Chapter 4

Data Communication and Networks

Objectives
After completing this chapter the learner should be able to:
o describe data communication
o identify data transmission modes
o discuss different components of data communication
o identify data communication media
o define computer networks
o identify components of computer networks
o define network topology
o identify the advantages and disadvantages of different topologies
o define the Internet
o discuss the use of Internet
o identify services provided over the Internet
o computer viruses
DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Data communications (DC) is the process of using computing and communication
technologies to transfer data from one place to another, and vice versa. It enables the
movement of electronic or digital data between two or more nodes, regardless of
geographical location, technological medium or data contents.
Exchange of data between two devices via some forms of transmission medium(such as
wire cable) is Data Communications. For data communications to occur, the
communicating devices must be part of a communication system made of a combination
of hardware and software. The effectiveness of a data communication system depends on
four fundamental characteristics:- delivery, accuracy, timeliness and jitter.
For example, a common example of data communications is a computer connected to the
Internet via a Wi-Fi connection, which uses a wireless medium to send and receive data
from one or more remote servers.

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Some devices/technologies used in data communications are known as data
communication equipment (DCE) and data terminal equipment (DTE). DCE is used at
the sending node, and DTE is used at the receiving node.

The term communication can be defined as the process of transferring messages between
entities.
The five components of data communication are:
1. Message - It is the information to be communicated. Popular forms of information
include text, pictures, audio, video etc.
2. . Sender - It is the device which sends the data messages. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset etc.
3. 3. Receiver - It is the device which receives the data messages. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset etc.
4. 4. Transmission Medium - It is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Some examples include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, radio
waves etc.
5. 5. Protocol - It is a set of rules that governs the data communications. It represents
an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two
devices may be connected but not communicating.
In all the three cases, three basic elements can be identified.
 The source (the sender)
 The medium (the channel)
 The destination

Transmission Decoding Destination

Sender Encoding

A message should first be encoded in such a way that it can be transmitted through a
channel (medium), it is then transmitted, and finally, it is decoded into a form that can be
understood by the destination at the other end. This holds true for voice communication,
or data communication.

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Data communication involves transporting data from one point to another. This is an
instance of computer-to-computer communication, i.e., both the source and the
destination are computer devices, and the transmission media may be telephone lines,
satellite links, microwave links, etc.
Three Basic elements of any communication Process:
Sender(source): Creates the message to be transmitted
Medium(channel): Carries the message eg UTP,FTP, Fiber, telephone line
Receiver(sink): Receives the message.
The sender and receiver in data communications are usually computer, , terminals,
peripheral devices like printers, plotters, disks etc
Data Flow
Data flow can occur in three ways:
1. Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional. only one of the
devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. e.g. keyboards, monitors etc
2. Half-duplex: In this mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the
same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice-versa. e.g.
walkie-talkies, CB(citizens band) etc.
3. Full Duplex : In full duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously. One common example of full duplex is the Telephone network. When
two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same
time. The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions are required
all the time.

Types of Transmission Media

Transmission Medium is the physical path between transmitter and receiver in a data
communication system. The characteristics and quality of data transmission are
determined both by the characteristics of the medium and characteristics of the signal.
Factors to be considered in selecting data transmission media:
I. Bandwidth – the amount of data that can be transmitted through the medium.
II. Transmission impairments: - ability to withstand signal loss (attenuation) and noise
(unwanted signals). 

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III. Interference: ability to avoid cross talks (cross talks are signal exchanges between
signals at close frequency ranges).
IV. Number of receivers: A guided media can be used to construct a point to point link
or a shared link with multiple attachments. In multiple attachment case, each
attachment introduces some attenuation and distortion and usually the bandwidth
available will be shared among the various attachments.

Different Types of Connections

A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a
communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another. For
communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some way to the same
link at the same time.
1.Point-to-Point: A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two
devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two
devices. Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to
connect the two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also
possible which are shown in the following figure.

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2. Multipoint: A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than
two specific devices share a single link as shown in the following figure.

