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MODULE 1
Contents

1 Introduction and application of energy sources like fossil fuels, Hydel power, solar and
wind energy
2 Introduction and application of energy sources like nuclear and bio fuels.
3 Introduction to thermodynamics. Concept of work, heat and temperature.
4 Zeroth law of thermodynamics, First law of thermodynamics
5 Second law of thermodynamics, third law of thermodynamics
6 Concept of internal energy, enthalpy and entropy
7 Formation of steam and thermodynamic properties of steam
8 Numerical

Energy basics
Energy is in everything. We use energy for everything we do, from making tea in kitchen,
sending astronauts into space, learning in the class room, teaching students and so on. There are
two types of energy:
Stored (potential) energy
Working (kinetic) energy
For example, the food you eat contains chemical energy, and your body stores this energy until
you use it when you work or play.

The earth in which we all are living today is a gift of several resources which are everlasting.
These resources are termed as the natural resources and are available from the time when the
earth was inhabited. We all are depended on these resources some or the other way. These
resources include water bodies including oceans, seas, river, ponds, and freshwater. The land,
soils, rocks, forests, animals, fossil fuels, and minerals. These resources are termed as natural
resources and are the source of life present on earth. Natural Resources are classified into
Renewable resources and Non-renewable resources
All sources of energy may be grouped in two general categories

Income /Celestial Energy: it is the energy reacting with the earth and comes from the outer
space of the earth. This income energy includes solar, gravitational energy, energy from moon,
stars, planets etc. Income energy sources include all possible sources that provide energy to the
earth from earth‘s outer space. The utilization of these sources is very attractive because they are
available continuously without any cost and are non-depleting sources of energy in nature and
are relatively free from pollution.

Capital Energy: It is the energy that already exists on or within the earth. The capital energy
includes fossil fuels and nuclear fuels energy. The major source of energy on the earth is fuel

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energy and many countries are using this fuels energy for various applications. At present this
sources of energy supply 85-90% of total energy and remaining energy is by hydroelectric,
nuclear and by alternative fuels. Most of fuels obtained in the earth crust are used for different
applications after extraction and refining of the crude fossil fuels.

All the sources of energy mentioned above are grouped and classified in to renewable or non-
renewable

When we use electricity in our home, the electrical power was probably generated by burning
coal, by a nuclear reaction, or by a hydroelectric plant at a dam. Therefore, coal, nuclear and
hydro is called energy sources. When we fill up a gas tank, the source might be petroleum or
ethanol made by growing and processing corn.

Energy sources are divided into two groups — renewable (an energy source can be easily
replenished or made again) and non-renewable (an energy source we are using up and cannot
recreate). Renewable and non-renewable energy sources can be used to produce secondary
energy sources including electricity and hydrogen.

Renewable = can be reproduced easily and are derived from resources like the sun and wind,
that can easily be replenished
Non‐renewable = cannot be replenished (or at least not in our life time) for example energy
sources like coal and oil, that cannot be replaced over a useful period of time
Renewable energy: The resources which are used by mankind from the starting of human life.
Our ancestors used these resources for lighting purposes, transportation, shelter, cooking,
heating, protection from wild animals, etc. Renewable resources are also called as ‗Non-
Conventional‘ sources of energy. Few examples of renewable resources are
Solar energy from the sun, can be turned into electricity and heat
Wind
Tidal
Geothermal energy from heat inside the Earth
Biomass from plants, includes firewood from trees, ethanol from corn, and biodiesel from
vegetable oil Hydropower from hydro turbines at a dam
Unlike fossil fuels, are exhaustible, renewable energy sources regenerate and can be
sustained indefinitely.

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Non-renewable energy: The resources which cannot be easily replaced once they are destroyed
are called as the Non-renewable resources. Few examples of Non-renewable resources include
few species of plants and animals, minerals, fossil fuels, water, wind, land, soil, and rocks.
The four non-renewable energy sources used most often are: -
Oil and petroleum products, including gasoline, diesel fuel and propane
Natural gas
Coal
Uranium (nuclear energy)
Non-renewable energy sources come out of the ground as liquids, gases, and solids. Crude oil
(petroleum) is the only commercial non-renewable fuel is naturally in liquid form. Natural gas
and propane are normally gases, and coal is a solid.

Difference between Renewable and Non-renewable Resources

Renewable Resources Non-renewable Resources
It can be used again and again throughout its life. It cannot be used again and again as it is
limited which can be depleted one day.
They are the energy resources which cannot be They are the energy resources which can be
exhausted. exhausted one day.
It is environment-friendly as the amount of carbon It is not environment-friendly as the amount
emission is low. of carbon emission is high.
These resources are present in unlimited quantity. These resources are present in a limited
quantity only.
The total cost of these resources is low. The total cost of these resources is
comparatively high.
These resources are pollution free. These resources are not pollution free.
The maintenance cost of the renewable resources The maintenance cost of the renewable
is very high. resources is low.
Requires large land area for the installation of the Requires less land area for the installation of
power plant. the power plant.
It is sustainable It is exhaustible
The rate of renewal is greater than the rate of The rate of renewal is lower than the rate of
consumption. consumption.

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Causes no harm to life existing on the planet earth. Adversely affect the health of humans by
emitting smoke, radiations, carcinogenic or
cancer causing elements into the
environment.
Sunlight, are the examples of renewable resources. Coal, petroleum, natural gases, batteries, are
the examples of non-renewable resources

ADVANTAGES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES:

1. Non-exhaustible.
2. Can be matched in scale to the need and can deliver quality energy.
3. Can be built near the load point.
4. Flexibility in the design of conversion systems.
5. Local self-sufficiency by harnessing locally available renewable energy.
6. Except biomass, all other sources are pollution free.

