MBARARA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

AN ANALOG-BASED GENERAL-PURPOSE DUAL-AXIS

SOLAR TRACKER
BY
ARUHO GERALDS 2017/EEE/007/PS
NKWATSIBWE JAMES LOUIS 2017/EEE/047/PS
NABAASA AGATHA 2017/EEE/042/PS

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY
[email protected] +256 771068328
[email protected] +256 759238391
[email protected] +256 706389849

A Project Report Submitted to the Faculty of Applied Sciences And Technology for the Study
Leading to a Project in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of
Bachelor of Electrical And Electronics Engineering of Mbarara University of Science and
Technology.

Supervisor: Mr. Galiwango Martin

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Mbarara University of Science and Technology
[email protected] +256-775879959

JANUARY, 2021
 DECLARATION

I ARUHO GERALDS, declare that this report is original and that to the best of my knowledge, it
has never been submitted, in full or part, for any academic award in any institution, college or
University. I have abided by the Mbarara University of Science and Technology integrity policy
in this report.

Signature …………………………………….

Date ………………………………………..

I NKWATSIBWE JAMES LOUIS, declare that this report is original and that to the best of my
knowledge, it has never been submitted, in full or part, for any academic award in any institution,
college or University. I have abided by the Mbarara University of Science and Technology
integrity policy in this report.

Signature …………………………………….

Date ………………………………………..

I NABAASA AGATHA, declare that this report is original and that to the best of my knowledge, it
has never been submitted, in full or part, for any academic award in any institution, college or
University. I have abided by the Mbarara University of Science and Technology integrity policy
in this report.
Signature …………………………………..

Date ………………………………………..

i
APPROVAL

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The completion of the final year project was through the help of very many individuals. Thus
this acknowledgement recognizes their efforts.

We extend our sincere thanks to my supervisor Mr. Galiwango Martin for his guidance,
commitment, time and constant supervision as well as for providing necessary information.

We would also like to show gratitude to all the lecturers in the electrical and electronics
Engineering department of Mbarara University of Science and Technology for equipping us with
the necessary knowledge and skills to complete this project.

Above everything else, we would love to thank The Almighty God for his love and providence
throughout this project.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. i

APPROVAL ................................................................................................................................... ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. iii

LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... vii

LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... viii

LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................. ix

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1

1.1 Background ............................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Problem statement ..................................................................................................................... 2

1.3 General objective ...................................................................................................................... 2

Specific objectives .......................................................................................................................... 2

1.4 Scope of study ........................................................................................................................... 2

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................. 3

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 3

2.2 Solar cell ................................................................................................................................... 3

2.3 Solar power concentrator .......................................................................................................... 3

2.4 Nature of solar irradiation ......................................................................................................... 4

2.4.1 Sunlight .................................................................................................................................. 5

2.4.2 Solar constant Gcs.................................................................................................................. 5

2.5 Solar angles ............................................................................................................................... 6

2.5.1 Elevation angle....................................................................................................................... 6

2.5.2 Zenith angle ........................................................................................................................... 6

2.5.3 Azimuth angle ........................................................................................................................ 6

2.6 Solar tracking technologies ....................................................................................................... 7

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2.6.1 Active solar tracking .............................................................................................................. 7

2.6.2 Passive solar tracking ............................................................................................................. 7

2.6.3 Chronological solar tracking .................................................................................................. 7

2.6.4 Single axis tracking ................................................................................................................ 7

2.5.5 Dual axis tracking .................................................................................................................. 8

2.5.6 Fixed collectors ...................................................................................................................... 8

2.7 Effect of light intensity ............................................................................................................. 8

2.8 Efficiency of solar panels.......................................................................................................... 8

2.9 Benefits and demerits of solar energy....................................................................................... 9

2.9.1 Benefits .................................................................................................................................. 9

2.9.2 Demerits of solar energy ........................................................................................................ 9

2.10 Benefits of dual axis solar tracker ........................................................................................... 9

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................... 10

3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 10

3.2 Methodology for designing low voltage high toque DC linear actuators. .............................. 10

3.2.1 Actuator design .................................................................................................................... 10

3.2.2 Actuator working ................................................................................................................. 11

3.3 Methodology for designing and testing a dual axis solar tracking system prototype. ............ 12

3.3.1. Block diagram of the solar tracking system ........................................................................ 12

3.3.2. Schematic diagram of the prototype. .................................................................................. 14

3.3.3 Selection of the components used in the prototype ............................................................. 14

3.3.4 Circuit Simulation ................................................................................................................ 19

3.3.5 Board design ........................................................................................................................ 20

