shown in Fig. 6.5.5.
microwave power) this will not be interpreted as a

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 Microwave Engineering (MU • Sem. 7 • E&TC) Microwave Measurements
6-14
._
The special load must necessary have high specific The input load power and input temperature gauge arc
heat. Water happens to be a good loud. Knowing mass, placed close 10 each olher so that heat generated in the
specific heat and temperature rise at a fixed and known input load resistor raise the temperature of the gauge,
rate of fluid flow, the power can he measured. This result in unbalancing the bridge.

Alternately rate of temperature rise with a fixed The signal due to the imbalance is amplified and then
quantity of fluid also can be adopted for measurement applied to the comparison load resistor which is place(I
of power. closer to the comparison gauge. Hence, the heat
Inlet temperature OuUet temperature generated in comparison load resistor is transferred to
monitor monitor its gauge and the bridge is rebalanced.
--+ Load --+
The meter measure the amount of power that is

i
µ.w power
supplied to 1he comparison load in order to rebalance
the bridge.
(1F18)Fig. 6.5.S It can be calibrated directly in terms of input
microwave power. It is necessary that the
The normally used method is the self-balancing bridge
technique. Fig. 6.5.6 illustrates this technique. characteristics from each load be same for equal power
dissipation in the two loads.
For quick balancing of the bridge and efficient heat
transfer from loads to the gauges, the components are
immersed in an oil stream.
Since the flow rates the same through the two heads
(that are having identical characteristics), the accuracy
of power measurement is within ± 5%.

To maintain constant temperature, the stream are

passed through a parallel flow heat exchanger just
before they enter the heads.
Comparison
head The error signal is amplified by an amplifier and the
1200 Hz source and meter are separated by means of a
transformer which from the other arms of the bridge.

(1F19)Fig. 6.5.6 : Calorimetric technique

( '& 6.5.3 Measurement of High Power I
It consists of identical temperature sensitive resistors or Any power 10 W to 50 kW is considered high power.
gauges in two arms, an indicating meter and two load These are normally measured by calorimetric watt
resistors. meters. These meters can either dry type or flow type.

The input load resistor senses the unknown input A dry type calorimeter nonnally consists of a co-axial
microwave power and the comparison head is cable which is filled by a dielectric with a high
associated with the comparison power. hysteresis loss.

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 t,Aicrowavo Engineering (MU - Som. 7. E&TC) 6-15

The now type uses circulating water, oil or any liquid

which is a goo<l absorber of microwaves.
I '19.. 6.6 Noise Measurement I
The fluid after nowing through the load experience a Noise power in microwave communicatfon is u re~ult
icrnpcraturc rise due to microwave energy. of random processes like flow of charges or holes in
electron tube or solid-slalc devices.
The difference between the temperature (T1) of a
known quantity of liquid before enlering the load and LO. 6.6.1 Explain in brief : Sources of noise

u1e temperature (T2) after it emerges is a measure of the Noise is usual ly generated by various sources like,
power which has been absorbed.
I. Thennal noise
Knowing the rate of Ilic fl uid flow the exact value of 2. Shot noise
power can be calculated by using the equation
3. Flicker noise
RK p (T2 -T 1)
p = ... (6.5.1) 4. Plasma noise
4.18
5. Quantum noise
where, p = measured power in walls,
3 1. Thermal noise
R = rate of now in (cm /5)
It is caused by tJiennal vibration of bound charges.
K = specific heal in cal / g
Also known as Johnson or Nyquist noise.
3
p = specific gravity in g / cm 2. Shot noise
and (T2 -T2) is the temperature difference in °C.
It is due to r.indom fluctuations of charge carriers in an
ll may be noted that in calorimeter measurements heat electron rube or solid st.ale devices.
losses do occur du e 10 conduction and radimions,
3. Flicker noise
resulting in erroneous measurement of power. Also
error in flow determination. calibrntion and thermal II occurs in solid state devices and vacuum tube .
inertia etc. cannot be neglected for accurate Flicker noise power varies inversely wil11 frequency .
rneasuremenL Therefore it is also known ,L'i 1/f noise.
Copper blocks
4. Plasma noise

Tt is caused by random motion of charges in an ionii.ed

gas like plasma, Ilic ionosphere or ·pnrking electrical
contacts.
son loads
5. Quantum noise

It is generated due to qunntizc<l nuture of ch:u-g~

carriers and photons.
Thin wall lines

(IF20)Fig, 6.5.7 : A co-nxlnl twin dry-lond calorimeter

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 Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) Microwave Measurements
6-16

Step4
'a. 6.6.1 Noise Factor
Noise factor of the device is then equal to the noise
r LO. 6.6.2 Define Noise Factor. output from the attenuator.

<:r Limitation
It is defined as the ~o of/ the actual futput noise
power of the device t? the noise power that would be Erromeous noise figure value is obtained due to
available if the device were noiseless. nonlinearity of the detector.

Noise figure : When the noise factor is expressed in <:r Remedy

decibels (dB), it is known as noise figure. To avoid erroneous noise figure value, 3dB attenuator
F = 10 1 [ Input signal to noise ratio ] in the detector can be used.
og10 Output signal to noise ratio
It can be adjusted to read the same outpu( j
a 6.6.2 Measurement of Noise
r:r Measurement of noise factor
Temperature by Y Factor Method

Refer Fig. 6.6.1. It shows set up for the measurement of

LO. 6.6.3 Explain Y factor method of noise temperature
noise factor.
measurement.
.I Device :
· under · ~Power ·' Equivalent noise temperature is defined as the
I .,-. test ·" '. meter
temperature at wruch the noise resistor has to
I'
(1 F31 )Fig. 6.6.1 : Set 'Up for nieasur~ment or noise factor maintained in order to produce same amount of noise
power at the system output by connecting this resistor
Standard noise source for example argon discharge
to noiseless system.
tube has constant output. It can operate over large
bandwidth. Theoretically, equiva1ent noise temperature of a
component can be determined by measuring the output
- . Such type of noise source is used in setup.
power.
r:r Procedure
The condition for this is, matched load at O K is
Step 1 connected at the input of the component.