DISADVANTAGES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES:

1. Intermittent nature of availability of energy such as solar, wind, tidal etc. is a

major setback in the continuous supply of energy.
2. Solar energy received at the earth is dependent on local atmosphere conditions,
time of the day, part of the year etc.
3. Sources such as wind, tidal etc. are concentrated only in certain regions.
4. Technology is not fully developed to meet the present energy requirements.
5. Systems such as solar cells require advanced technologies and hence costlier.
6. Application to transport sector has been found to be not viable as on today.

ADVANTAGES OF NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES:

1. Initial cost is lower. Hence widely used.

2. Unit power costs are much lower and so are economical
3. Sources are highly reliable.
4. Power generation technologies are well established.

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DISADVANTAGES OF NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES:

1. The sources are getting depleted and soon will be exhausted.

2. They pollute the atmosphere.
3. They are not freely available

Petroleum based Fuels:

Formed mainly from ancient microscopic plants and bacteria that lived in the ocean and salt
water seas. These micro-organisms died and settled to the sea floor, they mixed with sand silt to
form organic rich mud which was gradually heated and compressed chemically transforming into
petroleum. The liquid petroleum gases which are less dense than water move upwards through
earth‘s crust. It passes through an impermeable layer of rock which traps the petroleum creating
a reservoir of petroleum and natural gas.

Types of Fuels: - The important fuels are as follows

1) Solid fuels, 2) Liquid fuels & 3) Gaseous fuels

Solid fuels: Coal is the major fuel used for thermal power plants to generate steam. Coal occurs
in nature, which was formed by the decay of vegetable matters buried under the earth millions of
years ago under pressure and heat. This phenomenon of transformation of vegetable matter into
coal under earth‘s crust is known as Metamorphism. The major constituents in coal moisture (5-
40%), volatile matter (combustible & or incombustible substances about 50%) and ash (20-
50%).The chemical substances in the coal are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and Sulphur.
In the metamorphism phenomenon, the vegetable matters undergo the transformation from peat
to anthracite coal, with intermediate forms of lignite and bituminous coal.

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Liquid Fuels
All types of liquid fuels used are derived from crude petroleum and its by-products. The
petroleum or crude oil consists of 80-85% C, 10-15% hydrogen, and varying percentages of
Sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen and compounds of vanadium. The crude oil is refined by fractional
distillation process to obtain fuel oils, for industrial as well as for domestic purposes. The
fractions from light oil to heavy oil are naphtha, gasoline, kerosene, diesel and finally heavy fuel
oil. The heavy fuel oil is used for generation of steam. The use of liquid fuels in thermal power
plants has many advantages over the use of solid fuels.
Some important advantages are as follows:

1. The storage and handling of liquid fuels is much easier than solid and gaseous fuels.
2. Excess air required for the complete combustion of liquid fuels is less, as compared to the
solid fuels.
3. Fire control is easy and hence changes in load can be met easily and quickly.
4. There are no requirements of ash handling and disposal.
5. The system is very clean, and hence the labour required is relatively less compared to the
operation with solid fuels.

Gaseous Fuels
For the generation of steam in gas fired thermal plants, either natural gas or manufactured
gaseous fuels are used. However, manufactured gases are costlier than the natural gas. Generally,
natural gas is used for power plants as it is available in abundance. The natural gas is generally
obtained from gas wells and petroleum wells. The major constituent in natural gas is methane,
about 60-65%, and also contains small amounts of other hydrocarbons such as ethane,
naphthenic and aromatics, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. The natural gas is transported from the
source to the place of use through pipes, for distances to several hundred kilometers.
 The natural gas is colorless, odorless and non-toxic.
 Its calorific value ranges from 25,000 to 50,000 kJ/m3, in accordance with the percentage
of methane in the gas
 The artificial gases are producer gas, water gas coke-oven gas; and the Blast furnace gas.
 Generally, power plants fired with artificial gases are not found.
 The gaseous fuels have advantages similar to those of liquid fuels, except for the storage
problems.
The major disadvantage of power plant using natural gas is that it should be setup near the
source; otherwise the transportation losses are too high.

Calorific values of fuels:

The calorific value or heat of combustion or heating value of a sample of fuel is defined as the
amount of heat evolved when a unit weight ( or volume in the case of a sample of gaseous fuels )
of the fuel is completely burnt. It is usually expressed in Gross Calorific Value (GCV) or Higher

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Heating Value (HHV) and Net Calorific Value (NCV) or Lower Heating Value (LHV).Higher
Calorific Value (or Gross Calorific Value - GCV, or Higher Heating Value - HHV) - the water
of combustion is entirely condensed and that the heat contained in the water vapor is recovered
Lower Calorific Value (or Net Calorific Value - NCV, or Lower Heating Value - LHV) - the
products of combustion contains the water vapor and that the heat in the water vapor is not
recovered