3.3.6 Project prototype .................................................................................................................. 22

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ................................................................. 23

v
4.1 LDR Voltage divider............................................................................................................... 23

Discussion of results ..................................................................................................................... 24

4.2 The comparator circuit ............................................................................................................ 25

Discussion of results ..................................................................................................................... 29

4.3 Motor driver ............................................................................................................................ 30

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................... 31

5.1 Recommendation for further improvement ............................................................................ 31

5.2 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 31

References ..................................................................................................................................... 32

APPENDICES .............................................................................................................................. 34

Appendix 1: Budget for the used Components ............................................................................. 34

Appendix 2: Pictures of different stages of prototype development............................................. 35

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Solar cell/ Photovoltaic cell [8] ....................................................................................... 3
Figure 2: Solar power concentrator [9] ........................................................................................... 4
Figure 3: Solar angles [11] .............................................................................................................. 6
Figure 4: Actuator design.............................................................................................................. 10
Figure 5: Actuator Setup ............................................................................................................... 12
Figure 6: Block diagram for the solar tracking system ................................................................. 13
Figure 7: The circuit schematic..................................................................................................... 14
Figure 8: Light dependent resistors in a voltage divider............................................................... 15
Figure 9: Light dependent resistors in cross walls ........................................................................ 15
Figure 10: Window comparator configuration ............................................................................. 16
Figure 11: motor driver direction .................................................................................................. 17
Figure 12: solar panel board and the three knob joints on its lower surface ................................ 18
Figure 13: The Power Supply ....................................................................................................... 18
Figure 14: Circuit diagram of the prototype ................................................................................. 19
Figure 15: Board Layout design ................................................................................................... 20
Figure 16: Populated Board .......................................................................................................... 21
Figure 17: Board Testing .............................................................................................................. 21
Figure 18: The Project Prototype .................................................................................................. 22
Figure 19: LDR voltage divider .................................................................................................... 23
Figure 20: Comparator output when both LDR's are not illuminated .......................................... 25
Figure 21: comparator output when LDR 1 is illuminated ........................................................... 26
Figure 22: Comparator output when LDR 2 is illuminated .......................................................... 27
Figure 23: Comparator output when both LDR's are illuminated ................................................ 28
Figure 24: The panel used in the prototype .................................................................................. 35
Figure 25: Position of LDR sensors .............................................................................................. 36
Figure 26: Prototype testing .......................................................................................................... 37

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: The range of the brightness of sunlight ............................................................................ 5

Table 2: LDR voltage divider output ............................................................................................ 24
Table 3: Comparator Output ......................................................................................................... 29
Table 4: Direction of motor rotation ............................................................................................. 30
Table 5: Budget for the required components............................................................................... 34

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 LIST OF ACRONYMS

CMOS Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor

IC Integrated Circuit
LDR Light Dependent Resistor
DC Direct Current
MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking
PCB Printed Circuit Board
Op amps Operational Amplifiers
CNC Computer Numerical Control
CAM Computer Aided Manufacturing

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 ABSTRACT

Solar energy is one of the rapidly expanding renewable energy resources owing to its abundance
and ease of conversion into electrical energy [1]. Solar panels are used in the conversion of solar
energy into electrical energy. The solar panels can be used either in stand-alone mode or they can
be grid-tied. Solar power concentrators are used to convert solar energy to heat energy [2]. To
maximize the energy conversion, the system needs to be placed perpendicular to the sun’s rays all
the time thus the need for solar tacking.
This project involves the design and construction of an affordable analog based general purpose
solar tracking system. The designed solar tracker has two axes of rotation making it capable of
orienting the solar system in any direction perpendicular to the sun at all times for maximum
energy conversion.
The project utilizes four comparator-configured operational amplifiers on one integrated circuit (a
CMOS IC) and two DC-motor actuators driven by a motor driver IC to position the plane of the
solar panel or concentrator perpendicular to the sun’s incident radiation. Values of light intensity
are received through two pairs of light dependent resistors, comparisons are made for each axis
simultaneously and a decision is made accordingly evident in rotating the panel or concentrator
through the actuators.