L Noise output from device under test is connected to But in practice, 0 K temperature cannot be achieved.
matched termination at room temperature. Hence Y factor method is used.

Step2 Refer Fig. 6.6.2. It shows Y factor method.

Input of the device is connected to a standard noise

source through pad. (Variable attenuator).

It is shown in Fig. 6.6.1.

Step3

The noise output of the device is adjusted to its ~oubled

value of the help of pad.
(1 F32)Fig. 6.6.2 : Y factor method

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 Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 6-17 Microwave Measurements

1n this method, amplifier under tesUs connected to one

of the two matched loads at different temperatures.
Ia 6.7 Q-Factor Measurement I
1n each case, output power is recorded.
LO. 6.7.1 Explain any one a-factor measurement
_ t,et 1 1 be temperature of hot load and T2 be
method.
temperature of cold load in such a way that T 1 > r2•
-Let P I and P2 be the respective powers. measured at the
amplifier output. 1.
- -
There are several methods for measuring Q factor.

Transmission method
-

_ Toe output power contains the noise power generated 2. Impedance measurement

by the amplifier and the noise power from the source 3. Transient decay ordecrement method.
resistor. Transmission method is simplest of all.
- Therefore, c:r Transmission method

Refer •Fig. 6.7.1 it shows set up for measurement of Q

of cavity resonator.
and
..
"Cavity -. Power •
Where G = _gain Resonator· meter

23
k -= 1.38 x 10- Jl°K
(1 F33}Fig. 6.7.1 : Set up for measurement of .Q
= Boltzmann's constant
- 1n this cavity resonator is used as a transnussion
B = Bandwidth
device.
Therefore, Y factor can be defined as, The output signal is measured as a function of
P1 GXT B+GKT0 B
1 frequency. It results in the resonance.
y = -
P2
- -- - - - - -> 1
- GKT B+GKT B
2 0
1. Frequency of the nucrowave s·ource is varied
GKB(T1 +TJ keeping the signal_level constant.
y = GKB(T2 +TJ>l
2. The output power is measured.
3. Alternately, by keeping both signal level and
frequency constant, cavity can be tuned and output
This is determined by power measurements. power can be measured.
Hence equivalent noise temperature is given as, 4. From the resonance curve,

Half power bandwidth= U = ± JL

Where T 1, T2 are load temperatures. Where QL = loaded Q

- T 1 and T2 should not be close. l

QL = +26

= ± co
2 (co - roo)

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 I~ !"Microwave"Engineering {MU : Sem. 7 - l:&TC)
1f the coupling_between detector.and cavjty is.ignored,
6-18

(-"crysiaJ";;
-
@e!ecl~~
·QL ="Q.,.
r::r Drawbacks

1.) It has ~r accuracy in high Q systems.

~ This is due to -n~ow band of opbratio~.
' )
(IF22)F'ig. 6.8;2·: Set up 2; Impedance using slotted line
) - • r

·1""'
_ ~ 6.8- lmpedan~e-fdeasure,n~nt
t If the minimum is shifted to the left, then the
impedance is inductive and if it" shifts to the right, it is
capacitive (Fig. 6.8.3).
l,;Q. ·6.8.1 Explain any two methods of measuring Unknown impedance can be obtained by usual methods ·
impedance of a terminating load in a
using the data recorded and a smith chart. Both
microwave.system.
impedance and reflection coefficient can be obtained in
magnitude !µ]d phase.
~ 6.8.1 Measurement of Impedance
using Slotted Line Vmax

Jncident and '.reflected waves will be present

proportional to the mismatched of the load under test
(whose impedance is to be measured) resulting in-
standing waves.
Using slotted waveguide and the load Zi_ in the circuit Set up 2
given by Fig. 6.8.1. ~e-position of Vmnx and Vmin can I
Inductive!++:
be accurately. determined.

· Power-'
.·TTI!Jter - Set up2

~ c· ~pacrtNe
.:--"""': .. .

(1F23JFig. 6.8.3 : Output waves of set 11p 1 and ~

(IF21)Fig. 6.8.l : Set up I, Impedance measurement using
slotted line

Now the-load Zi_ is replaced by·a short circuit as·shown

by Fig. 6.8.2 and.the shift in minimum is-measured.

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tJltcrowave Engineering (MU - Sam. 7 - E&TC) B-19 Microwave Measurements

Measurement of Impedance using Reflectometer

Explain reflectometer method for measurement of impedance.

_ The reflectometer indicates magnitude of ~pedance but not the _phase angle, whereas a slotted line waveguide
measurement gives both.

A typical set up for reflectometer technique is shown in Fig. 6.8.4 where two directional couplers are used to sample the
incident power P; and the reflected power P, from load.

,- .
' . ~ . ::: • ·, ..;_
·•--•6'--.. . -..
Reff.power __ •.P"f7 j 00
· Reflectometer.p = "-=-----
.. Inc_. ~war_ -P - -
/, 100,
1

', Reverse ·
: detector l

i
(IF2')Fig. 6.8.4

Both the directional couplers are identical (except their

direction). The magnitude of the reflection coefficient
p, can be directly obtained on the reflectometer from
Ia 6.9 Attenuation Measurement I
which.impedance can.be calculated. LO. 6.'9.1 Explain attenuation measurement techniques
From reflectometer reading we have, in detail.

- {P, Microwave components and devices almost always

p = '\JP; . provide some degree of attenuation.