Therefore, a technical must be used to represent a digital signal or an analog carrier

 Modulation: Converting digital signals into analog signals.
 Demodulation: Converting analog signals back into digital signals.
 Modem: Short for modulator/demodulator: A communications device that converts
one form of a signal to another that is suitable for transmission over communication
circuits, typically from digital to analog and then from analog to digital.
There are two broad categories of transmission media:

1. Guided Transmission media

Data transmission is through solid medium (wired system). Different types of
cables are used to connect devices
Commonly used cable types are:
 Twisted pair
 Coaxial cable
 Optical fiber

a. Twisted Pair:
 Insulated copper wires arranged in regular spiral pattern
 The oldest, least expensive, and most commonly used media
 Reduce susceptibility to interference than straight pair wires (two straight parallel
wires tend to act as an antenna and pick up extraneous signals when compared to
twisted pairs)
 Highly susceptible to electrical noise, interference, and ‘tapping’ of the signal as
compared to the other guided media
 Arrangement of twisted pairs into group used for high-speed LAN

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 b. Coaxial Cable
 Most versatile medium used in LANs, Cable TV, VCR-to-TV connections
 Noise immunity is better than twisted pair
 Less susceptible to interference and cross talk but there still is attenuation and
thermal noise problem
 Can go up to 185m or 500m without the need for an amplifier/repeater

c. Optical Fiber cables

 Flexible, thin, made of very pure glass / plastic fiber capable of conducting optical
(light) rays
   Extremely high bandwidth. They are used for high data transmission rate
 Very high noise immunity, resistant to electromagnetic interference
 Does not radiate energy/cause interference
 Very difficult to tap
 Better security but multipoint not easy
 Need optical-electrical interface (more expensive than electrical interface) Fiber 
2. Unguided Transmission media (Wireless transmission)
Data transmission through air /space (i.e wireless system)
In unguided media transmission and reception are achieved by means of an antenna.
There are two types of configuration for wireless transmission namely, directional and
omni directional.
 Directional receive and transmit in a specific direction.
 Omni-directional can receive and transmit from all sides (360 degrees).
Fundamentals of Networking
What is networking?
A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices that communicate to
share data, hardware, and software.
When a computer system is processing data all by itself, without any interaction or
interconnection with any other computer system, it is called a stand-alone computer
system. A Network System is a system of two or more computers that are connected to
each other for the purpose of data communication and sharing of resources.
A network also consists of communication channels that are responsible for connecting
devices with each other and transmitting information.
Some of the most important advantages of a computer network system are:
Data sharing between different users of computers with certain amount of
data security and access control.

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 Sharing of software application systems – software applications installed
on remote computers can be used from any other computer on the network
Distribution of computing load – a task that has to be processed will be
divided among different computers to reduce the load of a single computer.
Sharing of high power computing resources situated at a central location
on a need basis.
Sharing of costly special devices by several computer users.

Components of Computer Networks

The components required to operate a network can be divided into two major categories -
Hardware and Software
Hardware
The hardware components of a network consist of the following five items
Server
Workstation
Cabling
Network Interface Cards (NIC)
Other Networking Devices
The Server
High capacity computers that function as the central repository (data base) of
resources/services the network provides.
Usually the server is also responsible for controlling which users on which
computers in the network are granted access to a service.
Workstations
A place where the services of the server are used (This is where the user is
working).
Any computer where the user will be working at. It does not have to be a high
capacity computer.

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 Cabling
Cables that interconnect the different devices on the network.
There are various types of cables, including coaxial cable, twisted-pair cable and
fiber-optic cables.
Wireless networks do not require physical cables.
Network interface card (NIC)
The NIC is located in every workstation on the network as well as in the servers.
It is a card that plugs into one of the expansion slots on the motherboard of a
network device, thereby providing a connector on the back to connect the device to
the network
It acts as a “transmitter” and “receiver” and therefore can be referred to as
transceiver.
Other Networking Devices
In modern networks, special purpose devices are required to connect workstations
and servers on the network. These devices are called networking devices.
Some Commonly used workstations are:
1. Hubs: devices that connect devices (workstations, servers, printers, etc) to
each other. It is suitable for small networks ( <16 devices on the
network)
2. Switches: have the same function as hubs. But they are faster and more
expensive than Hubs. They are used in large networks
3. Routers: These devices are used to interconnect different networks. If a
company has different networks at different sites, routers are used to
interconnect these networks.
4. Firewall: devices used to protect a network from unauthorized access
from a different site.
Software
The Network Operating System
The network operating system is the software that resides on the server. The
network operating system, or NOS, controls virtually all the activity on the
network.