x
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
Energy is the key enabler to a county’s development aspirations. An enormous amount of energy
is produced and consumed across the global society on a daily basis. Though the energy potential
of the sun is immense, harvesting solar energy is quite challenging due to limited efficiency of
solar panels which is approximated to be around 24%. Solar panels directly convert radiation from
the sun into electrical energy [2]. The panels are mainly manufactured from semiconductor
materials, notably silicon. Their efficiency is 24.5% on the higher side. The efficiency of a solar
Panel can be increased by increasing the efficiency of the solar cell, maximizing the energy output
of the solar panel, or by employing a solar tracking mechanism [3].
To maximize the energy output of a solar panel, the operation of the panel is constrained to the
knee point of the IV- characteristics of the solar cells. This technology is known as maximum
power point tracking (MPPT). This only offers maximum power received from static solar Panels
at any given time thus it won’t increase the amount of power generated when the system is not
aligned with the sun. Solar tracking is an obvious method that addresses the above problem faced
by MPPT. A solar tracker orients the solar panel in the direction perpendicular to the sun’s incident
radiation, hence the power output of a solar Panel is increased by 30% – 60% [4].
There are various types of trackers that can be used for increase in the amount of energy that can
be obtained by solar panels [2]. Dual axis trackers are among the most efficient and they are
capable of tracking the sun from both axes which make them the best option for cases where the
position of the sun keeps changing during the year at different seasons.
Single axis trackers are also a better option for places around the equator where there is no
significant change in the apparent position of the sun.
The level to which the efficiency is improved will depend on the efficiency of the tracking
system and the weather. Very efficient trackers will offer more efficiency because they are able
to track the sun with more precision. There will be bigger increase in efficiency in cases where
the weather is sunny and thus favorable for the tracking system [5].
This project aims at designing a solar tracking system keeping the above in view to make solar
energy more efficient and cost effective.

1
1.2 Problem statement
In Uganda, the few existing solar trackers are microcontroller based, use complex actuators and
also serve mainly one purpose; that is, carrying solar panels leaving out all other applications that
require direct sun rays for efficiency for example solar power concentrators [3][8]. This makes
them ineffective because they serve one purpose and are costly hence affordable to a few. As a
result, most solar energy users resort to using fixed solar panels which harvest low energy from
the sun.
1.3 General objective
To design a cost-efficient solar tracking system that orients the solar panel/concentrator to the
direction the sun by comparing sunlight intensities.

Specific objectives
i. To design low voltage high toque dc linear actuators for the X and Y axes
ii. To design and test a dual axis solar tracking system prototype.
iii. To test the capabilities of the solar tracker in solar panels and (or) solar power
concentrators.
1.4 Scope of study
The scope is solar energy users in Uganda where our system operates. The project explores the use
of a solar panel or a solar power concentrator coupled with two low voltage DC motor actuators
to track the sun in both the horizontal and vertical axes. Four light sensors (LDRs) are mounted on
the solar panel which are the inputs to measure the differences in light intensities to be able to
move the system and track the direction of the sun. Each pair of these Light sensors feeds into
comparator circuit that compares the intensities and commands the actuators through a motor
driver IC.

2
 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
A solar tracker is a device used for orienting a photovoltaic array solar panel or for concentrating
solar reflector or lens toward the sun. The position of the sun in the sky is varied both with seasons
and time of day as the sun moves across the sky. Solar powered equipment work best when they
are pointed at the sun [6].
This chapter presents the review of the previous works about solar tracking systems in existence.
2.2 Solar cell
To convert solar energy into electricity, use is made of solar cells. A solar cell is a small disk of
semiconductor like silicon that converts visible light to dc current [7]. The photovoltaic cell is the
basic building block of a photovoltaic system. Performance of a photovoltaic array depends on
sunlight. Climatic conditions like clouds and fog significantly affect the amount of solar energy
that is received by the array and therefore its performance [8].

Figure 1: Solar cell/ Photovoltaic cell [8]

2.3 Solar power concentrator
Solar concentrators are devices that work on the basic principle of focusing the sun. Generally,
intense sunlight results in higher temperatures, which increases the rate at which heat can be
efficiently converted into electricity. To intensify sunlight, solar energy concentrators that bundle
the sun into one focal point are used. Solar energy concentrators operate on the principle of
focusing a bundle of sunlight onto a small surface usually with the help of an optical device or a
mirror. For the concentration technology to be efficient, the concentrator has to be directly facing
the sun hence the need for solar tracking [9].

3
 Figure 2: Solar power concentrator [9]
2.4 Nature of solar irradiation
Solar radiation refers to the electromagnetic radiation that reaches the Earth from the Sun. It is
described in watts per square meter (W/m2). Irradiance is measured in space or on the earth's
surface after atmospheric absorption and scattering. An estimate of the total power delivered by
the sun is expressed below by the Stephan-Boltzmann equation [10].
P=4πr2 σϵT4 W
Where T is the temperature of the earth about 5700K, r radius of the sun approximately 56,378.15
km while σ is the Stephan-Boltzmann constant whose value is 1.3806488 × 10-23 m2 kg s-2 K-1
and ϵ denotes the emissivity of a surface.
Solar radiation reaches the earth surface in three ways namely:
Direct radiation: is also referred to as beam radiation and is the solar radiation which travels in a
straight line from the sun to the surface of the earth.
Diffuse radiation: is the description of the sunlight which has been scattered by particles and
molecules in the atmosphere but still manages to reach the earth’s surface. Diffuse radiation has
no definite direction, unlike direct versions.
Reflected radiation: describes sunlight which has been reflected off from non-atmospheric
surfaces like the ground [5].