Knowing p we can calculate VSWR and impedance by Attenuation is the ratio input power to the output power
and is normally expressed in decibels.
using the relations
p
z-z i.e. Attenuation (in dBs) = to log~ ... (6.9.1)
S - l.::tQ and ~-p WI
- J -p z+z -
•
where, P10 = input power
Where z, is the known wave impedance and z is
Po\JI = output power.
unknown impedance..
- The amount of auenuation can be measured by two
Due to directional property of the couplers, there will
methods.
be no interference between forward and reverse waves.
(a) Power Ratio method
The input power is kept to a low level b_y means of pad (b) ' RF Substitution method.
The reflectometer accuracy is greatest at low VSWR
(i.e. low reflection coefficient).

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~ u-..._._ _·- ~..,..""'~nng
_
....__ .
~...... \IWaW ... {MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC} 6-20
Microwave Measure,_
""""Is

[ a. 6.9.1 Power Ratio Method

Thi · ·th d ·thoul the de\'ice whose attenuatio ·

s method involves measuring the input power and output power v.1 an wi n lS to
be mcaswt:d as shov.11 in set up I and set up 2 of Fig. 6.9.1, the power : i r e ~ in exh set up as Pi nnd P2. 'Ibis
9
ratio of powers P/f' expressed in decibels gives the attenuation as ~u:uion (6. . I).
2

Crystal
---, Power P1
detector
meter watts

µ.w Frequency Slotted

Pad Termination
source melar line

(1F'25)fii:. 6.9. J(a) : Sn up J powtt ntio JTK'thod

Crystal Power P2
deleci()( meter watts

Device
µ.w whoso
Pad Frequency Slotted Termlnntlon
SOUrt:e meter attenuation line
Is lo be
moasurod

flmJf"I,:. 6.9. J(b): Sc1 up 2 po.. c-r J11lio method

The drawb3cL-: of this method i.s th3t the :11tenu3tion mc3Surcd com ,ponds to
two power position on the power meter with a square bw cry. ul detector
characteristics as shown by Fig. 6.9.2.
Due to non-linear chn.racteristics the power measured and auenu3tion
calculated will not be accurate particularly if the ouenuntion of the network i
large and if the input power is low.
11mifig. 6.9.2 : Squ.arr law charoctcristlcs or t'rystal dJode

Ia. 6.9.2 RF Substitution Method

This method overcomes the drawback for power ratio method since here we measure attenuation at a single power
position.
The method consists of measuring the output power S3Y •p• by including tl1e network whose attenuation is to be
measured in set I as shown in Fig. 6.9.3(a).

Crystal Power p
detector meter
Network
whose
µ.w Frequency attenuation Slotted
Pad
meter line Termination
source is to be
measured

(1F28)Ftg. 6.9.3(a) : Set up 1, RF substitution method

TerJa..Neo PwJicalw• -4 SAaJINSIWI Y~

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 ~ ~ ~ ~'l t)~ ~""' \ I~ "~)~~~ 'll · A \\l\\'l~l,,n ,~llhl·4't"I 1111t-n1111t,)t' whld, (itn be 111fJU~(e(f '-" obt.11ln
·11 ~~o~ ~ 11\~'0l(l )_

~'l~'!o. -(l-tl ' tm,: •~ ~ft..'ni~\/\-t~ ,\I\<~ \\I\\.: ,.'h)I'\ J11tNmAl,~' ,,,)uM ~I\~ 111w,11:11l1)ll ,>f 1hc nclwmk ,llrcccty,

,,

=====-""""c:a:uc::z--~~ f..~..~ll) ~ ~-t ~ ~.., i-,,~ilhlll m<'Ch,~

e' .. Ahillly ,,f <llclcctric co store energy

~,,c,-g.y in chc medium

''"~ ~,'l<t ln \~4,,:111,'ln (O. l<). t). 1-cal and lmasln:uy parts arc
,, ,'._
. ~\,'\;
, ~' nt .,s ,t,s ,,,mplcx valued.
' 1'~\' " · ,'\l' i'-" tt -n'I~~-..~ n\M,'i~!I~ l)i,~l,,'tl~ ~,n~r:1n1 is also lmown as pcnnittivity of the
ti\; i~\11

-
,' ->r. ~' , .~ I \,'l.'-\ 'l, j( " ~ ~ ,,'k,~i\)n\,

\\1l<'1't Er :::c relative \lClll\iUivily

, -..,~m ~-., ~ l.. " ~~ ~"'· , ' t~ ~i•" i-'~ •,'t' ... (6. 10.2)
l}"" , ~ , ,.H\ I\; : , ~ :,.;

~ " • .( ", "'"' , ' -t ,,,..trid,~y ~~-:timti~ 'e' fl\)nl l1quat,on (6. l 0. 1), we get
, "~""''- ,, l , t..,' t , ' ,l,;; E(l(E'- j e '')
~~'" ' , ~~ ... 'l ~l. • .(,__,) ..~,.i., '\'-111- . ' )
' ' -l •'>) ~ . ' N ' ~ • :..
:\ 'Er . E, ~jE
" ,,
... (6. 10.3)
E"
)~), 'tM1S :!: --=
e'
l◊.~ b ~ t ...(6. 10.4) ·
~ ~, ';_\~ ., ' - ~ i~ • ~ ,I\ :'\ ~ t .'i(ltl.' -(I ~1''\l~ ~
,, ~ t,\-.; •~~'Ont is t~ \11ti\) ◊f \'!()Wer dissipated to power
:)<!.\'\.'d.

...(6.10.5)

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Ii] IAlcrow.
-:-~~- ,.
--~:::r::::ez=~(~
Substi ·
M~U.;_- £onl........_
~
Sern.
~ 7 ~ -~E&
~ TC;l_}_ _ _:&-~--------===-~
2 - -
~

~- tuting Equ~cxi (6. J0.S) in Equation (6.10.J) v.-c 6. Then lhe diekcaic s.:smplc is inserted into t h e ~

of the short circuit This is done v.ithout tnoving ~

short circuit r!ungcr.

