1

Course: Higher Education (828)

Semester: Spring, 2021
Level: MA/M.Ed
Student’s Name: Faryal Ahmed
Roll no: CB571774

Q.1 Critically examine the significant aspects of perspective plannning of higher

educaiton in Pakistan with specific reference to important developments proposed to
take place during 1997-2010.
Ans:
What is a Perspective Plan?
Perspective planning is a roadmap for long-term growth aims and ambitions. The
perspective plan is more than simply a plan; it is broken into smaller plans in
order to achieve certain objectives and aims.
A Perspective Plan is a long-term (20-25 year) written document supported by
necessary maps and diagrams that provides the state government with the goals,
policies, strategies, and general programmes of the urban local authority
concerning the spatioeconomic development of the settlement under its governance.

HIGHER EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN (PERSPECTIVE-PLANNING)

Under the supervision of Quaid-4-Azam, a National Conference was convened in Karachi
from November 27 to December 1, 1947, to outline the outlines of the country's
educational reforms.
On this momentous occasion, the Quaid—viewpoints Azam's were expressed.
We must develop the character of our next generation by instilling in them the
greatest sense of humour, integrity, responsibility, and self-less devotion to the
nation via good education. We must ensure that they are properly prepared and
equipped to fulfil their roles in the many spheres of national life in a way that
honours Pakistan.
 2

The conference produced the legislation for Pakistan's formation.

The policy documents listed below offer a solid foundation for the emergence of
current educational philosophy in Pakistan.
1. Proceedings of the Pakistan Educational Conference held Karachi, from
27th November to I” December, 1947.

2. Proceedings of the Advisory Boards on Education (1950-54)

3. Report of the National Commission on Education (1959)

4. Report of the National Education Commission on student problem and

welfare (1966)

5. The new Education Policy (1971)

6. The Education Policy (1972-80)

7. The National Educational Policy (1978). Seventh Five Year Plan (1988-
93).

8. Planning Commission, Government of Pakistan, Report of the Working

Group on Higher Education, Islamabad, 1987, PP 13-18, 21-40,43-50.

The Education Policy (from 1997-98 to 2010) is the most recent text in a long line of
educational policies. This policy must serve as the foundation for our country's present
higher education regulations and procedures.

NATIONAL EDUCATION POLICY (1998-2010) HIGHER EDUCATION

Higher education has been viewed and recognized as an investment that is critical to the
country's economic and social growth. The National Education Policy calls for the
creation of a system capable of:
1. Maintaining the nation's Islamic principles and cultural identity.

2. Increasing access to higher-quality education on a merit based and equitable

basis, regardless of gender, region, class, religion, or race.
 3

3. Producing highly qualified labour to satisfy the demands of the country in the
twenty-first century. This workforce must be moral and humane.

4. Contributing to the progress of knowledge and the nation's prosperity.

Some other features of National Education Policy 1998-2010 relating to provision:

Following are some points that will explain significant aspects of Perspective
planning of Higher Education in accordance to the National Education policy
1998-2010. Elementary and primary education will also be discussed because
that’s what leads a student to higher education.
Literacy and Non-Formal Education
The present literacy rate of around 39% will be increased to 55% during the first
five years of the strategy, and 70% by 2010. Working children and rural women
will be supplied with basic educational facilities. Adolescents (10-14) who did not
complete elementary school would be taught functional literacy.
Elementary Education
By 2002-03, almost 90% of children in the age range (5-9) would be enrolled in
school. The Compulsory Primary Education Act will be enacted and implemented
in stages. Integration of primary and secondary education into primary education
(I-VIII). At the medium level, the participation percentage will rise from 46
percent to 65 percent by 2002-3, and 85 percent by 2010.
Secondary Education
Each district will have one model secondary school. At the secondary level,
students will be introduced to a specific vocation or career. By 2002-03, the
participation rate will have grown from 31% to 48%. The foundation for technical
and vocational education will be expanded through the pilot implementation of a
matriculation (Technical) stream and the construction of vocational high schools.
In educational institutions, research is essentially non-existent.
During the 9th Five Year Plan, it is therefore desired that research (M. Phil and
Ph. D degree) programmes be established in the universities of Sindh, Karachi,
Punjab, and Peshawar, as well as other universities.

Teacher Education
Increase the system's efficacy by instituting in-service training for teachers, teacher
trainers, and educational administrators. To improve the quality of pre-service
teacher training programmes by establishing longer-duration parallel programmes at
the post-secondary and post-degree levels. The teacher education curricula's content
 4

and approach will be changed. A unique incentive package will be offered to

rural girls who wish to enter the teaching profession.