4
2.4.1 Sunlight
It is a portion of electromagnetic radiation given off by the sun either by infrared, visible or
ultraviolet light. Sunlight ranges between 400 lux and approximately 130,000 lux, as summarized
in the table below [4].
Table 1: The range of the brightness of sunlight
Time of day Luminous flux (lux)
Sunrise or sunset on a clear day 400
Overcast day 1,000
Full day (not direct sun) 10,000– 25,000
Direct sunlight 32,000 – 130,000

2.4.2 Solar constant Gcs.

It is the average solar irradiance per unit area that would be incident on a plane perpendicular to
the sun’s rays. It could also be referred to as the amount of solar power flux that passes through
the mean earth orbit, whose average value is approximately 1366 W/ m2 [5].
The solar constant is determined by the aid of solar spectral irradiance curves obtained with a
recording spectrobolometer and referenced to a measurement obtained from a pyrheliometer which
determines the total radiation at the same time.

5
2.5 Solar angles

Figure 3: Solar angles [11]

2.5.1 Elevation angle

The elevation angle is the angular height of the sun in the sky measured from the horizontal. Both
altitude and elevation are used for description of the height in meters above the sea level. The
elevation is 0 degrees at sunrise and 90 degrees when the sun is directly overhead. The angle of
elevation varies throughout the day and also depends on latitude of the particular location and the
day of the year [11].
2.5.2 Zenith angle
This is the angle between the sun and the vertical. It is similar to the angle of elevation but is
measured from the vertical rather than from the horizontal. Therefore, the zenith angle = 90 degrees
– elevation angle [5]
2.5.3 Azimuth angle
This is the compass direction from which the sunlight is coming. At solar noon, the sun is directly
south in the northern hemisphere and directly north in the southern hemisphere. The azimuth angle
varies throughout the day. At the equinoxes, the sun rises directly from east and sets directly west
regardless of the latitude. Therefore, the azimuth angles are 90 degrees at sunrise and 270 degrees
at sunset [11].

6
2.6 Solar tracking technologies
This refers to the act of orienting photovoltaic panels, reflectors, lenses or other optical devices
toward the sun [7]. There are various types of solar tracking techniques of varying costs,
sophistication and performance. The two basic solar tracking techniques are single axis tracking
and dual axis tracking. Other tracking techniques of concern are Active solar tracking, Passive
solar tracking, and chronological solar tracking among others.
2.6.1 Active solar tracking
Active trackers make use of motors and gear trains for direction of the tracker as commanded by
the controller responding to the solar direction. The position of the sun is monitored throughout
the day. The trackers typically have two photo sensors, such as photodiodes, configured
differentially so that they output a null when receiving the same light flux [11].
2.6.2 Passive solar tracking
Passive trackers use a low boiling point compressed gas fluid driven to one side or the other to
cause the tracker to move in response to an imbalance. Because it is a non-precision orientation it
is not suitable for some types of concentrating photovoltaic collectors but works just fine for
common PV panel types [12].
2.6.3 Chronological solar tracking
A chronological tracker counteracts the rotation of the earth by turning at the same speed as the
earth relative to the sun around an axis that is parallel to the earths. To achieve this, a simple
rotation mechanism is devised which enables the system to rotate throughout the day in a
predefined manner without considering whether the sun is there or not. The system turns at a
constant speed of one revolution per day or 15 degrees per hour. Chronological trackers are very
simple but potentially very accurate [6].
2.6.4 Single axis tracking
Single axis trackers have one degree of freedom that act as the axis of rotation. The axis of rotation
of single axis trackers is aligned along the meridian of the true North. With advanced tracking
algorithms, it is possible to align them in any cardinal direction. Examples of single axis trackers
include the horizontal single axis trackers (HSAT), vertical single axis tracker (VSAT), tilted
single axis tracker (TSAT) and polar aligned single axis tracker (PSAT) [3].