• e'O-j~li) 7. The dielectric fillcJ shon circuit oo SWR ~ ii

... (6.10.6)
~
Thi, ~
(6. I0.6) rlio,vs th:11 rnc.uurrman of
~1cctric ~ u; \'cry U1lpO(Unt. 8. Aglin rhc position of first mini.nu from the ~
~r D--._.._
,...._-q and Van H!ppe1 method detect.o r i ~umi.

For 9. Then the :-.hift in t«h mininu & of the standing '4'l,·c
mc.lSwnnrnt o ( dtdcx--uic roni.t.•mt, R~ru .ind
Von lfip,peJ mcun.t if. u).('(1. i,s olcul.ltcd.. This ~ is due to dic.-lectric.

1llel'C arc ~\T:nl Oll\C'r ll\Cl,ho,u IL~ '11.'Cll, 10 , I( llic d ielectric lhi ln~ i.s d and we c.ikulatc the
Reier Fig. 6. 10.1. It iJ ._.., opc.rimcru.tl loCIU('I (ot qu.unity X lhcn, it i,~ gi\"cn 3.S,

X ~ [ 2r. (ru + d)]

- d IJ:O ).,

11\i, rlCJC help{ in dctmnirution of lhc dielectric

l.lJl r'-1:V)
ln I.his shift in the rniniCN ( unJ1oi ... .1,'<" n X • V
~

t..md.1:.-1,g \l n 'CS ~ ~ ~ t c-( ~,o 1rn111 ... hen .:a

i..m-.plc diclo::t.ric L~ pt:.cc.1 m ( roru o f the. Ju1 micro'A~, e r.irl1it ion in dist~o:: d
cirruit.
of thclcctric tilled guide
<r Procedure
Fvc mc.1"1!nl X . nluc: or V i.s ultn by pl01 and
I. Fi.n.t, gu iJc '-'Ji, den ph h nle.bllreJ u~o g the dick-ctnc fu!.11'.I is dcutminc<l b)' the formula
froquc«y meter.
E
'
= I - (--'-o )' + (-
)_,
)-
d
\I):
2. the 1hjclnas of ll~ ~l«tric i!> nica!>urc-d v. ith th~ hel p
of m_ic:r-ome:ter u ~ y .:u; po~blc... If :ipprmim.t1e E , is unlnov. n. thi procedure is C3Iried
3. Micrometer ( the i.hot1 circuj1 is then :iJju!>tcti to 1111: OU I for diffcn:nt fn:-qucn y Md En is detennined
I n "" dida:uic coruun.l).
~~, Aluc of llx- tbickocu o f t h e ~

1l1c :ncr:iuc o ( the.~ t>wo give dielectric constant.

4. The euct pchition o f the fi~t :ind KCOnd mini nu from
the rig br tund :-.idc of the SWR meter is rocortlcd.

5. Tii.e !-hon circuj1 is then remo n,d.

-4 S.lallKSTIAJl Yea/JU't

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I

~icrowave Engineering (MU- Sem. 7 _E&TC) 6-23 Microwave Measurements

In this method two identical antenna1 are required.

-;. 6.11 Antenna Gain Measurement Then gains of two antennas are C(JUal, i.e. Gr= Ga and

-
1,.a. 6.11.1 Explain antenna gain measurement method~
above Equation (6.11.2) reduces to

in detail.
(Gy)dB=(GJdB=½[ 2Dlog
10
( f) + IOlog
4
10 ( ~)] ••• (6.1 J.3)

- There are many methods available for gain Knowing R, A and the ratio PR/ PT, the gain of the
antenna can be determined. If two identical antennas are DOl
inea5urement., out of which two basic methods are explained
available, then we go for three antenna method.
here-
t. Absolute method 2. .
Comparison method
Both these methods makes use of Friss transmission
Ia 6.11.1(8) Three Antenna Method I
formula. The drawback of the two antenna method is if two
identical antennas are not available then reduction in
~ 6.11.1 Absolute Method for Gain Equation (6.11.3) is not possible. In this situation we go for
Measurement
three antenna method.

ra 6.11.1(A) Two Antenna Method I and G

Consider the non identical antennas with gains G 1, G2

3
• Taking two antennas at a ti.me we write
Equation (6.11.2) for those antennas- Such three possible
In this method two antennas are used whose priori
combinations are possible for which three equations are
lmowledge of the gains is not required.. It is used to calibrate
written as
the antennas that can then be used as standards for gain
er Combining antenna 1 and 2
measurements.
This method is based on Friss transmission formula

PR = PT ?T GR ( 4;R.Y . .. (6.11.1)
... (6.11.4)

where PR : Power received (Watts) er Combining antennas t and 3

PT = Power accepted by the transmitting

. antenna (Watts)
GR = Gairr of the receiving antenna- ... (6. 11.5)

GT = Gain of the transmitting antenna rr Combining antennas 2 and 3

'A. : Operating wavelength (m)

R = Antenna separation (m)

... (6.11.6)
Taking logarithm and rearranging Equation (6.11. l)
Knowing
.
the ratios P R2'•T1•
IP p R3'•Tt•
IP p u•n•
IP Rand,A.
4
'(Gr)dB + (GR)dB: 20 loglO ( ~R) + 10 log.a(::) three simultaneous equations for (G I)dB' (GvdB
, and (GVe
,
~ obtained. Solving these equations we get the required
... (6.11.2) ga.ins.