Combustion and Combustion Products

Combustion or burning is the sequence of exothermic chemical reactions between a fuel and an
oxidant accompanied by the production of heat and conversion of chemical species. The release
of heat can produce light in the form of either glowing or a flame. Complete combustion of fuel
is possible only in the presence of an adequate supply of oxygen.
Oxygen (O2) is one of the most common elements on earth making up 20.9% of our air.
Rapid fuel oxidation results in large amount of heat. Solid or liquid fuels must be changed to a
gas before they will burn in their normal state if enough air is present. Most of the 79% of air
(that is not oxygen) is nitrogen, with the traces of other elements. Nitrogen is considered to be a
temperature reducing diluter that must be present to obtain the oxygen required combustion.
Nitrogen reduces combustion efficiency by absorbing heat from the combustion of fuels and
diluting the flue gases. This reduces the heat available for transfer through the heat exchange
surfaces. It also increases the volume of combustion by products. Which then have to travel
through the heat exchanger and up the stack faster to allow the introduction of additional fuel-air
mixture
This nitrogen also can combine with oxygen (particularly flame temperatures) to produce
oxides of nitrogen (NOx) which are toxic pollutants. Carbon, hydrogen and Sulphur in the fuel
combine with oxygen in the air to form carbon dioxide, water vapour and Sulphur dioxide,
releasing 8084 kcals, 28922 kcals and 2224 kcals of heat respectively. Under certain conditions,
carbon may also combine with the oxygen to form carbon monoxide, which results in the release
of smaller quantity of heat (2430 kcals/kg of carbon). Carbon burned to CO2will produce more
heat per unit of fuel than CO or smokes are produced

SOLAR POWER

The sun‘s rays (solar radiation) that reach the Earth Surface. This energy can be converted into
other forms of energy, such as heat and electricity.

Solar radiation is radiant energy emitted by the sun from a nuclear fusion reaction that creates
electromagnetic energy. The spectrum of solar radiation is close to that of a black body with a
temperature of about 5800 K. About half of the radiation is in the visible short-wave part of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

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Solar Constant Isc: This is the amount of energy received in unit time on a unit perpendicular to
the suns direction at the mean distance of the earth from the sun. The surface of the earth
receives about 1014kW of solar energy from the sun. One square meter of the land exposed to
direct sun-light receives an energy equivalent of about 1.353 kW of power. This constant may
increase by only 0.2 percent at the of each 11 year solar cycle. The radiant solar energy falling on the
earth surface is directly converted into thermal energy. The surfaces on which the solar rays fall
are called collectors.

Insolation:-Insolation is the amount of solar radiation reaching the earth. Also called Incident
2
Solar Radiation. Maximum value is 1000 kW/m .

Components of Solar Radiation:

1. Direct radiation
2. Diffuse radiation
3. Reflect radiation

Solar Thermal Energy harvesting: Radiant solar energy is directly converted into thermal
energy (heat energy) by using a collector. This process is called as Helio thermal process. The
surface on which the solar rays fall is called a collector. The collector may be either flat plate
collector or focusing collector.

There are two types of collectors:

1. Flat plate collectors
2. Focusing collectors.

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LIQUID FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS:

It has the following components:

Absorbing plate: Made of Copper, Aluminum or steel. It is coated with material to enhance the
absorption of solar radiation. From the absorbing plates heat is transferred to tubes which carry
either water or air.
Water tubes: These are metallic tubes through which water circulates. Which are attached to the

absorber plate
Transparent covers: Sheets of solar radiation transmitting materials placed above the absorbing
plate. They allow solar energy to reach the absorbing plate while reducing convection,
conduction and re-radiation heat losses. Made of a toughened glass, usually 4mm thick. This
helps in reflecting the incident solar energy back to the absorber plate. Glass cover permits the
entry of solar radiation as it is transparent for incoming short wave lengths.
Insulation: It minimizes and protects the absorbing plate from heat losses.

Working – Sun‘s rays falling on the transparent covers are transmitted to the absorbing plate.
The absorbing plate usually of Cu, Al or galvanized iron is painted dead black for maximum
absorption. The collector (plate) will absorb the sun energy and transfer it to the fluid in the pipe
beneath the collector plate. Use of flat mirrors on the sides improves the output. Water from the
overhead tank is made to flow through the water tubes. Solar rays passes through the transparent
cover and falls on the absorber plate. Heat energy from the absorber plate is transferred to the
cold water flowing through the tubes. Worm water rises above the cold water because of low
density and flows into the heater tank.

FOCUSING/ PARABOLIC/ CONCENTRATING COLLECTOR:

Solar power is energy from the sun. Although the sun is 150 million kilometers away it is still
extremely powerful. The amount of energy it provides for the earth in one minute is large enough
to meet the earth‘s energy needs for one year. The problem is in the development of technology
that can harness this ‗free‘ energy source. Solar collectors are one way of focusing the sun‘s rays

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to heat up fluids. A typical array of solar collectors is seen opposite. They are basically unusually
shaped mirrors (parabolic in shape) that focus the heat of the sun on a pipe carrying a special
fluid. The temperature of the fluid in the pipe increases as it flows down the pipe, along the solar
collectors. The pipe extends the entire length of the mirrors. This type of set up works at its best
in desert areas where there is no shortage of sunlight and very little cloud. The hot fluid in the
pipe can be used, through a system of heat exchangers, to produce electricity or hot water

SOLAR POND TECHNOLOGY:

A salinity gradient solar pond is an integral collection and storage device of solar energy. By
virtue of having built-in thermal energy storage, it can be used irrespective of time and season.
In an ordinary pond or lake, when the sun's rays heat up the water this heated water, being
lighter, rises to the surface and loses its heat to the atmosphere. The net result is that the pond
water remains at nearly atmospheric temperature. The solar pond technology inhibits these
phenomena by dissolving salt into the bottom layer of this pond, making it too heavy to rise to
the surface, even when hot. The salt concentration increases with depth, thereby forming a
salinity gradient. The sunlight which reaches the bottom of the pond remains entrapped there.
The useful thermal energy is then withdrawn from the solar pond in the form of hot brine. The
pre-requisites for establishing solar ponds are: a large tract of land (it could be barren), a lot of

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sun shine, and cheaply available salt (such as Sodium Chloride) or bittern. Generally, there are
three main layers. The top layer is cold and has relatively little salt content. The bottom layer is
hot -- up to 100°C (212°F) -- and is very salty.