Technical and Vocational Education

To improve the quality of technical education in order to increase the job
opportunities for Technical and Vocational Education (TVE) graduates by
transitioning from a static, supply-driven system to a demand-driven system.
Curricula revision and upgrading must be made a continuous effort in order to
stay up with changing job market demands. Emerging technologies, such as
telecommunication, computer, electronics, automation, petroleum, clothing, food
preservation, printing and graphics, textile, mining, sugar technology, and so on,
will be introduced in a few polytechnics. To govern technical education, a
National Council for Technical Education will be created.

Higher Education
Access to higher education should be extended to at least 5% of the 17-23 age
group by 2010. Autonomy and degree-awarding status will be granted to reputable
degree colleges.
Degree colleges may connect with any recognised Pakistani university or degree
granting organisation for examination and degree awarding. Local MPhil and Ph.D
programmes will be offered, as will laboratory and library facilities.

Information technology.
Computers will be introduced gradually in secondary schools. School curricula
must be updated to reflect contemporary advances in information technology, such
as software development, the Information Superhighway, creating Web Pages, and
so on.
Services for Libraries and Documentation
School, college, and university libraries must have up-to-date reading materials and
services. Each library will be provided with an Internet connection and a
computer. Mobile library services for semi-urban and rural regions will be
implemented.
Private Sector in Education
Tax relief for private-sector expenditure on educational facility construction.
Through Education Foundations, matching funding will be offered for the
establishment of educational institutions in rural and impoverished urban regions.
Schools that operate on a non-profit basis will be free from all taxes. Private
institution curriculum must adhere to the principles outlined in the Federal
 5

Supervision of Curricula, Textbooks, and Maintenance of Standards of Education

Act of 1976.

Innovative Programmes

The National Education Testing Service will be formed to create and administer
standardised examinations for professional school entrance. Passing these
examinations will become a prerequisite for admission to professional education.
This technique is anticipated to reduce the occurrence of examination misconduct.
Similarly, standardised examinations for entrance to general education in
universities will be implemented.

Implementation Monitoring and Evaluation

From the ground up, a complete monitoring and evaluation system has been
planned.
The education ministers at the federal and provincial levels will oversee
monitoring committees that will be in charge of implementation at their respective
levels. By 2002-03, the government's overall education expenditure will be
increased from 2.2 percent of GNP to 4 percent of GNP (p.132).

Conclusion:
Given the projected annual rise in enrolment at universities and colleges, the
current participation rate of 2.6 percent of the 17-23 age group would need to be
increased to 10 percent by 2010. According to a year-by-year breakdown of
expected enrolment, the tertiary participation rate may reach 5% by the conclusion
of the 9th Five Year Plan, or in 2002-2003.

It would be raised to 10% at the conclusion of the policy period. To meet the
increasing enrolment in university education expected in 2002-2003, seven new
public universities and ten new private institutions would be built by the
conclusion of the policy term.

Q.2 What is meant by philosophy of higher education. Explain the philosophy of

higher education with reference to Pakistan.
Ans:
What exactly is an educational philosophy?
 6

A philosophy of education is a statement (or series of statements) that defines and

explains an individual's or group's educational ideas, values, and understandings.
In this respect, it may be regarded of as a more-or-less organised body of
knowledge and opinion on education, both conceptually and practically.

This type of philosophy is essential in establishing and directing a school's aims,

objectives, and focus.

It should also inspire and guide educational planning, programmes, and processes
in every particular environment. A philosophy of education may influence what
subjects or topics are taught, how they are taught, and perhaps more importantly,
the supporting beliefs and values that are taught, both implicitly and explicitly,
within and around the core curriculum.

Philosophy of Higher Education

Higher education philosophy is concerned with unique issues that arise as a result
of the establishment of universities and higher education institutions. Such
problems include the specific aims of a university education, what are the
differences between a university education and other (non)-formal aspects of
education, the conflict between the faculties (or, in a more modern understanding,
the hierarchy between academic disciplines), academic freedom, social mission of
the university, the relation between teaching and research, the (academic) crisis of
the humanities, the production of knowledge, the kind(s) of thinking which
university study leads to, the collective practice of study, education as a
commons, the public role of the universities, neoliberalism in the academia, etc.

Two schools of thought reflect major divisions in higher education.

That is the difference between Liberal Arts Philosophy and Vocational Philosophy.

