Civic Engagement 0
Civic Engagement 0
Civic Engagement 0
to Citizen
Digital Media and
Youth Civic Engagement
“…the promise of
literacy, surely, is that it
can form part of a
strategy to reposition the
media user—from passive
to active, from recipient
to participant, from
consumer to citizen”
Sonia Livingstone
Written by Anton van Hamel, University of Ottawa, for Media Awareness Network
Executive Summary
3
Key Findings
Youth and Civic Engagement
The youth vote information as they get older: 62 per cent of 4th graders and
91 per cent of 11th graders choose the Internet over books
• Increased years of education are associated with higher rates for schoolwork.8
of voting and civic engagement (Gidengil et al., 2003).
• Currently, most civics programs primarily transmit knowledge
• Younger Canadians, who are the least likely to vote, report of party politics.9 Best practice indicates that debate and
increasingly lower rates of discussing politics daily as a child. carrying out civic activities are better methods with more
Thirty per cent of Canadians over 40 recall daily political talks positive outcomes down the road.10
as children, whereas only 18 per cent of 18-30-year-olds
report this.1
The generation gap
• Globally, access to more media at home increases children’s
desire to vote as adults.2 • Civic engagement for children as is taught in schools tends to
be biased towards conformity and takes a dim view of
• Participating in more extra-curricular activities as a child opportunities that depart from traditional forms of party-
predicts voting and civic engagement as an adult: extra- based engagement (Coleman, 2008). Popular tactics for youth,
curricular participation at Grade 12 directly correlates 0.51 like student walk-outs and political consumerism, tend to be
with civic engagement and 0.77 with political participation as dismissed by educators as deviant misbehaviour and frivolous
an adult*.3 lifestyle interests.11
• Fostering civic engagement at younger ages is an effective way • Although the Canadian youth vote is significantly down,12
to encourage voting and political participation in later life.4 youth participate in other civic (but not necessarily political)
projects at the same rate as the national average across ages:
• Youth choose to not vote because of a lack of faith in the 27 per cent of youth ages 15-24 participate in one community
established political culture, not because of ignorance organization, nearly identical to the national average.13 The
(Coleman, 2008; O’Neill, 2007). Even new immigrants to argument that youth are apathetic across the board is
Canada quickly mainstream into this same style of thinking.5 exaggerated.14
The move online • Although the Internet doesn’t necessarily draw a lot of new
blood into civic engagement, those involved in civic activities
• Grassroots efforts, government bodies, corporate lobbying agree that networked technology like e-mail, listservs, social
groups and nearly every other form of civic actor have networking sites and Web sites have become indispensable
migrated online.17 for their daily tasks.26
• Even though political organizations have rushed to create an • Young Canadians who volunteer use the Internet more than
online presence, in order to retain more control over their those who don’t. (This effect is also found in Canadian adults,
message many don’t capitalize on the interactive features of though to a lesser degree.) This is likely a twofold effect since
the Web.18 This alienates younger civic actors who expect to youth use the Internet to find volunteer opportunities and
participate more actively in these organizations.19 then remain engaged online as part of their volunteer work.27
• Canada’s strategy for a civic Web-space has shifted from
providing access and an online commons to all to targeting Real, virtual engagement
only disadvantaged groups. Although market mechanisms have
saturated the home market with access, the idea of an online • Compared to traditional lecture-based learning, research has
“commons” has largely fallen by the wayside and is very shown improved gains in civic knowledge, efficacy and interest
patchy across the country.20 when curriculum coincides with real civic events in the
community,28 with especially powerful gains from using
• The Internet is overwhelmingly commercial as opposed to current multi-media coverage as fuel for discussion.29
public, and civic causes are often forced to use (free) Improvements from pertinent, media-rich teaching carry over
commercial platforms such as Twitter and Facebook for civic into students’ college lives as well. For example, effects from
purposes. 21 the Student Voices Program were still detectable by the time
students were in university, mainly in the form of increased
efficacy (the feeling that one is capable of making a difference)
Media effects on civic engagement which indirectly increased the tendency to vote.30
• Civically engaged youth prefer to use a variety of media for • Civic engagement is founded upon communication skills. In
information-seeking, especially the Internet, books and the US, much of the variation in young people’s engagement is
television.22 attributable to news consumption from varied sources, as
well as opportunities to deliberate on that same material in a
• Even entertainment media like video games can spark civic
classroom setting. According to a nationally representative
engagement through tasks which resemble civic activities such
American study, “communication competence incrementally
as organizing collective action.23
accounted for an impressive 58.3 per cent of explained
• A meta-analysis of the Internet’s overall impact on political variance in civic participation, 89.3 per cent in political
and civic behaviours shows a possibly neutral and biased- participation and 77.1 per cent in political consumerism”.31
towards-positive effect.24 This implies that simply spending
time in the medium does not distract from civic life.
1. Long term political attitudes skills that integrate networking sites, so educators
which alter civic behaviour as organization, decision-making, must consider the potential
an adult (both voting and other rhetorical writing, research, downsides of limiting access to
forms of engagement) are and synthesis in mediated these online environments,
shaped from a young age. spaces such as online bulletin especially for students who
Youth apathy must be boards, mailing lists, and social don’t have alternative points of
combated years ahead of time: networking sites. Youth are access outside school. Social
interventions which try to already highly engaged with and networking is an effective way
engage youth when they reach are enthusiastic about these to circulate petitions, display
voting age are too late. technologies, so using them as affiliations, join causes, and
a springboard to teach civics is invite others to get involved.