Tcdi-Neo Publicatio!IB lnere Authors iDspire innoY11tion -4 SAWINSllAll J'ea~

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 8..-c ~ ~ z:ii.1 ~ L""•-•1 cx:6.._~ i:x:tudd
cic-y ~ cl a:a. ~ re

l. The ~p::x:ct of t!x ~

.. ... (6. ll.i )

1. ~ - - e o •s.- •·;:h
... (6. l l.S)
"· Al ~ . 6 ,"0{,--c,j in cl.._"Ul.stk--cs.. the ~ must t-c

~Sb.Nc.

a 6.11.2 Comparison Method (Gain

Tnmsh!r Method)
Or

11:u:s mec.>..'-1 ~ Utrt--c 1.'1!:n.u.\. ,n " hich one ~ !"li qumlll lC'- 00 UX right b.u)d s.iJc. the
~~ is 2 ~ ~m:u .. ~ g3.U\ ,s trutilll)' l nt.,...11. -. n p1n of UT u c~t.c'd.
It 1 \.t.-.o1 u 1 rcfcrm..--c 1."11.Uuu for crvn~~ ttlC ~.un f ,t
-.i:h the ~tauu unJct to.t. lbe ~ up i, ~.. n 10
Fii. 6.. 11.1.
Ia 6.11.2(A) Sources of Error

1k :iurccs of amr foe um 1Tr~'1 3.n' irnibr to

lute mclhlxl "' 1th one .lJ.1i ti.-ru.l pn'hkm. If the
1ntcruw (A :a.nJ rrfc.rrnc-c) :arr plxro clo--c to c.xb OU>cr
Reoov\W :mJ )iJc by 1Jc :u ili.1" n in Fi&. 6.11 .1. then: n:uy he
un-.'3lltcJ l-OOplin~ hctwt"C'n tht-m. This i ;i,-oidcd by
. "oo.ini the :s.nt.:ruu.\ tu:"l. lO bJd Mid l'Ol3Ung lhc
} tc m ISO" he 1"' c-c n the meJ~w-ements.
( ' l ~ t U·..l:. 6.. I I.I : SC'tirp roe pUt IMSSUJ'Tfflfflt &Dint
romparbaa mnhod

Clsaplu £.nds ...

□□□

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 Module6

Microwave Integrated Circuits

(MIC}

SyffabctS

.r-- a. I.uu...
tllC M:t?:i=-s ' T,.....,,... nl"'.••U,.......... • II.JC. Ch;> fl.z:j-,=a:e"'ic S
,,-..:.J.J Z!rl IJomr:i:

[Ea:;u:.e ~ M::n:>iiti: tCs Z'"d Hp:i:j

.,_, ttt":d:c:tcr. - - - - -- -- -- - --7-2
7.5

L0.. 7.5..1 D.ffif'-'l:r Gi::$ ~ ~ >Cs a-d

Hj,:r.:d , ....,,___ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 74,
,..s ~ ~ Q--...,s _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ r-2
YC\Ja3:'.aS _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ 7-5
7.5

Ul.1£1 \\tt2 s:a: X12 o::i : WC ~ - - - - - - 7 - 5

7.52. ~ \Jae:als _ _ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ 7 ~
:-~ .t; ' C f I "' :f ~ t;; ,.__ _ _ _ _ _ __ -,...~
~

!...':. ';~ ~ s:c■::""CJ"'S ::f m,xtc c,s______ ; .:3

-=~ C""IC5'1!TIF :x l.b:lxt,c c-,.________ ___ -.. - .,::;

~

~ ~-- - - - - - - - - -7 -5

-... -
~ TE'...l,c.:!'.!u.2 ...,_;=~- - - - - - - - - - 7--7
::>:s - ,m .c; ,.._,,,..,,._____ _____ _ _ 7-7

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 @ Microwave Engineering (MU - Sem. 7- E&TC) 7-2 Microwave Integrated Circuits (MIC)
~

~ 7.1 Introduction · a 7.3 Monolithic Integrated Circuits

71
LQ_ • •1 What is Microwave Integrated Circuits LO. 7.3.1 Define Monolithic. Integrated Circuits An"
-H..1
(MICs)? explain it.

Microwave integrated circuits (MICs) are integrated

I 1' drcuits designed at frequencies of approximately a 1.3.1 Definition of Monolithic
I
I 1 GHz or more. Integrated Circuits.

Th~se MICs Provide a significant opportunity to :~~ . 'Definition ofMIC · · ... .: : .., ·.. ··":/:
integrate and miniaturize the microwave subsystems
.. . .. . . .· ·. " . . . - ....... ....,_ -.
~,·· -~
MIC is a type of circuit in which all active and Jias'sive
and systems compared to those which are based on elements as well as transmission lines are formed in.to tne
waveguide components.
b~k or onto the surface of a substa~e by some deposiii.o...,,,
- - "Advances over the past two decades in the planar ··'schem~ . as .epitaxy, ion implantation! ... s~~~,{'!8,
techniques and technology and also in the miniature
eva;,rat'icn., di~ion. . . .. t . ., . . .•:::.. :'"'''.}i
microwave solid state devices compatible with this It operates at microwave frequencies (300 MHz to
technology have led to the realization of compact 300GHz).
microwave integrated circuits (MICs). The word 'monolithic' comes from the Greek words
I I

I 'monos' and 'lithos' which means 'single' and 'stone'.

These circuits are built on planar transmission lines

I
'Ii
such as the stripline, microstrip line, suspended
stripline, suspended microstrip, inverted microstrip,
As the name suggests, monolithic IC's refer to a single-
stone or a single crystal.
',' slot line, coplanar waveguide and coplanar strips. - The single crystal refers to a single chip of silicon as
the semiconductor material, on top of which all the
A typical MIC consists ofone or more of the following
parts: active and passive components needed arc
interconnected.
(a) Distributed elements
This is the best mode of manufacturing IC' as they can
(b) Lumped elements in planar/discrete form. be made identical, and produces high reliability. The
(c) Semiconductor devices and cost factor is also low and can be manufactured in bulk
in very less time. They have been found applicable for
(d) Special elements such as dielectric resonators and IC's used for AM receivers, TV circuits, computer
(e) Ferrite discs. circuits, voltage regulators, amplifiers and so on.