Liberal Arts:
The term liberal arts (eleutheria techna) first appeared in Greece in the fourth
century BC, referring to the skills that a free man should have. Traditionally, the
liberal arts have been regarded as suitable educational fame for potential leaders
of society. Liberal arts philosophers believe that education should serve the needs
of the individual. They think that individuals strive to comprehend the world they
live in merely out of curiosity, that the pursuit of truth is the ultimate virtue, and
that it can generally be reached via the exercise of reason. A liberal education is
considered to improve one's ability to live a complete life.
Humanities, social and physical sciences, and mathematics are all part of the
liberal arts, which is a branch of study centred on logical thinking.
A liberal arts education stresses critical thinking and analytical abilities, the
capacity to tackle difficult issues, a knowledge of ethics and morals, and a drive
to learn more.
 7

Vocationals studies:
Vocational studies have frequently been regarded as more appropriate for followers
than for future leaders. Those who favour vocational studies believe that education
should serve the interests of society rather than the individual. Professional
knowledge should be cultivated not out of idle curiosity, but because of its
tremendous importance to the society, the nation requires educated people.

Vocational Technical Education is any type of education that is designed to

prepare students for work in a recognised occupation.
The foundation of vocational technical education is founded on philosophy, which
was primarily developed for the individual(s) who participate in it to be self-
employed and self-sufficient.

According to advocates of the vocational concept, truth is not an absolute

unchanging variation, but something that is always being found, tested, and used.
The aim of education is primarily to better men's lot and to journey farther along
the road known as progress.

The other emerging ideology is known as the Political Reconstructionist or

Transformational View. The philosophical approach envisions an ideal state, which
might be anarchy, democracy, the "culture victorious," or anything.
There are several universities that might be classified as adhering to this school
of thinking. There does not appear to be any university in Pakistan that has
officially or wholeheartedly adopted this method.

Philosophy of higher education with reference to Pakistan:

Pakistan's young country had only one institution at the time of its independence
in 1947, the University of Punjab. By 1997, the number of institutions had
increased to 35, with a total enrolment of 71,819 students. Three of the
universities were nationally managed, while the other 22 were run by provincial
governments.
There were ten private universities as well. Graduate (postgraduate) education
leading to master's and doctorate degrees is the responsibility of institutions. Most
universities have their own staff in various departments, but many employ senior
professors from colleges to engage in the master's level teaching programme as
well as to supervise doctorate candidates.
However, the tendency is to concentrate all postgraduate work in university
departments in order to maximize the benefits of daily teacher-student interaction.
 8

This has tended to confine college professors to only teaching undergraduates,

which serves as a disincentive for them to do higher-level research or writing.
Eight of the ten private institutions were founded after 1987. Some of them may
be referred to as "vanity" colleges since they lack serious requirements and were
founded to gratify wealthy benefactors.
Soon after, they were able to put pressure on the government, which resulted in
the government also providing financial aid to private universities. Although
colleges provide the actual teaching, universities play an important role in
undergraduate and professional education. Colleges are linked with universities,
which set the curriculum, administer final examinations, and grant bachelor
degrees through Boards of Studies in various subjects. Minimum criteria for
college faculty recruitment and advancement, as well as standards for physical
facilities such as classrooms, labs, and libraries, are defined by universities, which
send visiting teams to colleges on a regular basis.
There were 789 colleges with an enrollment of 830,000 students preparing
students for baccalaureate degrees in the arts, sciences, and commerce in 1997, as
well as 161 professional colleges with a total enrollment of 150,969 students in
medicine, pharmacy, dentistry, engineering, architecture, and law.
The quality of education at colleges and most universities has been heavily
criticised. Undergraduate education encourages students to dedicate their brains
exclusively to the study of "anticipated questions" that are marketed or
disseminated by "experts," who guess on the basis of questions in previous three
to five years' tests. Students are more likely to rely on exam-oriented texts and
low-cost "guides."
Most university-held tests need 35 percent of "marks" to pass, with just 60
percent required to be put in the First Division. Because paper-setters and
examiners are selected anonymously by the institution, there is a lack of direct
relation to what is taught in the classroom, which explains high student
absenteeism and disrespect for instructors.
Professional Education: The education provided by professional institutions is
unquestionably superior. Only the very finest pupils, who frequently score more
than 80 or 85 percent on the Higher Secondary Examination (twelfth grade or
HSCE), are admitted. These are the institutions that generate the physicians and
engineers that flock to the Western world and excel in a competitive setting.
Sometimes the percentage of professional graduates who successfully move to
better pastures overseas, causing so-called brain drain, is as high as 80 or 90
percent, which accounts for the charge that countries like Pakistan end up training
professionals for Western countries for a fraction of the cost and, as a result,
deserve to be compensated or reimbursed for their professional education expenses.
In the disciplines of engineering and technology, Pakistan has seven engineering
 9

universities/colleges. There are 9 technical colleges and 26 polytechnics (of which