The energy obtained from a solar pond is used to drive the turbine. Hot water from the bottom
level of the pond is pumped to the evaporator where the working fluid is vaporized. This vapour
then flows under high pressure to the turbine where it expands and work thus obtained runs an
electric generator producing electricity.
The vapour is then condensed through a cooling system and the liquid is pimped back to the
evaporator and the cycle is repeated.
Application of solar ponds:-
1) Heating and cooling of buildings
2) Production of power
3) Industrial process heat
4) Heating animal housing
5) Drying crops on farms

PHOTOVOLTAIC OR SOLAR CELL

Definition: The Photovoltaic cell is the semiconductor device that converts the light into
electrical energy. The voltage induces by the PV cell depends on the intensity of light incident on
it. The name Photovoltaic is because of their voltage producing capability. The electrons of the
semiconductor material are joined together by the covalent bond. The electromagnetic radiations
are made of small energy particles called photons. When the photons are incident on the
semiconductor material, then the electrons become energized and starts emitting. The energies
electron is known as the Photoelectrons. And the phenomenon of emission of electrons is known
as the photoelectric effect. The working of the Photovoltaic cell depends on the photoelectric
effect.

Construction of Photovoltaic Cell

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The semiconductor materials like arsenide, indium, cadmium, silicon, selenium and gallium are
used for making the PV cells. Mostly silicon and selenium are used for making the cell. Consider
the figure below shows the constructions of the silicon photovoltaic cell. The upper surface of
the cell is made of the thin layer of the p-type material so that the light can easily enter into the
material. The metal rings are placed around p-type and n-type material which acts as their
positive and negative output terminals respectively. The multi-crystalline or monocrystalline
semiconductor material makes the single unit of the PV cell. The mono-crystal cell is cut from
the volume of the semiconductor material. The multicells are obtained from the material which
has many sides. The output voltage and current obtained from the single unit of the cell is very
less. The magnitude of the output voltage is 0.6v, and that of the current is 0.8v. The different
combinations of cells are used for increasing the output efficiency. There are three possible ways
of combining the PV cells.
This generated power will be stored in the battery storage.
1) A blocking diode ensures that the battery would not discharge power back to solar array
during the period when there is no sunlight.
2) An inverter converter converts the D.C power to A.C. and sends it to the load centre.
3) From the load centre A.C. power is distributed accordingly with the help of switches.

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WIND ENERGY:
Wind energy is the energy contained in the force of the winds blowing across the earth surface.
Wind energy is defined as the kinetic energy associated with the movement of large masses of
air over the earth‘s surface.

The circulation of the air in the atmosphere is caused by the non-uniform heating of the earth‘s
surface by the sun. The air immediately above warm area expands and becomes less dense. It is
then forced upwards by a cool denser air which flows in from the surrounding areas causing
wind.

Power in the wind:

Wind possesses kinetic energy by virtue of its motion. Any device capable of slowing down the
mass of moving air, like a sail or propeller, can extract part of this energy and convert into useful
work. The kinetic energy of one cubic meter of air blowing at a velocity V is given by,
2 2
E = 1/2ρV J/m

In one second, a volume element of air moves a distance of V m. The total volume crossing a
plane, one square meter in area and oriented normal to the velocity vector in one second is
therefore v m3.The rate at which the wind energy is transferred, i.e., wind power is given by,
2 2
P = EV = 1/2ρV W/m

No device, however well designed can extract all the wind energy because the wind would have
to be brought to halt and this through the rotor. It has been found that for maximum power
output the exit velocity is equal to one-third of the entrance velocity. Thus a maximum of 60%
of the available energy in the wind is converted into mechanical energy.

Advantages:

1) The wind is free and with modern technology it can be captured efficiently.
2) Once the wind turbine is built the energy it produces does not cause greenhouse gases or
other pollutants.
3) Many people find wind farms an interesting feature of the landscape
4) Remote areas that are not connected to the electricity power grid can use wind turbines to

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produce their own supply.

5) Wind turbines have a role to play in both the developed and third world.
6) Wind turbines are available in a range of sizes which means a vast range of people and
businesses can use

Disadvantages:

1) Wind turbines are noisy.

2) The strength of the wind is not constant and it varies from zero to storm force.
3) Only selected places it can be harnessed.

HYDRO POWER PLANTS

In hydroelectric power plants the potential energy of water due to its high location is converted
into electrical energy. The total power generation capacity of the hydroelectric power plants
depends on the head of water and volume of water flowing towards the water turbine. The
hydroelectric power plant, also called as dam or hydro power plant, is used for generation of
electricity from water on large scale basis. The dam is built across the large river that has
sufficient quantity of water throughout the river. In certain cases where the river is very large,
more than one dam can built across the river at different locations. The rain water flowing as
river can be stored behind dams and released in a regulated way to generate hydro power

Working Principle of Hydroelectric power plant

The water flowing in the river possesses two type of energy:

(1) The kinetic energy due to flow of water and
(2) Potential energy due to the height of water.
In hydroelectric power and potential energy of water is utilized to generate electricity the
formula for total power that can be generated from water in hydroelectric power plants due to its
height is given. The potential energy of water stored at a height is converted into mechanical
energy in water turbine. The mechanical energy produced by the water turbine is converted into

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electrical energy. After doing useful work water is discharged from the turbine to the river
through water to the tail race through a draft tube.
Advantages: - environmental friendly source, large scale power generation, energy at free of
cost.
Disadvantages: - expensive to build the dam, summer water may not sufficient to produce
electricity.