7
2.5.5 Dual axis tracking
Dual axis trackers have two degrees of freedom that act as axes of rotation. These axes are typically
normal to each other. The primary axis is the one that is fixed with respect to the ground. The
secondary axis is the one referenced to the primary axis. There are various common
implementations of dual trackers. Their classification is based on orientation of their primary axes
with respect to the ground [3].
2.5.6 Fixed collectors
Fixed collectors are mounted on places that have maximum sunlight and are at relatively good
angle in relation to the sun. These include rooftops. The main aim is to expose the panel for
maximum hours in a day without the need for tracking technologies. There is therefore a
considerable reduction in the cost of maintenance and installation. Most collectors are of the fixed
type. When using these collectors, it is important to know the position of the sun at various seasons
and times of the year so that there is optimum orientation of the collector when it is being installed.
This gives maximum solar energy through the year [6] [8].
2.7 Effect of light intensity
Change of the light intensity incident on a solar cell changes all the parameters, including the open
circuit voltage, short circuit current, the fill factor, efficiency and impact of series and shunt
resistances. Therefore, the increase or decrease has a proportional effect on the amount of power
output from the panel [8].
2.8 Efficiency of solar panels
The efficiency is the parameter most commonly used to compare performance of one solar cells to
another. It is the ratio of energy output from the solar panel to input energy from the sun in addition
to reflecting on the performance of solar cells, it will depend on the spectrum and intensity of the
incident sunlight and the temperature of the solar cell. As a result, conditions under which
efficiency is to be measured must be controlled carefully to compare performance of the various
devices.
The efficiency of solar cells is determined as the fraction of incident power that is converted to
electricity [13].

8
2.9 Benefits and demerits of solar energy
2.9.1 Benefits
 It is pollution free.
 Solar cells are free of any noise.
 Once solar cells have been installed and running, minimal maintenance is required.
 On average, it is possible to have a high return on investment because of the free energy
solar panels produce.
 Solar energy can be used in very remote areas where extension of the electricity power grid
is costly [11].
2.9.2 Demerits of solar energy
 Solar panels can be costly to install resulting in a time lag of many years for savings on
energy bills to match initial investments.
 Generation of electricity from solar is dependent on the country’s exposure to sunlight.
This means some countries are slightly disadvantaged.
 Solar power stations do not match the power output of conventional power stations of
similar size. Furthermore, they may be expensive to build.
 Solar power is used for charging large batteries so that solar powered devices can be used
in the night. The batteries used can be large and heavy, taking up plenty of space and
needing frequent replacement [5].
2.10 Benefits of dual axis solar tracker
• It can be used most effectively in areas with low horizons and locations that are shade free
from dawn to dusk each day.
• The existence of solar tracker is very useful in situation when the demand of electricity is
higher.
• The presence of this device is extremely important because the sun’s position varies from
time to time. The position of the sun will often vary with the season and the elevation and
dependent on seasons as well on the time of the day [4].

9
 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction
Methodology is a term used to describe a process, technique or manner in which an action is
performed. Under the development of a system, a methodology refers to the process that was taken
to ensure that a system is effectively and efficiently developed [14]. This chapter contains details
of the design structure and the techniques used in developing an affordable solar tracking system.
3.2 Methodology for designing low voltage high toque DC linear actuators.
This involves steps that were taken low voltage high toque DC linear actuators and their
operation.to in designing.

3.2.1 Actuator design

Figure 4: Actuator design

10
A low voltage DC motor is connected to a free rotating screw through a reduction Gear train.
The rotating screw is held firmly in position through a ring of bearings and a holding bracket
which is attached to the frame of the prototype. On the rotating screw is a stationary nut that
converts the rotation of the screw into a linear upward or downward force depending on the
rotation direction. This nut is held in position by the knob joint through a hollow tube.

3.2.2 Actuator working

The DC motors were directly connected to the motor driver circuit so as to drive the actuators as
decided from the comparator circuit. These DC motors are the sources of force of the actuators
such that the actuators align the solar panel/concentrator perpendicular to the rays of the sun.
Traction from the DC motor is translated into linear vertical upward and downward actuation
through a rotating screw that sources force through a reduction gear train. A reduction Gear -train
reduces the speed of the motor but ensures a high toque. This is to ensure a slow actuation process
since the sun moves slowly and to increase the force with which actuation occurs.
The rotating screw was supported at the base with ball bearings to reduce anti-rotational friction
and ensure free rotation of the screw despite the heavy weight of the solar panel/concentrator.
A bracket containing ball bearings was used to hold the rotating screw in one position. But since
each actuator is a standalone, the bracket shall be used as a means to strongly bind the rotating
screw to the frame as shown in the figure 5 to prevent wasteful vibrations in the course of rotation.
The actuator nut corresponds to the screw size for realization of linear actuation hence the
actuator tube is made to move up and down as actuation proceeds.