19 are for males and 7 for females). Their curriculum, faculty, and physical
facilities are inferior to those found in engineering colleges/universities. Most of
them provide short-term courses that lead to certificates rather than degrees.
Universities, on the other hand, are accused of failing to recruit the brightest
brains to join their faculties. The allure of high-level government service, lucrative
work in multinational businesses in Pakistan, or positions abroad results in a far
smaller pool of real talent for institutions, which also lack the resources and
atmosphere for excellent research. Because of such a plethora of negative
circumstances, colleges are sometimes unable to fill all of their teaching posts.
In 1998, Tariq Rahman of the National Institute of Pakistan Studies lamented:
When it was founded in 1967, the Quaid-I-Azam University of Islamabad was
intended to be a premier institution. However, it lacks many subjects considered
essential to a university, such as linguistics, sociology, philosophy, political
science, astronomy, cognitive sciences, archaeology, literature, and so on. The
libraries are subpar, with few journals—even basic amenities like fax, e-mail,
photocopying machines, PCs, and microfiche readers are either missing or scarce.
To begin with, colleges do not attract the greatest human resources.
Furthermore, no incentives are provided for progress. In all practicality, once
hired, one is not fired—at least not for academic ineptitude. Following the release
of the National Education Policy in Pakistan in 1979, universities followed the
example of the United States and adopted the semester system. The semester
system is still in use at Quaid-e-Azam University and in a few departments at
other institutions, although it has mostly been phased out. Students tended to
choose what are known as "mickey mouse" courses in the United States in order
to get better scores with minimal work. The semester system required numerous
exams and hard effort, and one's grade was heavily influenced by the teacher,
who assigned a percentage of marks for classroom engagement and performance
on periodic tests.
The system imploded as a result of increasing societal and political pressure to
provide higher ratings.
Q.3 Justify the role of various organizations in development of Higher Education in
Pakistan.
Ans:
Role of various organizations in development of Higher Education in Pakistan
Following independence, the growth of Higher Education in South East Asia is
now in the hands of the government and the officials themselves. If national
authorities are envious of this duty, it is critical that they do their homework in
terms of country education, that they think through problems, develop strategies,
 10

raise as much local financing as possible, and identify places where foreign help
is required.
Donor organisations should respect national governments' right to establish their
own standards. The donor institutions would not just be more effective in terms
of public relations if they used this strategy.
Furthermore, would be in a better position to choose how to assist. Donors
frequently consider all emerging nations, and as a result, institutions and
programmes can be moved automatically from one country to another.
However, even within Southeast Asia, various kinds of history, cultures, and
institutions may be found. With this approach, the donor institutions wouldn't only
be simpler publicly relations terms but, additionally, would be during a better
position to make a decision the way to assist. Donors tend to consider all
developing countries and consequently that institutions and programmes are often
transferred automatically from one country to a different. However, eve within
Southeast Asia, there are different mines of history, cultures, and institutions.
Furthermore, donors should keep in mind that each country is at a distinct level
of economic, social, and educational development. As a result, aid must be
structured with the current and future growth of the country's educational system
in mind. Foreign specialists frequently think in terms of the 1950s, 1960s, or
1970s, rather than the 1990s and 2000s.
The sorts of technical help and expert advice required by Southeast Asian
countries in the 1990s differ from those required previously. Many Asian nations'
higher education systems were primitive in the 1950s, but in the 1990s, education
systems were not only considerably larger, but also more sophisticated, and the
number of competent individuals locally accessible was greater. For example, in a
typical Asian university, there are fewer expatriate Ph.Ds and more domestic
Ph.Ds.
In these situations, local institutions require better grade and more mature foreign
specialists and visiting lecturers who can guide and motivate indigenous personnel.
Local educators, government officials, and assistance providers should be reminded
that Higher Education as a whole contributes to national development.
Successes in integrating Higher Education and development, which are frequently
made possible by external assistance, are causing "second generation" problems,
which means that the efforts are being replicated elsewhere, and even in the
original sites, the educational programme has progressed to successive and
sometimes more complicated stages. These issues, although indicating
improvement, necessitate new initiatives. Donor agencies will continue to play a
role in their solution. We have emphasised the relevance of outside funders in
acting as catalysts in development initiatives, as well as the usefulness of overseas
 11