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 The NOS manages access to the resource on the server and handles security of the
resource on the server.
It provides true multi-user capabilities and is probably the most important part of
the network.
The workstation operating system
The operating system software for each workstation is loaded at the workstation.
This software is essential for the workstation to operate, even if that workstation
is not part of a network
The server software
Usually loaded on the server
provides an interface through the service is given to clients
Most popular ones are web server, mail server, print server, file server, database
server, etc.
The client software
Used to access the service given by the server software on the server
Capable of interfacing with server software
e.g. web browsers, e-mail clients etc
TYPE OF NETWORKS
LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN):
A network that connects computer equipment and other terminals distributed in a
localized area eg a university campus, factory, office, school or a building.
Characteristics include:
1. Limited geographical area less than two kilometers
2. Ranges from simple two computers connected to complex hundreds of computers.
3. High bandwidth greater than 1mbps.
4. Inexpensive cable media(coaxial or twisted pairs)
5. Good for resource sharing.
6. Usually one computer serves as the file server which stores the software that
controls the network and the software that can be shared by the computers
attached to the network.
7.

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METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)
It covers larger geographical areas such as cities or school districts. Multi campuses
university can link LAN in the various campuses together to form MAN. An example is
the MAN network at Addis Ababa University (AAU) which networked the computers in
various faculties located at distance locations at Addis, Ethiopia. It is a high speed
network using fiber optics.
WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)
This is when computers in a network are situated in a wider geographical area. A WAN is
made up of a number of interconnected LANs. For instance, a WAN network can be in
different countries or continents.
Communication is established through telephone lines, microwave links, fiber optics or
satellite links. For example, University of Jimma in Ethiopia can be connected to White
House in Washington DC.

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Network Topology
The way in which devices on the network are connected is called the topology of the
network. Network topology specifically refers to the physical layout of the network,
especially the locations of the devices and how the cable is run between them. It is
important to select the right topology for how the network will be used. Each topology
has its own strengths and weaknesses. Four of the most common topologies are bus, star,
ring, and mesh.
The Star Topology
The Star type topology has a controller (hub) at its center that is connected in a star shape to
stations via dedicated transmission lines. The controller or hub is the focal point of the star,
and all network traffic must pass through the hub as the center controls all communications
between stations. Accordingly, as and when the central controller fails, the entire network
communication will be disabled.
Advantages:
1. Cable layouts are easy to modify
2. Workstations can be added to the network easily
3. Centralized control/problem diagnosis resulting from defective
communication lines is easily identified.
Disadvantages:
1.      Large amounts of cable are required
2.      More cable means greater expense
3.      A centralized hub means a single point for potential for network failure

Workstation

Workstation

Central Server

Hub Workstation
Workstation

Workstation Workstation

Workstation

Star Topology Network

The Ring Topology

The ring type consists of a network configuration that connects nodes at certain intervals on
a ring-shaped, high-speed data transmission line. All nodes share the ring - the ring is

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connected separately to the transmitting and receiving sections of each node. Data placed
on the ring by a station makes its round on the ring. Each node receives the data and checks
to see if the data is addressed to it. When the data is received by the node to which it is
addressed, the node accepts and responds accordingly. Otherwise, the node reproduces and
repeats the data for transmission to the next node.

Workstation

Laser printer

Token-ring

Workstation Server

ASCII Printer

Workstation

Ring Topology Network

 Token ring access method can be described as follows:

• An idle token rotates around the ring
• A sending computer takes the token and attaches the message to be sent on it
• The token passes to the neighboring computer and so forth
• The receiving computer takes the token and copies the message and leaves the
token to rotate
• The sender again takes the token and removes the massage from the token to
make the token empty
The token ring technology creates opportunity for acknowledging receipt of messages by
the receivers.
Advantages:
1.      The overall cable length is short
2.      The shorter cable means lower cabling costs
3.      No wiring closet space is required
Disadvantages:
1.      A single node failure causes network failure
2.      It is more difficult to diagnose faults
3.      Network modifications/recognition is more difficult and disrupts network
operation.