11
 Figure 5: Actuator Setup

3.3 Methodology for designing and testing a dual axis solar tracking system prototype.
This involves the systematic steps taken in the course of realization of the above-mentioned
specific objective starting from the block diagram up to the prototype design.

3.3.1. Block diagram of the solar tracking system

Figure 6 shows the block diagram of the prototype. The block diagram clearly shows how
different electronic components represented by blocks were interconnected with each other.

12
Figure 6: Block diagram for the solar tracking system

13
3.3.2. Schematic diagram of the prototype.
Figure 7 shows the schematic diagram for the prototype incorporating each block showing the
functional relationships of the system components.

Figure 7: The circuit schematic

3.3.3 Selection of the components used in the prototype

Light dependent resistors.
The light dependent resistors receive light intensity of the sun and output a varying resistance.
There are used as the primary sensors in this project. They were arranged in pairs, each pair
corresponding to an axis of rotation such that each LDR is responsible for a specific side on its
axis.
The LDRs were connected in a voltage divider and their output was tapped from in between so as
to get a varying voltage signal when light intensity on each LDR is different.

14
 Figure 8: Light dependent resistors in a voltage divider
When the sun is directly above the LDRs, they receive equal intensities and have equal resistances,
the output voltage (Vin) is thus half the supply voltage.
When the sun is above LDR1, higher light intensity is received on LDR1 thus resistance of LDR1
is lower than resistance of LDR2. The output voltage is therefore higher than half the supply
voltage.
When the sun is above LDR2, higher light intensity is received on LDR2 thus resistance of LDR2
is lower than resistance of LDR1. The output voltage is therefore higher than half the supply
voltage.
The output voltage keeps varying as a response to the movement of the sun. This output voltage
(Vin) was then fed into a comparator circuit.
The LDR PGM5516 was selected due to its small size, high sensitivity, high dark resistance and it
is readily available [15]
Slight changes in the location of the sun were detected by fixing the LDRs in setup of cross walls
[16]. This introduced shadows that enhances how sensitive a pair of LDRs can be as shown in
figure 9 below.

Figure 9: Light dependent resistors in cross walls

15
The comparator

A comparator amplifies the voltage difference between its 2 inputs.

LM339 quad comparator was selected for its large supply voltage range (2 to 36V), 4 op amps per
unit IC as required in this project [18]
For each axis, a comparator circuit consisted of two operational amplifiers that were configured as
a window comparator i.e., a comparator that compares an input signal with two thresholds, the
higher threshold and the lower threshold and outputs signals in response to the input voltage as in
figure 10 below.

Figure 10: Window comparator configuration

By applying voltage dividers to set the reference voltages (threshold voltages), the comparator
circuit above was used to control a motor driver by supplying it with signals for respective motor
direction thus actuator action.
The two pairs of LDRs each fed a voltage signal into a comparator circuit that compared intensities
from each side through a voltage signal on each respective axis and output a signal to the motor
drivers.
From the figure 10, when input voltage became higher than the voltage reference VR1, output 2
was high while output 1 went low. When input voltage became lower than the voltage reference
VR2, output 1 was high while output 2 went low. When the input voltage was within the range of
VR1 and VR2, output 1 and output 2 were both high.

16
The Motor driver
The outputs 1 & 2 of the comparator were then fed into the motor driver circuit.
The motor driver is a circuit that can control a motor’s speed and direction when specific signals
are applied

Figure 11: motor driver direction

L293D dual motor driver was used because it controls 2 low voltage DC motors simultaneously
as required in this project [17].
The Driver is a quadruple high current Half-H motor driver that is designed to provide bi
directional currents of up to 1A at voltages from 4.5V to 36V [17].
The Solar panel/ Concentrator
A 10W 22V solar panel was used in this project to test the working of the system.
A board on which a solar panel or concentrator was mounted, was deigned.
The board accommodates three knob joints on its lower surface. The middle joint was the main
support of the board while the two other joints were located at action points for the two actuators.
They are all knob joints to ease tilting of the board in all directions.
The board provides attachment mechanisms for the solar panel or concentrator for alignment
perpendicular to the rays of the sun.

17
 Figure 12: solar panel board and the three knob joints on its lower surface

The Power supply

The system is powered by 12v battery that is rechargeable by the solar panel.

Figure 13: The Power Supply

18
3.3.4 Circuit Simulation
The circuit diagram is as shown in figure 14 below and it shows how different components were
interconnected to each other. It was developed and simulated using Proteus Simulation Software
basing on the schematic diagram of the prototype.