training of personnel. However, there is a word of caution. Donors should have

the right to select where their money goes, but they also have a duty. They can
influence and enhance the imbalance and distort the growth of the institution
through their fellowships.
ROLE OF UNIVERSITY GRANT COMMISSION
The UGC evaluated all university departments based on the quality of their
research, using a scale ranging from excellent to poor and ordinary.
Although the particular job of discriminating was left to subject committees
(supplemented in certain cases by ad hoc probes), the initiative itself originated
from the main committee, which had chosen to give funding to universities more
selectively due to political and economic concerns. This issue sparked significant
debate, particularly in lower-ranked departments, and was criticized partly because
of its political purpose and partly on technical grounds, but also because it was
viewed as an invasion of the private fife of universities, a gross intrusion by
politicians from outside Higher Education and managers within academic questions
that could only be answered by subject matter experts.
Even if conducted by acknowledged specialists and for the most benign of
political objectives, some felt that such comparison analyses were improper.
Such sentiments have not been limited to universities, but they have been most
powerful there. During the 1990s, Higher Education had three tasks: to address
the difficult technical problems that arose from attempts to measure academic
performance both effectively and accurately, to develop national and institutional
policies that rewarded successful management without compromising academic
freedom, and to manure efforts to make both teaching and research more relevant
to the actual circumstances. Higher Education as a political institution and as an
intellectual system must find a new equilibrium.
The first of these duties is the most pressing. There is already an urgent need to
enhance the way academic quality is assessed and academic performance is
measured, as well as the relationship between these evaluations and measures.
UGC's experience shows that there is still plenty to learn. Its initial attempt to
measure departmental research performance was highly panned. The UGC has
been accused of relying on incorrect or insufficient data as well as confidential
counsel.
Boards of Governors and their role:
University governing boards have been a part of the culture, history, and
institutions of universities for a long time, and their existence has not been easy.
Boards of governors have traditionally been viewed as having a representational
function, and there has been discussion over who should be on the boards, with
 12

the ‘internal' professional academics and the ‘external' sources whose interests are
formed via distinct thinking and demographic (Bargh et. al, 1996: p 70).

The university boards have varying roles, but all are charged with developing a
strategic vision for the institution, establishing institutional policies, assessing
institutional performance, and assuring proper stewardship of the school's assets.
Some of the boards have been requested to take on responsibility for quality
assurance and academic award equivalency.
Others are permitted to set compensation structures, academic staff employment
conditions, and/or the recruitment of the institution's top executive. Few people
have the authority to establish student fees and decide student enrollment numbers.
A few are empowered to set student fees and determine student intake numbers.
In general, higher levels of institutional autonomy can be found where boards are
given more of these responsibilities

Role of Higher Education Commission (Pakistan):

The Higher Education Commission (abbreviated HEC) is a statutory organisation
established by the government of Pakistan in 2002 under the Chairmanship of
Atta-ur-Rahman. Its primary responsibilities include funding, supervising, regulating,
and certifying the country's higher education institutions. It was founded in 1974
as the University Grants Commission (UGC) and took on its present shape in
2002 as a result of Atta-ur-reforms, Rahman's which earned international acclaim.
The commission is in charge of developing higher education policy and ensuring
quality in order to match international standards, as well as accrediting academic
degrees, developing new institutions, and improving current universities in
Pakistan. The commission also promoted the growth of the country's higher
educational system, with the major goal of upgrading the country's universities and
degree granting institutes to be focal points of high learning, education, research,
and development.
Over the years, it has played a vital and leading role in the development of a
knowledge-based economy in Pakistan by awarding hundreds of doctorate
scholarships for study abroad each year.

Role of Accreditation Agencies:

International markets are extremely important to Pakistan. The efforts of the
PNAC guarantee that recognised certifications and test results generated here are
accepted across the world. This removes the need for numerous evaluations when
 13

commodities cross borders, providing Pakistani industry with the strongest

competitive edge possible in an ever-expanding and competitive market. Increase
customer trust in a product or service certified by a recognized CAB and assist
regulators in meeting security, health, safety, environmental, and other similar
criteria.
Role of Universities:
Universities have a critical role in promoting socioeconomic growth through
scientific research and innovation. It seeks to transform universities into centres of
knowledge generation rather than simply degree-granting organisations. the function
of universities as knowledge reservoirs and producers The duty to train graduates
so that they can find work. The duty to provide reasonable and timely critique in
areas of public policy, social and economic life. Universities' prominence as big
and prominent bodies in civil society and the state. Graduates' long-term
responsibility in fostering harmonious and accepting societies.