NUCLEAR POWER
Nuclear energy is the energy that holds the nucleus of an atom. The energy released during
nuclear fission or fusion, especially when used to generate electricity.
Nuclear Fission: - Nuclear fission is the process of splitting a nucleus into two nuclei with
smaller masses. Fission means ―to divide‖.
Nuclear Fusion: - Nuclear fusion is the combining of two nuclei with low masses to form one
nucleus of larger mass. Nuclear fusion reactions are also called thermonuclear reactions.
“The most common nuclear fuels are 235U. Not all nuclear fuels are used in fission chain
reactions”.
Chain Reaction: - A chain reaction is an ongoing series of fission reactions. Billions of
reactions occur each second in a chain reaction. On earth, nuclear fission reactions take place in
nuclear reactors, which use controlled chain reactions to generate electricity. Uncontrolled chain
reactions take place during the explosion of an atomic bomb.

Working principle of a nuclear power station

The schematic diagram of nuclear power station is shown in A generating station in which
nuclear energy is converted into electrical energy is known as nuclear power station. The main
components of this station are nuclear reactor, control rods, steam generators, steam turbine,
coolant pump, feed pump, condenser, cooling tower.

NUCLEAR REACTOR:- A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear chain reactions are
initiated, controlled, and sustained at a steady rate, as opposed to a nuclear bomb, in which the
chain reaction occurs in a fraction of a second and is uncontrolled causing an explosion.

CONTROL RODS: - Control rods made of a material that absorbs neutrons are inserted into the
bundle using a mechanism that can rise or lower the control rods. The control rods essentially
contain neutron absorbers like, boron, cadmium or indium.

STEAM GENERATORS: - Steam generators are heat exchangers used to convert water into
steam from heat produced in a nuclear reactor core. Either ordinary water or heavy water is used
as the coolant.

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STEAM TURBINE: - A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from
pressurized steam, and converts it into useful mechanical. Various high-performance alloys and
super alloys have been used for steam generator tubing.

COOLANT PUMP: - The coolant pump pressurizes the coolant to pressures of the order of
155bar. The pressure of the coolant loop is maintained almost constant with the help of the pump
and a pressurizer unit.

FEED PUMP: - Steam coming out of the turbine, flows through the condenser for condensation
and recirculated for the next cycle of operation. The feed pump circulates the condensed water in
the working fluid loop.

CONDENSER: - Condenser is a device or unit which is used to condense vapor into liquid. The
objective of the condenser is to reduce the turbine exhaust pressure to increase the efficiency and
to recover high quality feed water in the form of condensate & feedback it to the steam generator
without any further treatment.

COOLING TOWER: - Cooling towers are heat removal devices used to transfer process waste
heat to the atmosphere. Water circulating through the condenser is taken to the cooling tower for
cooling and reuse.

The reactor of a nuclear power plant is similar to the furnace in a steam power plant. The heat
liberated in the reactor due to the nuclear fission of the fuel is taken up by the coolant circulating
in the reactor. A hot coolant leaves the reactor at top and then flows through the tubes of heat
exchanger and transfers its heat to the feed water on its way. The steam produced in the heat
exchanger is passed through the turbine and after the work has done by the expansion of steam in
the turbine, steam leaves the turbine and flows to the condenser. The mechanical or rotating
energy developed by the turbine is transferred to the generator which in turn generates the
electrical energy and supplies to the bus through a step-up transformer, a circuit breaker, and an
isolator. Pumps are provided to maintain the flow of coolant, condensate, and feed water

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ADVANTAGES:-
1) Nuclear power generation does emit relatively low amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2).
2) The emissions of greenhouse gases and therefore the contribution of nuclear power plants
to global warming is therefore relatively little.
3) This technology is readily available; it does not have to be developed first.
4) It is possible to generate a high amount of electrical energy in one single plant.

DISADVANTAGES:-
1) The problem of radioactive waste is still an unsolved one.
2) High risks: It is technically impossible to build a plant with 100% security.
3) The energy source for nuclear energy is Uranium. Uranium is a scarce resource, its
supply is estimated to last only for the next 30 to 60 years depending on the actual
demand.

BIOFUELS
Biomass is biological material derived from living, or recently living organisms. It most often
refers to plants or plant-derived materials which are specifically called lignocelluloses. As an
energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly
after converting it to various forms of biofuel. This biomass may be transformed by physical,
chemical and biological processes to biofuels. In chemical forms biomass is stored solar energy
and can be converted into solid, liquid and gaseous energy carries. Biomass is biological/organic
material derived from living, or recently living organisms. (The term is equally applicable to
both animal and vegetable derived material, but in the context of energy, it refers to plant based
material).

The term ‗Biofuel‘ refers to liquid or gaseous fuels for the transport sector that are
predominantly produced from biomass. A variety of fuels can be produced from biomass
resources including liquid fuels, such as ethanol, methanol, biodiesel and gaseous fuels, such as
hydrogen and methane. The biomass resource base for biofuel production is composed of a wide
variety of forestry and agricultural resources, industrial processing residues, and municipal solid
and urban wood residues.