Figure 14: Circuit diagram of the prototype

The circuit consists of the following main parts.
 LM339 quad comparator IC
 L293D dual motor driver
 Four PGM55106 LDR’s
 Two 12V-DC motors
 Four 1N4007 diodes
 Two variable resistors (two 100kΩ and two 47kΩ)
 Fixed resistors.
 12V battery

19
3.3.5 Board design
From the schematic diagram, a board layout was designed using Eagle software as shown in figure 15
below.

Figure 15: Board Layout design

Using the CAM feature, the Gerber files were processed. Gerber files are translations of the
board layout into CNC language. These are mainly the Top file, the component file, the drill file
and the solder mask file.

Board printing and population.

The Gerber files were processed into Isocam files that could only be used with the IU Bungard
CNC milling Machine. Using Isocam Software, the mill and drill files were obtained from the
drill Gerber file. The rubout file was obtained from the drill Gerber file, top Gerber file, and the
component Gerber file.
The board was then printed using the IU Bungard CNC machine.
The board was then populated with respective components as shown in the figure 16 below.

20
 Figure 16: Populated Board

Board testing
Board testing was necessary to ensure that components work as expected. LDR’s were connected
to the board through 2-pin connectors and 12V dc motors connected in their positions and the
board was supplied with 12v from a DC source. Each axis was tested at a time.

Figure 17: Board Testing

21
3.3.6 Project prototype

The different modules were connected together and incorporated into the mechanical setup to
come up with a prototype as shown in figure 18 below.

Figure 18: The Project Prototype

22
 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 LDR Voltage divider

Figure 19: LDR voltage divider

When the LDR voltage divider was supplied with 12V and the output voltage measured, the
following results were obtained.

23
Table 2: LDR voltage divider output

Condition Result (output voltage)

When both LDR 1 & 2 are not illuminated 6V
When only LDR 1 is illuminated Above 6v
When only LDR 2 is illuminated Less than 6v
When both LDR 1 & 2 are illuminated 6V
equally

Discussion of results

LDR’s have maximum resistance in the dark and minimum resistance in the light.

When both LDR’s were kept at equal resistances by not illuminating any or illuminating them
equally, the Voltage across LDR 1 was exactly half the supply voltage as shown in the figure 19
above.

When LDR 1 was illuminated, the resistance across it lowered allowing more current to flow
through it while that of LDR 2 remained high. This caused a voltage across LDR 2 higher than
half the supply.

Also, when LDR 2 was illuminated, the resistance across it lowered allowing more current to
flow through it while that of LDR 1 remained high. This caused a voltage across LDR 2 lower
than half the supply as shown in the figure 19 above

24
4.2 The comparator circuit

The comparator circuit makes use of upper and lower thresholds i.e. VR1 and VR2 that were
obtained by using a string of series resistors and selecting reference voltages at specific points as
shown in the figure 20 below.

Figure 20: Comparator output when both LDR's are not illuminated

25
Figure 21: comparator output when LDR 1 is illuminated

26
Figure 22: Comparator output when LDR 2 is illuminated

27
Figure 23: Comparator output when both LDR's are illuminated

28
Table 3: Comparator Output

LDR LDR Upper Lower Comparator Comparator

Illumination Voltage threshold threshold Output 1 Output 2
status Divider (VR1) (VR2) (VO1) (VO2)
Output (Vin)
Both not 5.99V 6.57V 4.38V 0.09V(LOW) 0.09V(LOW)
illuminated
Only LDR 1 10.90V 6.57V 4.38V 9.53V(HIGH) 0.09V(LOW)
illuminated
Only LDR 2 1.10V 6.57V 4.38V 0.09V(LOW) 9.53V(HIGH)
illuminated
Both 6.00V 6.57V 4.38V 0.09V(LOW) 0.09V(LOW)
illuminated

The upper and lower thresholds can be changed depending on the preferred mean position of the
panel/ concentrator board. This can be done by varying the 100kΩ and 47KΩ potentiometers for
the lower and upper thresholds respectively. For consistency during testing, these potentiometers
were varied by only 50% hence the voltages 6.57V and 4.38V as the upper and Lower thresholds
respectively.

Discussion of results

The output of each op amp is high when the voltage on the non-inverting (+) input is greater than
the voltage on the inverting (-) input.

The output of each op amp is low when the voltage on the non-inverting (+) input is less than the
voltage on the inverting (-) input. [18]

29
4.3 Motor driver

The output of the comparators was fed into the motor driver affects motor rotation as shown
below.