Q.4 Compare the current status of higher education in Pakistan and Japan. What
are the
implications of Japanese System of Higher Education for Pakistan?
Ans:
Comparing the current status of higher education in Pakistan and Japan:
Pakistan Japan
 Higher education in Pakistan starts  Higher education in Japan begins
after completing 12 years of after completing a total of 12 years
primary education. (1-5 primary, 5- of primary education (6 years in
8 middle) ( 9-10 secondary and elementary school) and secondary
11-12 upper secondary). education (three years respectively
in both lower and upper secondary
 Today the system is overseen by schools).
the Higher Education Commission  Japanese higher education
of Pakistan (HEC), which oversees institutions include universities
funding, research outputs, and awarding bachelor’s, master’s,
teaching quality. The commission doctor’s and professional degrees,
recognizes 174 universities in the junior colleges awarding associate’s
country, including both private and degree, and colleges of technology,
public institutions, and some which where lower secondary school
are military or vocational in focus. graduates are admitted and receive
practical and creative completion
 The quality of education in education throughout a five-year
colleges and most of the period, and specialized training
universities has come under much colleges (specialized schools) which
 14

criticism. Undergraduate education offer specialized courses for the

rewards memorization and prompts purpose of developing professional
students to apply their minds only or practical abilities or to foster
to the study of "expected culture.
questions" that are sold or
circulated by "experts," who  Since the Second World War, the
speculate on the basis of questions percentage of 18-year-old
in examinations of the previous population bracket students
three to five years. Students tend enrolling in universities and junior
to rely more on examination- colleges in Japan has consistently
oriented textbooks and cheap grown to reach 50 percent. When
"guides." The percentage of the percentages of students enrolled
"marks" required to pass at most in technical colleges and specialised
university-held examinations is 35 institutions are put together, the
percent, requiring only 60 percent overall percentage approaches 70%.
to be placed in the First Division. Based on this, it is considered that
Since the paper-setters and Japan has already reached the stage
examiners are anonymously of universal access to higher
appointed by the university, there is education.
a lack of direct relevance to what
is taught in the classroom, which  In Japan, universities are classified
accounts for large-scale student into three types based on their
absenteeism and lack of respect for founding: national universities,
teachers. which were founded by the
Japanese government (and are now
 The education in the professional run by national university
colleges is decidedly superior. Only corporations), public universities,
the very best students, often which are run by local public
scoring more than 80 or 85 percent entities or public university
at the Higher Secondary corporations, and private
Examination (twelfth grade or universities, which are run by
HSCE), are able to gain admission. educational institutions.
It is these institutions that produce
the doctors and engineers who  National and municipal governments
migrate in droves to the Western are both members of the public
world and perform so remarkably sector. However, while a national
well in a competitive environment. government represents the nation
Sometimes the percentage of and is administered under a single
professional graduates successfully national rule, local governments are
moving to better pastures overseas, accountable for specific regions and
causing the so-called brain drain, is offer basic services to residents,
as high as 80 or 90, which reacting to local residents' voices
accounts for the charge that and circumstances
countries like Pakistan basically end
up training professionals for  National universities, which have
Western countries for a fraction of been established in all local
 15

the cost and, therefore, deserve to prefectures as organizations

be compensated or reimbursed for targeting the improvement and
their expenses on professional well-balanced development of
education. Japanese higher education and
academic research, have played
 In the fields of engineering and important roles as local research
technology, Pakistan has 7 centers etc. In addition, national
universities/colleges of engineering. universities have been reorganized
There are 9 colleges of technology as corporations since 2004, aiming
and 26 polytechnics (of which 19 to improve each university’s
are for males and 7 for females). independence and autonomy to
Their curriculum, faculty, and enhance education and research
physical facilities do not compare activities.
favorably with those in engineering
colleges/universities. Most of them  Private universities have accounted
give short-term courses leading to for about 80% of all universities
diplomas instead of degrees. and have had about 80% of all
university students on their
 As for the universities, critics registers. Each private university
allege that they are not able to has promoted its own unique
attract the best minds to join their education and research activities
faculty. The lure of high-level based on the spiritual legacy of its
government service, lucrative foundation. They have played
employment in multinational important roles both qualitatively
corporations in Pakistan, or jobs and quantitatively, and have greatly
overseas leaves a much smaller contributed to the development of
pool of genuine talent for the Japanese higher education.
universities, which, moreover, lack
the facilities and ambience for
quality research. Due to such a
multiplicity of adverse factors, the
universities are often unable to fill
all their faculty positions.