 Renewable energy source and Stored in form of complex organic compounds of Carbon,
Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen etc.
 It is a source of ‗5F‘: food, fodder, fuel, fibre and fertilizer.
 It can be converted into useful forms of energy through different conversion routes.
 Gets converted into fossil fuels after several million years under certain conditions of
pressure, temperature, air etc. fossil fuels are not renewable, hence, are not biomass.

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Examples of various biofuels used in engineering applications: - The various bio-fuels are
bio-methanol, bio-ethanol, bio-diesel, bio-gas and producer gas.

First-generation biofuels are made from sugar, starch, vegetable oil, or animal fats using
conventional technology. The basic feedstock‘s for the production of first-generation biofuels
come from agriculture and food processing.

The most common first-generation biofuels are:

1) Biodiesel: Extraction with or without esterification of vegetable oils from seeds of plants
like soybean, oil palm, oilseed rape and sunflower or residues including animal fats
derived from rendering applied as fuel in diesel engines.
2) Bioethanol: Fermentation of simple sugars from sugar crops like sugarcane or from starch
crops like maize and wheat applied as fuel in petrol engines.
3) Bio-oil: Thermo-chemical conversion of biomass. A process still in the development
phase.
4) Biogas: Anaerobic fermentation or organic waste, animal manures, crop residues an
energy crops applied as fuel in engines suitable for compressed natural gas.

Second-generation biofuels are derived from non-food feedstock including lignocellulose

biomass like crop residues or wood. Two transformative technologies are under development.

Sunlight

6CO2 + 6H2O (CH2O)6 + 6O2 + 636 kCal

Chlorophyll t
(biomass)

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Biochemical: Modification of the bio-ethanol fermentation process including a pre-treatment

procedure
Thermo chemical: Modification of the bio-oil process to produce syngas and methanol, Fisher-
Tropsch diesel or dimethyl ether (DME).
Emission of bio-fuels: - Biodiesel plays a vital role in reducing emission of many air pollutants.
The emission of carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx) etc.., is
lesser than those of petroleum fuels and thus these are eco-friendly.
Calorific value of bio-fuels: - Calorific values of biofuels will be considerably lesser than that
of petroleum fuels.

Advantages of biomass energy

1) Renewable and inexhaustible (theoretically) source of energy.

2) Biomass is very abundant.
3) It is easy to convert to a high energy portable fuel such as alcohol or gas which are
efficient, viable and relatively clean-burning.
4) It is cheap in contrast to the other energy sources.
5) Biomass production can often mean the restoration of waste land (e.g. deforested areas).
6) Commercial use of biomass may reduce the problem of waste disposal.
7) It may also use areas of unused agricultural land and provide jobs in rural communities.
8) When direct combustion of plant mass is not used to generate energy (i.e. fermentation,
pyrolysis, etc. are used instead), there is minimal environmental impact.
Disadvantages of biomass energy:-

1) A dispersed and land-intensive source.

2) Low energy density.
3) Could contribute a great deal too global warming and particulate pollution if directly
burned.
4) Still an expensive source, both in terms of producing the biomass and converting it to
alcohols.
5) On a small scale there is most likely a net loss of energy- energy must be put in to grow
the plant mass.

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Ozone depletion

Ozone depletion, gradual thinning of Earth‘s ozone layer in the upper atmosphere caused by the
release of chemical compounds containing gaseous chlorine or bromine from industry and other
human activities. The thinning is most pronounced in the Polar Regions, especially over
Antarctica. Ozone depletion is a major environmental problem because it increases the amount
of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches Earth‘s surface, which increases the rate of skin
cancer, eye cataracts, and genetic and immune system damage. The Montreal Protocol, ratified in

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1987, was the first of several comprehensive international agreements enacted to halt the
production and use of ozone-depleting chemicals. As a result of continued international
cooperation on this issue, the ozone layer is expected to recover over time

Global Warming
Global warming is the slow increase in the average temperature of the earth‘s atmosphere
because an increased amount of the energy (heat) striking the earth from the sun is being trapped
in the atmosphere and not radiated out into space. The earth‘s atmosphere has always acted like a
greenhouse to capture the sun‘s heat, ensuring that the earth has enjoyed temperatures that
permitted the emergence of life forms as we know them, including humans.
Without our atmospheric greenhouse the earth would be very cold. Global warming,
however, is the equivalent of a greenhouse with high efficiency reflective glass installed the
wrong way around.
How does Global Warming drive Climate Change?
Heat is energy and when you add energy to any system changes occur. Because all systems in the
global climate system are connected, adding heat energy causes the global climate as a whole to
change. Much of the world is covered with ocean which heats up. When the ocean heats up,
more water evaporates into clouds.
What Causes Global Warming?
There are three positions on global warming: (1) that global warming is not occurring and so
neither is climate change; (2) that global warming and climate change are occurring, but these
are natural, cyclic events unrelated to human activity; and (3) that global warming is occurring as
a result primarily of human activity and so climate change is also the result of human activity.