Table 4: Direction of motor rotation

Output 1 Output 2 Direction of rotation of motor

LOW LOW No rotation
LOW HIGH Clockwise
HIGH LOW Anti-clockwise

30
 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Recommendation for further improvement
Although a simple and effective prototype was designed, a few improvements can be
incorporated in future works to make a better end product. One may consider,

a) Incorporating dust removal mechanisms to prevent shading of the solar cells since shading of
a solar cell greatly affects the efficiency of energy conversion of the solar panels.

b) Employing more efficient sensors that are cost effective and low power consuming. This
would reduce the cost while increasing efficiency.

5.2 Conclusion
It was desired to design a cost-efficient solar tracking system that orients the solar
panel/concentrator through this project work. The implemented dual axis tracker proved to meet
the objectives set out by perfectly aligning the PV panel in the direction perpendicular to the
sun’s rays. The results obtained give sufficient evidence that solar tracking especially dual axis
tracking improves the efficiency of a solar PV panel.

31
References

[1] R. Toossi, Energy and the Environment: Sources, Technologies and Impacts, Verve
Publishers, 2008.

[2] N. RC, Solar energy collector orientation and sun tracking mode, Solar energy, 1978.

[3] "Microcontroller based automatic sun tracking system," International Journal of Electrical
Engineering and Technology (IJEET) ISSN 0976-6553(Online) Volume, vol. 4, no. 1.

[4] A. K. S. a. V. Dutta, "A versatile microprocessor based controller for solar tracking," in
Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, ., 1990.

[5] D. Cooke, "Single vs. Dual Axis Solar Tracking," Alternate Energy eMagazine, April
2011.

[6] Z. e. al, "Solar tracking device". United States Patent 4031385, 21 June 1977.

[7] P. Scherz, Practical Electronics for Inventors, Mc Graw-Hill, 2000.

[8] S. J. Hamilton, "Sun-tracking solar cell array system," University of Queensland

Department of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering,Bachelors Thesis, 1999.

[9] Dricus, "www.sinovoltaics.com," 24 July 2015. [Online]. Available:

https://tse2.mm.bing.net/th?id=OIP.fdRsA3tO7BLiTXh-
YW1VHwHaHa&pid=Api&P=0&w=300&h=300. [Accessed 14 10 2019].

[10] R. Muncaster, Advanced A-Level Physics, Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes Limited, 1993.

[11] Allen Bradley, "Solar Tracking Application," Rockwell Automation, Milwaukee, 2011.

[12] A. L. Luque and V. M. Andreev, Concentrator Photovoltaics, Springer Verlag, 2007.

[13] C. U. S. Nader Barsoum, "Fabrication of Dual-Axis Solar Tracking Controller Project," in

Intelligent Control and Automation, Malaysia, 2011.

32
[14] N. Cross, "A History Of Design Methodology," in Design Methodology and Relationships
with Science, Kluwer Press, The Netherlands, in de Vries, J., N. Cross and D. P. Grant
(eds.), 1993.

[15] "Light Dependent Resistors," Data sheet, pp. 232-3816, 2018.

[16] N. Barsoum, "Fabrication of dual axis solar tracking controller," Intelligent control and
automation, pp. 57-59, May, 2011.

[17] Texas Instruments, "L293x Quadruple Half-H Drivers," January 2016. [Online]. Available:
www.ti.com. [Accessed 16 October 2019].

[18] T. Instruments, "Lm339-MIL Low-power Low-Offset Voltage quad comparator," 2017.

[Online]. [Accessed 21 January 2021].

33
 APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Budget for the used Components

Table 5: Budget for the used components.

Component Quantity Rate Price (UGX)
IC L293D motor driver 1 8000 8000
IC L339 quad comparator 1 3000 3000
Light Dependent Resistor 4 2000 8000
100KΩ variable resistor 2 1000 2000
47KΩ variable resistor 2 1000 2000
50KΩ resistor 2 500 1000
22KΩ resistor 2 500 1000
12KΩ resistor 2 500 1000
10KΩ resistor 4 500 2000
1N4007A diode 4 500 2000
12V DC motor 2 2000 4000
30cm screw + 2 Nuts 1 setup 3000 3000
5mm clutch ball bearings 2 1500 3000
Bread Board 1 15000 15000
Strip board 100cm2 5000 5000
Ply wood 1m2 7000 7000
3 1 4000 4000
inch conduit pipe
4

Wood glue 1 tin 3000 3000

10W solar panel 1 26000 26000
12v 7.5AH battery 1 20000 20000
Total 116000

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Appendix 2: Pictures of different stages of prototype development

Figure 24: The panel used in the prototype

35
Figure 25: Position of LDR sensors
36
Figure 26: Prototype testing

37