Japanese System of Higher Education for Pakistan:

When Japan began modernising some 120 years ago, during the Meiji Restoration,
the aims in different sectors of society were centred on catching up with
advanced Western countries. Today, these objectives have been met to a large
extent, and the country's level of economic and social growth is equivalent to that
of many other advanced countries.
Japan is now undergoing a number of societal changes, including globalisation,
population ageing, the spread of information technology, and so on. In this
environment, the national government and the MOE emphasise that "the role of
Higher Education in promoting scientific research and training competent people
 16

would become increasingly essential." (Ministry of Education, Japan, 1992, p.

122.)
Based on this recognition, the government's ideas for the future of Higher
Education are as follows: (a) development of distinctive and diverse programmes
at individual institutions and revision of national standard regulations to make
them broader; (b) decrease in the 18-year-old population and its impact on Higher
Education; and (c) copying with internationalisation and with information
technology.
The primary actors in the policy-making process in Japan's national higher
education system are government ministries and different councils. Representatives
on various councils wield power through the resolution process.
Japan's government strategy appears to give individual institutions more substantive
autonomy through deregulation. Institutions have the ability to prepare in a
flexible manner.
For example, a curriculum that combines general education and professional
education within the context of a framework law that only needs students to
obtain 124 credits before graduation. Furthermore, it appears that institutions and
academics today have greater procedural autonomy than in the past.

In Japan, higher education institutions are currently split into three sectors:
university, non-university, and miscellaneous. The university sector, which is
considered as a centre of learning (undergraduate and graduate courses), performs
in-depth teaching and research in specialised academic subjects, and offers students
with wide knowledge. Junior colleges and technical institutions make up the non-
university sector. The miscellaneous sector includes several specialised training
institutions and miscellaneous schools. Until 1975, everything was educational.
Miscellaneous schools are institutions that provide instruction equivalent to official
education found in schools, colleges, and universities in disciplines such as
accountancy, dressmaking, and electrical methods. They were upgraded to
specialised training schools in 1975, and several of them now offer advanced
courses to upper secondary school graduates.

Q.5 Identify the important functions of univeristy. Give examples related to each
function from your own context.
Ans:
Functions of University:
 17

In the community, the university serves many distinct purposes. It is widely

acknowledged as a symbol and storehouse of civilizations. A university serves as
a research facility. In the precise economic sense, the goods search are a public
good in the sense that once created, they may be utilised by anyone without
precluding usage by others. The storing of information is an essential role of the
institution.
At the moment, the most well known role of the university is the education of
young adults. This comprises professional training, which prepares a man for a
vocation he has already decided to pursue, as well as general education, which
prepares a man for a future place in upper-class

Harry G Johnson, in his study on "The University and the Social Welfare: A
technoeconomic exercise" has summarized various function of a university, but we are
more with the four sanctions; that is
(a) Research
(b) Advisory
(c) Leadership
(d) Centre of excellence
The function of Universities are to:
1. provide university-level education;

2. provide facilities for, and encourage, study and research;

3. encourage the advancement and development of knowledge, as well as its

application to government, industry, commerce, and the community; and

4. provide courses of study or instruction at levels of achievement that the Council

deems appropriate to meet the needs of the community.

5. provide facilities and resources for the wellbeing of the University’s staff, students
and other persons undertaking courses at the University;

6. exploit commercially, for the University’s benefit, a facility or resource of the

University, including, for example, study, research or knowledge, or the practical
application of study, research or knowledge, belonging to the University, whether
alone or with someone else; and
 18

7. perform other functions given to the University under the Act or another Act.

8. A university's functions are to do everything is necessary or expedient in line

with this Act and its charter, if any, to advance the university's objectives and
growth.

9. shall provide courses of study, administer exams, and confer degrees and other
credentials

10. shall encourage and assist research

11. may incorporate in the State or abroad, or participate in the formation of, such
trade, research, or other companies as it sees proper for the purpose of promoting
or aiding, or in conjunction with, the university's functions.

12. may work with educational, business, professional, trade union, Irish language,
cultural, artistic, community, and other interests, both inside and beyond the state,
to advance the university's goals.

13. should keep, manage, and administer the university's property, money, assets, and
rights, as well as dispose of and invest in them

14. may work with graduates, convocations of graduates, and organisations

representing university graduates both inside and beyond the state,

15. may acquire, hold, and dispose of land or other property by purchasing or
otherwise acquiring, holding, and disposing of land or other property, and

16. may receive donations of money, land, or other property subject to the trusts and
conditions, if any, stated by the donor that are not in contradiction with this
Act.”