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Bus Topology
The bus type topology is a network configuration that has a single high-speed data
transmission line (called a bus) shared by nodes and stations. In this type of network, data
transmitted by a station through its node is "broadcast" bi-directionally. All nodes receive
the signals. One of the nodes, recognizing that the signal is addressed to it, accepts the data
and forwards it to the station attached. All signals set bi-directionally are properly
terminated at both ends of the bus, and one failed node will not affect the communication
capability of other stations. Unlike the ring topology, the data travels by the nodes and does not
have to go through each node.

Workstation Workstation Workstation

Workstation Workstation

Bus Topology Network

 
Advantages:
1.      It uses the least amount of cable
2.      The wiring layout is simple
3.      It has a resilient architecture; its simplicity makes it very reliable
4.      It is very easy to extend

Disadvantages:
1. Fault diagnosis and isolation is difficult
The Mesh topology
 Every node connected to every other node
 This is when we use the three networks together.
 No center of network
The Internet and Computer Threats
 The Internet is a term used to describe a worldwide network of computer networks
connecting millions of computers around the world.
 The Internet is one of the largest, most widely used networks (in fact, a network of
networks) that has evolved and grown overtime. It is a group of two or more
networks that are
o Interconnected physically
o Capable of communicating and sharing data with each other
o Able to act together as a single network.

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 The Internet connects millions of computers globally and provides worldwide
communications to businesses, homes, schools, and governments.
Advantages of the Internet
The Internet helps in various ways:
To get information
You could get information about people, products, organizations, research data,
electronic versions of the printed media, etc. from the Internet. You can get easy access to
a wealth of information and entertainment. As such it is often described as the prototype
for a world wide information "superhighway".
To provide information
Most of what you want to provide could be considered global advertising. The best and
most inexpensive way to let people know who you are, what you are doing/have done,
and how
Publishing: including full test articles, reports, abstracts, computer programs, and
demonstrations
Teaching: The possibilities here include both distance learning and assistance for
students
Sharing/ exchanging information with the outside world.
Ability to communicate
The Internet gives people the ability to communicate with other connected
computer users through electronic mail and real time typed conversations (bulletin
boards, databases, and discussion groups). Users will be able to use electronic
mails to transmit messages, announcements and document/file attachments to
other users within the Intranet or over the Internet.
Applications and Services on the Internet
The Internet is actually very boring since it is nothing more than hardware connections. It
is the Internet applications and services that make the Internet come alive.

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Internet applications include
World Wide Web (WWW),
Electronic mail,
Discussion Groups
Internet Chat,
Search Engines
Electronic commerce
World Wide Web
In simpler terms, the Web is an Internet-based computer network that allows users on one
computer to access information stored on another through the worldwide network.
The WWW is an Internet service that provides a network of interactive documents and
the software to access them. It is based on documents called web pages that combine
text, pictures, forms, sound, animation and hypertext links called hyperlinks. To navigate
the WWW, users “Surf” from one page to another by pointing and clicking on the
hyperlinks in text or graphics.
E-Mail
E-Mail is the ability to write a message to someone, using a mail program, and use the
Internet as a means of delivering that message. Email is not a free service. The cost of
your email is covered in your service charge to your provider.
E-mail is the most popular application of computer communication system. For the
purpose of our discussion, we shall adopt the simplest definition of E-mail as follows:
Email (Electronic mail) refers to a computer-based system allowing two or more people
to communicate through the transmission of character coded or graphic information by
electronic means. Electronic mail, or e-mail, allows computer users locally and
worldwide to exchange messages. Each user of e-mail has a mailbox address to which
messages are sent. Messages sent through e-mail can arrive within a matter of seconds.
Search Engine
A search engine is a web site that collects and organizes content from all over the
internet. Those wishing to locate something would enter a query about what they'd like to
find and the engine provides links to content that matches what they want. Examples of
search engines are google.com, yahoo.com, Ask.com….