I""- 7.2 Types of MICs I Monolithic-IC In Can-type enclosure

-- Silicon chip------ .. ---:,
--------- -------------- :
Connecting wire

There are two distinct type_s of MICs ; . .

Insulation
I. Monolithic MICs and

2. Hybrid MICs. Terminal pins

(1G11Fig. 7.3.1: Monolithic IC

Tedi-Neo Publicalions_._ Wl,ere Authors inspire innoYation
-,.A SACHINSIWI Yeature

-.
--------------,,......----::==-:----.----,c--::-~------~Scanned with CamScanner
 ~•~,nva Engln~orlng MU • &m. 7 • ti l CJ

I.
Mew, ,lit I ... t,or, Yi fP,..o fK- l rt-t<., lf!)VJ~f&

tsl(Jj ' ' " k, Yf lH..( 1"':1 U !}, '/ ( lr.flr,I ~ ,t

t t ,~in~ 0 , t:>l(C ,,,.__._, f W.it,

nic iw~,oo t'(1 rcn lt.c tt;r,rn.tt l-s1.av. .~ tr ,_,

rr«-
3. C<'rn lilt rnJ,..J(lr( :,,-,t h: (~tu,~,I lt7 r~
IC.

RFC (Optional) •t TI1e p.rn_h'C componcnu th..u arc (~ICU.nJ L"l1t.!r «

IC "'ill he if snull ,,lluc.. f,v hit.hoc.t ,.al\.<.1 lhc7 t-..a~t u,

~ - - - t ~ Ovt he COOI\CC1cd ci.lcrNlly lo Che I ptfl"'-
1-----.J 2 Vd "' 3.5V
-2.1 mm 5. Ir is difflCUII lo nulc :a cimirl fkut>lc fo, MY lioJ ..,l
14nput ,·arfatioo; i new sci o( nuu.:s is n:qu,m1.
2-Ground (GNO)
3-0utput
4-Ground (GNO) a. 7.4 Hybrid or Multl-Chlp
3 dB Bandwidth : DC upto 0.8 GHz Integrated Circuits
Gain : Typical 18.5 dB ot 0.5 GHz

LO. 7.4.1 Explaln hybrid lnlogratod d rc.un, Wlltl ftj

applications.
The monoli1hic 1echnology in"olvcs multi-le,•el
process for incorpornting uJI active devices, p:issive
circuic clements and in1erconncctions inro rhe hut~ or
ja 7.4.1 Definition of Hybrid Circuits J

001.0 the surface of a i.emi-in~u!Jting scmicooduc1or

An electronic circuit cornpo-,cd o ( different typo
subl>lr.ltc. Fig. 7.3.2 illu~1r:i1cs u typi nl MMIC.
integrated circuits and ducmc componcnu, rro.te!n1
on :1 ccr.unic bhc.
f 'a. 7.3.2 AppHcatlons of Monolithic IC's
ln lhc h)brid 1.echnology, the ~~he ci.,n.ut ta:~

I LO. 7 .3.2 Givo applications of monolJthic IC's.

consists of di tribote<l and/or pl.uur lumped clcmttu u
rnli:z.ed a.s a conductor p.:11tcm on lhc !>- • ' Th.." tl
These devices 1ypically perfonn function ~u h as a s.i.n.gk le,cl pr ~ and in, ohei mcul~ ul t!:i:

(i) Microwave mixing !>-ub~'11.C through \ i1CUUII1 (' \ .t~'A .lk'CI/Rf ,{1\-Ctrt;:J

:ind lkfining the lbimi p.i!l.ffll lhtl.l tis ~\.'U'·ao

(ii) Power amplificarion
phol01.ithogr3phic tcch.oi U(:i.

(iii) Low-noise amplifielilion and

Re i~Of'S. if rrquim.l C.lll tx- w.. f"CilrJ b) J..: !.U.-=.&
(iv) High-frequency wi1chi11g. ,nh-11\c lilnb :il ~ ,pn.lf'(utc pu..n ·-,u,.. :tl:

J.cvi.rl') :s.aJ uchcr ~ r\'tt ~~,c , lap ii:u.n

a 7.3.3 Limitations of Monolithic !C's
(Cjp.».' tlllh :mJ r\"ll>.h)O) i( <lll) ' U \' ~~J °" ~-n-J
10 the cin.-uit p.lltt"m.
La. 7.3.3 Glvo llmitntions of monolithic IC's.

Being a.,; it is, monolirhic IC's huve e.0111c li111icu1ions "~ we ll.

' L - • .• IWJ(lt •lkNI

Tech-Ne. Publlcatiooa - JT11rrr ,1u/m,n ,a~p,rr

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MlcroW!l\'O Er ~~ MU • Som. 7 • E&TC 7-4 Microwave Integrated Circuits (MIC

l)l'k31 i.'t'('r:\11~ ~"C t,f h,·hrid MIO; is l to 30 GHt _ The ding.nun of a hybrid or mut1i--chip IC is shown in
:\ml with t~ :.Joption • of more sophistic:11cd the Fig. 7.4.2.
l~\\C\llithl.,sr:trhk t~hnlques. their opcmtilm ~n he
Hybrid IC's are also known 10 provide a bc1tcr
c-.xtc-nd(J int\) the millimctt.r wave l":\%'C up to :ihout
l~GHt.. perfonn:mce th:tn monolithic IC's.

Al1hough the process is too expensive for mass

production. multi--chip techniques are quite economical
for small quantity production and are more often used
ns prototypes for monolithic ICs.