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THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics involves the storage, transformation, and transfer of energy. Energy is stored
as internal energy (due to temperature), kinetic energy (due to motion), potential energy (due to
elevation), and chemical energy (due to chemical composition); it is transformed from one of
these forms to another; and it is transferred across a boundary as either heat or work. We will
present equations that relate the transformations and transfers of energy to properties such as
temperature, pressure, and density. The properties of materials thus become very important.
Many equations will be based on experimental observations that have been presented as
mathematical statements, or laws: primarily the first and second laws of thermodynamics.
The mechanical engineers objective in studying thermodynamics is most often the
analysis of a rather complicated device, such as an air conditioner, an engine, or a power plant.
As the fluid flows through such a device, it is assumed to be a continuum in which there are
measurable quantities such as pressure, temperature, and velocity. This book, then, will be
restricted to macroscopic or engineering thermodynamics. If the behavior of individual
molecules is important, statistical thermodynamics must be consulted.

System:
We need to fix our focus of attention in order to understand heat and work interaction. The body
or assemblage or the space on which our attention is focused is called system. The system may
be having real or imaginary boundaries across which the interaction occurs. The boundary may
be rigid and sometimes take different shapes at different times. If the system has imaginary
boundary then we must properly formulate the idea of system in our mind

Surroundings:
Everything else apart from system constitutes surroundings. The idea of surroundings gets
formulated the moment we define system. System and surroundings together form what is
known as universe.

Closed system:
If the system has a boundary through which mass or material cannot be transferred, but only
energy can be transferred is called closed system. In an actual system, there may not be energy
transfer. What is essential for the system to be closed is the inability of the boundary to transfer
mass only.

Open system:

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If the system has a boundary through which both energy and mass can transfer, then it is
called open system.

Isolated System: An isolated system is that system which exchanges neither energy nor matter
with surrounding‘s
State: It is defined as condition of a system in which there are one set of values for all its properties.
The properties that define the state of a system are called state variables. There is certain minimum
number of intensive properties that requires to be specified in order to define the state of a system
and this number is uniquely related to the kind of system. This relation is phase rule which we shall
discuss little later.

Process: The changes that occur in the system in moving the system from one state to the other is
called a process. During a process the values of some or all state variables change. The process
may be accompanied by heat or work interaction with the system.

Equilibrium state:
A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if it satisfies the condition for thermal
equilibrium, mechanical equilibrium and also chemical equilibrium. If it is in equilibrium, there
are no changes occurring or there is no process taking place.

Thermal equilibrium: There should not be any temperature difference between different regions
or locations within the system. If there are, then there is no way a process of heat transfer does
not take place. Uniformity of temperature throughout the system is the requirement for a system
to be in thermal equilibrium. Surroundings and the system may be at different temperatures and
still system may be in thermal equilibrium.

Mechanical equilibrium: There should not be any pressure difference between different regions
or locations within the system. If there are, then there is no way a process of work transfer does
not take place. Uniformity of pressure throughout the system is the requirement for a system to
be in mechanical equilibrium. Surroundings and the system may be at pressures and still system
may be in mechanical equilibrium.
Chemical equilibrium: There should not be any chemical reaction taking place anywhere in the
system, then it is said to be in chemical equilibrium. Uniformity of chemical potential throughout

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the system is the requirement for a system to be in chemical equilibrium. Surroundings and the
system may have different chemical potential and still system may be in chemical equilibrium.

Thermodynamic process:
Thermodynamics is the study of the effects of work, heat, and energy on a system.
Thermodynamics is only concerned with macroscopic (large-scale) changes and observations.
All of thermodynamics can be expressed in terms of four quantities
1. Temperature (T)
2. Internal Energy (U)
3. Entropy (S)
4. Heat (Q)
ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The Zeroth Law is the basis for the measurement of temperature. It states that “two bodies
which are in thermal equilibrium with a third body are in thermal equilibrium with each
other.”

WORK AND HEAT

Thermodynamic definition of work: Positive work is done by a system when the sole effect
external to the system could be reduced to the rise of a weight.
Thermodynamic definition of heat: It is the energy in transition between the system and the
surroundings by virtue of the difference in temperature

Heat to work Thermal power plant

Work to heat Refrigeration

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The first law of thermodynamics which is also known as the conservation of energy principle states
that “energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can be changed from one form to
another.” The change in internal energy of a system is equal to the heat added to the system minus
the work done by the system
ΔU = Q – W
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SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The second law of thermodynamics states that ―Energy in the form of heat only flows from
regions of higher temperature to that of lower temperature”.

In the example considered the system undergoes a cycle in which work is first done on the
system by the paddle wheel as the weight is lowered. Then let the cycle be completed by
transferring heat to the surrounding. From experience it has been learnt that we cannot
reverse this cycle. i.e., if we transfer heat to the gas, as shown by the dotted line, the
temperature of the gas will increase, but the paddle wheel will not turn and lift the weigh.
This system can operate in a cycle in which the heat and work transfers are both negative,
but it cannot operate in a cycle when both are positive, even though this would not violate
There are two classical statements of the second law of thermodynamics
1. Kelvin – Planck statement
2. Clausius statement
Kelvin – Planck statement
―It is impossible to construct a device which will operate in a cycle & produce no effect
other than the raising of a weight and the exchange of heat with a single reservoir‖ No
actual or ideal engine operating in cycles can convert into work all the heat supplied to the
working substance, it must discharge some heat into a naturally accessible sink because of
this aspect and the second law is often referred as the law of degradation of energy.

Clausius Statement
It is impossible to construct a heat pump which operating in a cycle will produce no effect
other than the transfer of heat from a low temperature thermal reservoir to a higher
temperature thermal reservoir. That is in order to transfer heat from a low temperature thermal
reservoir to a high temperature thermal reservoir work must be done on the system by the
surroundings. Although the Kelvin – Planck and Clausius statements appear to be different,
they are really equivalent in the sense that a violation of one statement involves violation of

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the other.

THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The Third Law states, “The entropy of a perfect crystal is zero when the temperature of
the crystal is equal to absolute zero (0 K).” Entropy is sometimes called ―waste energy,‖
i.e., the energy that is unable to do work, and since there is no heat energy whatsoever at
absolute zero, there can be no waste energy.

STEAM FORMATION AND PROPERTIES:

All the substance under suitable conditions of temperature and pressure can exist in one of the
three states via solid, liquid or gas. But water is one of the pure substances that exist in all the
three phases namely in solid phase as ice, liquid phase as water and gaseous phases as vapour
(steam). Most of the practical problems in thermal engineering are concerned with liquid and
gaseous phase rather than the solid phase. Water, which is liquid at normal temperature begins to
boil to form steam when heat sufficiently. In practice, steam is generated in steam generators or
popularly known as BOILERS.

Definition of Steam: Steam can be defined as it is a mixture of water and air or it can also be
defined as vapour of water.

FORMATION OF STEAM AT CONSTANT PRESSURE:

Consider 1 kg of water at 00C taken in a cylinder, on which a constant pressure P is exerted.
Point A on the temperature-enthalpy graph when this water is heated its temperature rises till the
boiling point is reached. This temperature is called saturation temperature (Ts). Point B on the
graph further addition of heat initiates the evaporation of water while the temperature remains at
saturation temperature until all of water is converted into steam. Point C on the graph. On
heating the steam further, it increases the temperature of steam above the saturated temperature
to superheated steam.

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Saturation temperature (Ts): It is defined as the temperature at which the water begins to boil
at constant pressure.
Sensible heat (hf): It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water
from 00C to the saturation temperature (boiling point) at constant pressure. It is also known as
enthalpy of the liquid.
Latent heat of evaporation (hfg): It is the amount of heat required to evaporate 1 kg of water at
saturation temperature to 1 kg of dry steam at the same saturation temperature at constant
pressure, also known as enthalpy of evaporation.
Enthalpy of superheat: The amount of heat required to increase the temperature of dry steam
from its saturation temperature to any desired higher temperature at constant pressure is called
enthalpy of superheat.
States of steam: - The steam as it is being generated can exist in 3 states as wet steam, dry
saturated steam and superheated steam.
Wet Steam: It is defined as a two-phase mixture of entrained water molecules and steam at
saturation temperature.
Dry Steam (dry saturated steam): As wet steam is heated further, the water molecules in the
steam gets converted into vapour. Dry steam is the steam at saturation temperature having no
water molecules in it. Point C.
Superheated Steam: It is defined as the steam which is heated beyond its dry state to
temperatures higher than its saturated temperature at the given pressure.

Dryness fraction of steam: A wet steam has different proportions of water molecules and dry
steam. Hence, the quality of wet steam is specified by the dryness fraction which indicates the
amount of dry steam in the given quantity of wet steam and is denoted by x. It is defined as the
ratio of mass of dry steam in a given quantity of wet steam to the total mass of wet steam.

It is defined as the ratio of mass of dry steam in a given quantity of wet steam to the total mass
of wet steam.

Let mg = mass of dry steam

mf = mass of water molecules
Dryness fraction, x= mg/ (mg+mf)
The dryness fraction of wet steam is less than 1.
The dryness fraction of dry steam is 1

Enthalpy (h), kJ/kg: It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water
from 00C to the desired form of steam at constant pressure. It is the sum of the internal energy
and work done at constant pressure.

Enthalpy of Dry Saturated Steam (hg):It is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of water from 00C to 1 kg of dry saturated steam at constant pressure.
•
ℎg= ℎf + ℎfg KJ/Kg

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Enthalpy of Wet Steam (h): It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of
water from 00C to 1 kg of wet steam to the specified dryness fraction, at constant pressure.
ℎ = ℎf+ xℎfg KJ/Kg
Enthalpy of Superheated Steam (hsup): It is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of water from 00C to 1 kg of superheated steam to the stated saturated steam
temperature, at constant pressure. It is the sum of enthalpy of dry steam and the amount of
superheat.

hsup=hg+Cps(Tsup-Ts) KJ/Kg

hsup=hf+hfg+Cps(Tsup-Ts) KJ/Kg
Where Cps is the specific heat of superheated steam.

Steam Properties:
• Ice melts.
• Water is heated beyond boiling point.
• Steam is defined as vapour of water.
• Vaporization (Gaseous phase).
• Steam is two phase mixture of water and steam.
The important properties of steam are

1. Pressure 4. Enthalpy

2. Temperature 5. Internal energy

3. Specific volume 6. Entropy

Specific volume (m3 /kg): It is the volume occupied by the unit mass of a substance.

Specific Volume of Dry Saturated Steam (Vg): It is the volume occupied by 1 kg of dry
saturated steam at a given pressure.

Specific Volume of Wet Steam (v): It is the volume occupied by 1 kg of wet steam to the
specified dryness fraction at a given pressure. v = xvg

Internal Energy of Steam: The total heat energy of a dry saturated steam at a constant pressure
is the sum of the sensible heat and latent heat. But in latent heat a portion is used for external
work. Therefore, the actual energy stored in the steam is the sensible heat and the internal latent
heat. This actual energy stored in the steam is called internal energy of steam. It is defined as the
difference between the enthalpy of the steam and the external work of evaporation.

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