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E-commerce
It stands for electronic commerce and refers to the buying and selling of products or
services over electronic systems such as the Internet and other computer networks.

Internet Connectivity
You can connect to the Internet in one of two basic ways
 Dial-up connection - is type of Internet connection that is made by connecting a
plain old telephone line to the phone jack at the back of a computer which, in turn
connects to the internal modem of the computer, and allows the user to dial a
phone number of a service provider and connect to the Internet.
 Direct (Broadband) Connection: is a permanent connection between your
computer system and the Internet. This refers to a connection that has capacity to
transmit large amount of data at high speed.

How do we Access the Internet from our Computer?

Using Browser
A Web browser or shortly a browser is an application program that provides a way to
look at and interact with all the information on the World Wide Web. Examples of
browsers are internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, chrome….
Computer virus
What is a Virus?
 A computer virus is a small software program that spreads from one computer to
another computer and that interferes with computer operation.
 A computer virus may corrupt or delete data on a computer, use an e-mail
program to spread the virus to other computers, or even delete everything on the
hard disk. it’s just like a human virus, it can be very dangerous and destructive
 A virus is just a computer program. Like any other program, it contains
instructions that tell your computer what to do. But unlike an application, a virus
usually tells your computer to do something you don't want it to do, and it can
usually spread itself to other files on your computer -- and other people's
computers.

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 Characteristics of Computer Viruses:
1. Cannot exist in a viable form, apart from another (usually legitimate) program.
2. Propagates when the host program is executed.
3. Has an incubation period, during which no damage is done.
4. After incubation period, begins to manifest its behavior.
Different Malware Types
What is the difference between viruses, worms and Trojan horses?
Some people distinguish between general viruses, worms and Trojan horses. A worm is a
special type of malware programs that can replicate itself and use memory, but cannot
attach itself to other programs, and a Trojan horse is a file that appears harmless until
executed.
Worms:
A worm is a computer program that has the ability to copy itself from machine to
machine. Worms normally move around and infect other machines through computer
networks. Worms eat up storage space and slow down the computer. But worms don't
alter or delete files.
Trojan horses:
A Trojan horse is simply a computer program that claims to do one thing (it may claim
to be a game) but instead does damage when you run it (it may erase your hard disk).
When loaded onto your machine, a Trojan horse can capture information from your
system -- such as user names and passwords or could allow a malicious hacker to
remotely control your computer. Trojan horses have no way to replicate automatically.
Origins of Viruses:
People create viruses. A person has to write the code, test it to make sure it spreads
properly and then release the virus. A person also designs the virus's attack phase,
whether it's a silly message or destruction of a hard disk.
In most of the cases people create viruses just for the thrill or fun.
How They Spread?
 Sharing disks
 E-mail attachment
 Network

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 Symptoms of a computer virus
 The computer runs slower than usual.
 The computer stops responding, or it locks up frequently.
 The computer crashes, and then it restarts every few minutes.
 A program disappears from the computer even though you did not intentionally
remove the program.
 Applications on the computer do not work correctly.
 Disks or disk drives are inaccessible.
 You cannot print items correctly.
 You see unusual error messages.
Prevention is the best cure:
 Run a secure operating system like UNIX or Windows NT.
 Install virus protection software.
 Avoid programs from unknown sources.
 Disable floppy disk booting
 Macro Virus Protection is enabled in all Microsoft applications.
 Never double-click on an attachment that contains an executable that arrives as an
e-mail attachment
Types of Computer Antivirus Software
There are thousands of computer viruses out there today. It is essential that you have
antivirus software installed on your computer to help protect your system. This protection
will defend your system against potential damage, as well as protect your personal
information from being spread throughout the Internet. The following are some examples
 Norton Antivirus
 McAfee antivirus
 Avira antivirus
 AVG antivirus
 Kasperskey antivirus

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safe computing
The best way to protect yourself from viruses is to avoid:
 opening unexpected e-mail attachments
 Downloads from unreliable sources.
 For added safety, you need to
 install reliable antivirus scanning software
 download updates regularly.{Regular updates }

END!!
GOOD LUCK

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