17. Universities' roles as knowledge stores and generators

18. The duty to prepare graduates so that they can find work

19. The duty to provide reasonable and timely critique in areas of public policy, as
well as social and economic life.
 19

20. Universities' prominence as big and prominent bodies in civil society and the state

21. Graduates' long-term involvement in fostering harmonious and accepting societies

The primary functions of an institution are defined by OMB Circular A-21 as instruction,
organised research, other sponsored activities, and other institutional activities. The
definitions below are taken straight from OMB Circular A-21: An institution's teaching
and training operations are referred to as instruction. Except as provided in subsection b,
this term encompasses all teaching and training activities, whether they are offered for
credit toward a degree or certificate or on a non-credit basis, and whether they are
delivered through regular academic departments or separate divisions such as a summer
school division or an extension division. Also considered part of this major function are
departmental research, and, where agreed to, university research.
1. Sponsored instruction and training refers to a specific instructional or training
activity that is supported by a grant, contract, or cooperative agreement. This
activity may be regarded a significant function for the purposes of the cost
principles, even if an institution's accounting treatment includes it in the teaching
function.

2. Departmental research refers to research, development, and academic activities that

are not structured research and, as a result, are not financed and accounted for
separately. Departmental research is not considered a primary function for the
purposes of this text, but rather a component of the institution's instruction
function.

Organized research refers to all of an institution's research and development efforts that
are independently funded and accounted for.
It contains the following items:
1. Sponsored research encompasses all research and development efforts funded by
both federal and non-federal agencies and organizations. This phrase encompasses
actions involving the training of persons in research procedures (often referred to
as research training) that use the same facilities as other research and development
activities but are not included in the teaching function.

2. All research and development activities that are independently funded and
accounted for by the institution under an internal application of institutional funds
 20

are referred to as university research. For the purposes of this text, university
research will be integrated with sponsored research under the function of
organised research.

Other sponsored activities are programmes and initiatives funded by federal and non-
federal agencies and organisations that entail activity other than instruction and
structured research. Health care initiatives and community service programmes are two
examples of such programmes and projects. However, if any of these tasks are
carried out by the institution without the assistance of others, they may be classed as
additional institutional activities. Other institutional activities include all of an
institution's operations except:

1. Education, departmental research, organised research, and other supported activities,

as mentioned above;

2. Section F identifies F&A cost activities; and

3. Section J.47 describes specialised service facilities. Residence halls, dining halls,
hospitals and clinics, student unions, intercollegiate athletics, bookshops, teacher
housing, student residences, guest homes, chapels, theatres, public museums, and
other such auxiliary enterprises are examples of institutional activity. This term
also covers any other types of activities whose expenses are "unallowable" under
sponsored agreements, unless specifically specified in the agreements.

Conclusion:
Students have access to a wide range of services and opportunities at universities.
However, in my perspective, a university has two functions: one that is general and one
that is little more specialised.
The first role is education, which includes career training, moral training, cultural
training, and socialisation. Only the first of these aims will undoubtedly be stated in the
college catalogue, although all are present to varying degrees. The university's purpose is
to prepare students for a professional and personal role in society. This is typically what
society, parents, and students expect of a school.
A university's second role is to provide networking. This includes anything from giving
students opportunities to make friends to linking them with people in their social class
and professional sector who will help them succeed in life. The availability of this
service is frequently influenced by social and economic variables. Typically, the wealthier
the individual or family, the more essential this function is to him or her and the more
readily available it is to them.
 21

Wealthy people, like many others in the same or higher socioeconomic level, attend
more renowned educational institutions. This second role is referred to as more specialized by
me because it is rarely mentioned explicitly by the institution. The relationships formed can
be highly essential in terms of future professional success and social possibilities.
Students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds have fewer possibilities, yet such
opportunities still exist.
They just necessitate greater work and awareness on the student's side. Although the
catalogue and other sources of information may mention the possibility to build long-
lasting friendships, I have never heard of a school openly claiming that it provides
students with the opportunity to meet individuals who can do a lot to make them rich
and successful.
Such from the higher classes will have learnt this through family and friends, and it is
frequently the reason they seek admission to those famous schools. The rest of us will
have to figure it out on our own and put in a lot of effort. It is not difficult to create
such relationships at any university, but you must seek for them and work harder to find
them.
Should these be the responsibilities of a university? The first function, I believe, is
needed. That is why the majority of us go to school. The second function will take
place whether the university wants it to or not. Humans are social creatures, and the
majority of us are ambitious. The learner is placed in an environment where he or she
may meet and engage with individuals of different backgrounds. Some of them will have
connections that the rest of us can only wish for. It is up to the student to decide
whether or not to take advantage of these possibilities. When and if the student tries, his
or her education will almost definitely be advanced.