Based upon the active devices employed the ICs can be

classified as bipolar ICs using bipolar active devices
(BIT) and unipol:lr IC's using unipolar active devices

like FET.

t
I "2s.. 7.4.2 Applications of Hybrid IC's
Ground Chip FET Ceramic Choke
pl.<Vle csp.scitor chip substrate inductor Hybrids ICs are mostly used for high power audio
amplifier applications from 5 Watts to more tha.n 50 Watts.

Hyood." 10; 3l'C nl<\._~Y u.~ f1.v high po\\-er audio

I "2s.. 7.4.3 Disadvantages of Hybrid IC's
:unplifier :i.rrlkstioos from 5 \V3tts to more th:lll
5() W:s~ 11lc ~n: components sre diffused LQ. 7 .4.2 What are the disadvantages of hybrid IC's ?

tr31\..~ston. or J i ~ The p:lS,...~,-e components m:i.y be I. urge in size as compared to monolithic ICs.
~t\'Up 0f Jiffu..~ rc~~t\.m. or e3p3cirors on a single
2. S(X,'ed is low as compared to monolithic ICs.
cltip. IX they nuy t-.e chin-film components.
lntal."'\'(\OO:ti~'<l ~t\\'t'ell the indi,;du3.l chip.., is made 3. Hybrid ICs arc more expensive.
by wiring (\l\,,~$S I.)[' :l n~ttlired p:ittem. 4. It is very labor intensive.

"2s.. 7.5 Difference between Monolithic

Tenninals ICs and Hybrid ICs
(Integrated Circuits)

LO. 7.S..1 Differentiate between Monolithic ICs and

Hybrid ICs.

The difference points between monolithic IC and

hybrid IC are as shown in Table 7.5.1.

-4 S.4ClllNSilUI J'eDture

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 7.5
Thi ~t
D t 7••.

~~
In rnlcrowovc lnlrgr red cirwio fof k,.,,ini 11.rcc tYf'--'
Monolithic IC. II
St· llybrtd IC. of l'lrcult, wl,lth arc u~tl lri d1lp frlfm o, Nt (ahf k;rttd
~ Monolithic integrated l lyhrill
In the clrrnlt,.
1. ln1q:rntc-1I
circuits which arc ~i~uits nrc foliilc:atcd by (I) l..t1mrcd ckmcnll fk. I .• ,.,_.j CJ
fabricated entirely on :i inter- connecting n
single chips. (2) Solid ~1111c ckvko (1J11,.,Sc,. 1Jrr1 • H!T•, d<. )
numhcr of individunl
chips. (3) Di~tributed IIAmm ,,Ion l11"1C1 fc.J, ~ t i p.
......
2. A monolithic intcgrntcd A Hybrid cirruit often strip. copl:tnll CIC.)
circuit h:is the full circuit ceramic substrate
constmctcd on a single Marcrial.s :i.re required to f:.iliric.:J!C ~..c crmr.t
carrying one or more
piece of silicon or other silicon chips. A hybrid elements which can be c:itcgorittd in four ,~~ ~
semiconductor, then can also use mixed shown in Fig. 7.6.1.
enclosed m a package technology, such as
with connecting leads. GaAs chips along with MIC mat.rials
silicon crups.
3. Lumped elements are They are deposited as 1. Substrate materials
deposited. well as discrete.
4. Monolithic ICs are less Hybrid ICs are more 2. Condudor matenals
expensive. expensive.
l~l'rare 3. Oielectnc matenals
5. Tr.msmission They are deposited JS
deposited. well as coplanar. 4. Resistive rums
6. It is not labor intensive. It is ,•cry labor intensive.
7. Mass production is done. It is not possible. (1c.5}Fig. 7.6.1 : Maltriah ror MIC
8. Small m size as
compared to hybrid ICs.
Large in size as
compared to monolithic
ICs.
Ia. 7.6.1 Substrate Materials f

9. In this case all the In this case of hybrid A substrate of MIC is a piece of sub uncc on ~ luch
. .
component are formed integrated circuits., electronic devices are built. The ideal substrate m:i:teriils
together by various interconnection usually
method which include established by TEM should ha,·e the following cluracteristics :
diffusion or ion mode transmission lines. (i) High dielectric consunt (9 o.r higher)
implantation.
(ii) Low dissipation factor or lo tangent
10. Speed is high as Speed is low as
compared to hybrid ICs. compared to monolithic (iii) Dielectric con tant hould remain consunt o,cr the
lCs.
frequency range and temperatlln! r:i.nge f inten::u..
11. Monolithic !Cs provide Hybrid !Cs provide
smaller flexibility in greater flexibility in (iv) High purity and constant thickne- •'
circuit design. circuit design.
M High surface moothnc •.

I a 7.6 MIC Materials

I (vi) High re i tivity and diclc:-ctric · t.rcngth
'
(vii) High thcmul conductivity

I LO. 7.6.1 Write short note on : MIC Materials.

I l)pical ·ub Irate mstcrittl u~ are :

Alumina, ba)•lli3. G:iAs., Si. Qu:ut't Ch:.

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 fi) Microwave En · •
Qtneenng (MU - Sem. 7 - E&TC) 7-6
Microwave Integrated Circuits CMl9>
¼

a 7.6.2 Conducting Materials a. 1.1 Chip Mathematics

For MIC applicatJons

· the conducting- material used
From time to lime people ask why chips cost so much,
should have following ~ s t i c :
(i)
and can't anything be done to make them cheaper. lnc-
Hjgh conductivity
argument goes like th.is :
(ij) Lo .
w temperature coefficient of resistance
Silicon is the second most abundant clement on the
(ijj) Good adhesion' to the substrate
earth's crust, making up about 28% of its mass. It's the
(iv) Good e~~ility and solderability
basis for most of our rocks, clay, and sand. 'Ibis
(v) Easy dd~ited or electroplated
implies that it should be extremely cheap to make a
Typical conducting matcriaJs used arc : chip.
Silver, Copper, Gold, Aluminium etc.
Yes, silicon is one of the earth's most abundan
clements, but that doesn't automatically make chips
a 7.6.3 Dlelectrlc Materials
cheap. That silicon must be refined to a purity that was

These materials are required for protecting or not thought possible a few decades ago.
insulating layers for active and passive, and used as In this article the lenn frequently used in discussion is
insulators for capacitors. The ideal dielectric material
the yield (Y).
should have following properties :
(i) Reproducibility f a 7.7.1 Definition of Yield (Y) I
(ii) Capability of withsranding high voltages
(iii) Low RF dielectric loss ILO. 7.7.1 Define Yield.
J
(iv) Ability to undergo processes without developing pin er Definition of Yield
holes.
The ratio of the number of usable chips at the end of the
Typical dielectric materials used are : manufacturing which are shipped to the market (NmJ,J lo
SiO, SiO2, Si3N4, A120 3 etc. the number of chips initially submitted for processing
(Nu,),

I 'a. 7.6.4 Resistive Films f Y,.,, = NmJ,1 / N.,.

These are required to fabricate resistors and allenuators For example, consider I000 chips are entered into
on the MIC. It should have following properties. processing stage and only 700 are found to be ok when

(i) Good stability chips come out of the processing and tested ok, it
means 300 chjps are damaged during· process. In this
(ii) Low temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR)
case the yield is
(iii) Sheet resisti vi ties in the range of 10-1000 .Q per square.

Typical resistive film materials used are : YIOI = 700/ JOOO = 0.7

Cr. Cr-SjQ, NiCr. Ta and Ti.

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 Mlc1ownvo Englnooring (MU • Scrn. 7 • l'.&1C)

In thi!- ~cction we will Jl-.c11,., ,,.,.

"'
f"( IIJf \ l11d1
\I\

dctcnninc the chip l-' \, ~I. 11ic P""-'n J.lng 7\I of M

RFIC or MMIC chip iii :-c1"1111IC'd lntn 1tI1..• ,() J'.vtl.
I. lnitiol CO~l ll

2. Wnfcr fnbrication ~'O~lS

3. Post proce. sing CO!>l!I

a 7.7.4 Post Processing costs
[a 7.7.2 Initial Costs )
- t m 'cs,.mg fl
After the chip is nunufactu1u.o ),()t1lC , •

Fig. 7.7. I shows a typical MMlC product dc,•clopment required 10 be done on 11. lnc.-.c rue "'11 1,,nt, """"t,
process. llcrc initially it is required to obtain the bonding, ;ind cnc:;JP5Ul o1ion.

prototype which satisfies the market requirement The cost of it is called ~ • procc..s.sing c,,.,t, tr wmc

- The development of the prototype requires concept

errors occur in these procc~ then it m:iy cau•.c t hip

development by an research and development (R&D) fai lure, reducing yield.

team. Then designing the fu nctional circuit. creating

a. 7.7.5 Yield Detractors (Chip Slzo and
the technology and so on. Yield)
In the mo t recent expansionary cycle, the focus on
As with any manufacturing procc~ . 11 number of thinz,
increasing expendjtures for equipment and new fobs
can go wrong duri ng chip production. The ratio of lbc
has increased dramatically.
number of packaged chip, 1ht11 funct ion correctly to the
Due to the extremely high pace of technological
total number of chips one ruined w ith on the wnfrn ii
innovatjon in this industry. necessary investment for
calJcd the final yitld.
R&D, new fobs. and equipment can be as high us 25-30
percent of sales. So making the first chip is u \'Cry
nus can vruy widely (from O to nearly 100 pett"t'ffll
and is affected by defects on the v. afcr, prubk-on
expensive process.
during fabric.ition. unn:liab~ wtrC bonili. 1m
In the beginning of the manufacturing proce s the yield
handling. etc.
may be poor. However us Lime goes on then by making
improvement in the process the yield can be increased. Here we "' ill conccnu---..ie on tb:: inu:,rmeJ.w..c: ) t.dJ ait

the end of lhe wnfer fabric:uioo pr -o nu) qt.l-l!!ll! ,

Customer
Of market
i intim.Jtdy rela.teJ 10 chip llC, .u ulu,trJ.!.-J tO
requirement
Fig. 7.7.2. We ume fl r 1~ .11.c of thh c u 1up~ lh.11
A&sernbly in t-.ol h t!i.•,n ~11,.," n in tht- figur't" tho:- ~D: Jdn."'t
wafer/Chip fol>ricarlon tost ar\d
foundry proccs.sos (in<li,::itcJ by doh ) Ol.'\."\.lr Ill the l>.1.llllt" "x-~tK.>n), ~ tb.H
I),"~

Oil( J.c:fct·t f<' I d up i COl)O •h IU fi'o.J.r ~ d\ip D,. ,.

llerallon(a)
fu11ctiOJ\11J.
Produol

(1G6)Flg. 7.7.1: P~ of MIC du,k>1mwnl

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 . . n
The defects are supposed to be due to fabncatJo '
independent of the nature of the circuits on the chips.
~-- •

For example the defect may be because of dust particle. -

--- .
--. •
In Fig. 7.7.2(a), where a small chip size is used, the -- ,_
1. i)
yield is 87/94 ? 93 percent. In Fig. 7.7.2(b), where the ,=- .I •
chip size is large, the yield is zero. "-- -. ~

The simple example illustrates why chips cannot be

( ) Small chip size (b) Large chip sb.t
made too large in a given technology as shown in ....,1;.. 7•7.2 •~ The effect of chip size on yield
a (1u,p.•Jg.
Fig. 7 .7 .2. Given that the fabrication cost per (good)
chip equals.

Chapttr Ends...

aoo

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