2. Although civics education has an excellent opportunity.
traditionally focused on the 6. Educators should be open to
transmission of knowledge of 4. Given that civic groups have incorporating those issues
government mechanisms, such largely migrated online, youth care about into the
an approach is less effective for networked technology allows classroom and allow younger
maintaining civic engagement educators to more easily bring students to follow their own
over the long term. civic engagement with real interests when choosing topics
Experimental trials of civics organizations and issues into for civics projects. Much of the
programs have demonstrated the classroom. Whereas apathy towards politics on the
that programs which collaborating with a civic part of youth has been
encourage community-based organization would have been attributed to adults dismissing
civic activity lead to improved impractical before, it can now youth issues as being less
long-term engagement in be integrated into the important than adult ones.
addition to better gains in classroom setting by letting Educators must also be willing
knowledge. This latter students work remotely and to entertain points of view
approach instils the feeling of asynchronously at school. they see as radical, subversive
efficacy needed to keep youth Participatory culture and Web or frivolous. The content of
engaged later. 2.0 technology are a real the activity is less important
blessing for civics educators. than the community-building
3. Since most civic organizations and sense of efficacy it instils in
actively operate online, a vital 5. Political and civic groups the students.
part of civics education is the increasingly reach out to youth
development of digital literacy through channels like social
6
7. Although information and (i.e. providing longer hours, participate on a more equal
communications technology more supervision and more footing with more confident
provides a flexible networked space). Free Internet access is and assertive peers. They also
space to rally, brick and mortar also available through some keep a baseline of activity
schools are still an important community networks which running in-between face-to-
place for students to gather may help close the gap in home face meetings.
and work on civic projects. access for youth.
Since civic engagement usually 13. Discussions in networked
takes place in blended virtual 10. Extracurricular programs help spaces permit mentors from
and physical spaces, schools build social capital (reciprocal outside the class to participate,
need to provide classroom trust and goodwill) and self- such as authors, politicians, and
space as well as Internet access efficacy in young teens, which parents. Such networks can
for student civic involvement. translate into engagement run on a range of accessibility
later. Research suggests that it depending on teachers’ wishes.
8. One of the most common is the egalitarian, team-based Semi-closed networks with
barriers to civic engagement nature of extracurricular invitation systems or teacher-
identified by youth is a lack of activities that makes them moderation allow for more
time. Devoting some class time beneficial for youth. oversight than fully public
to civic projects may be an forums.
important consideration, 11. Based on observations that the
especially for students who egalitarian structure of many
have extra responsibilities extracurricular activities builds
outside of school. social capital and a sense of
efficacy, civics educators may
9. Youth who are civically consider playing the role of
engaged and/or politically moderator or facilitator
active prefer to seek most of instead of acting as an
their information from a authority.
combination of the Internet,
books, and television. Schools 12. Computer-mediated
can facilitate this informal discussions and boards
learning by increasing the levels contribute to an egalitarian
of access to existing Internet setting because they allow shy,
terminals and reading materials ESL and disabled students to
7
Introduction
Youth Engagement: A Cause for Concern?
8
Civic Engagement and Social Capital
9
Figure 2 – How building social capital may overlap with civic engagement
Social capital is often mentioned in the same breath as civic engagement doesn’t always build social capital either.
civic engagement, to the point where they are sometimes In theory, one can cast a ballot, the quintessential act of
confused. Social capital is built up by groups as their civic engagement, without consulting another human
members build mutual confidence and trust, usually by being. In the overlapping space between social capital-
giving time, help, advice or even material resources to building and civic engagement go activities like planning a
one another. This extends beyond small circles of closely- rally. Such activities usually require social capital to start
knit friends and encompasses neighbours, acquaintances, up, and then reinforce it as a movement gains momentum.
and other community members. A community with dense
networks of social capital is not necessarily one where Lastly, this brief mentions political efficacy. This term is
every member is on intimate terms with one another, but used to describe not the real impact that someone is able
there is a baseline level of trust and goodwill between to make in politics but rather the belief that they can. In
them. In communities with high enough levels of social other words, a sense of political efficacy is the polar
capital, even strangers are more inclined to help and trust opposite of a cynical, fatalist view of politics.
one another.37
10
Digital Literacy
Most often the notion of a digital Digital literacy has been coined as a information, and media literacy since
divide38 highlights unequal access to term to encompass the level of digital media have absorbed text,
infrastructure like computers and literacy that is needed to navigate an databases, and film content into a
Internet connectivity. Although this increasingly mediated world of single category. The truly novel
remains a barrier for some information. Yet digital literacy is not aspect of digital media is the
Canadians, a second, complementary some entirely new breed of skill to networked component, which forces
problem is emerging around unequal handle information; a major part of it authors to produce texts for invisible,
literacy skills to engage with the is the confluence of many other skills global audiences. Such texts can be
technology. This has implications for with older media platforms. Although hyperlinked to one another in a non-
employment opportunities as more each form of literacy corresponds to linear web of information, and
and more jobs demand at least some the arrival of a new media form, furthermore are likely to be taken up
digital literacy (Chowhan, 2005). Yet newer literacies do not displace or by other peers in the network and
the larger issue is the fact that undermine older ones. To be a fully repurposed or remixed into new
participating as a citizen requires literate individual in a media- hybrid forms and begin the process
digital literacy as well. Whether or saturated world places greater and anew.
not one’s job requires any ICT skills, greater learning demands on each
the increasingly mediated civic world new generation.39 Mastering digital
affects all Canadians. media requires high levels of print,
11
Although the definition of literacy is The third property, creating digital
biased towards 'reading', it goes media, is the crucial difference
beyond merely being able to decode between Canadian youth being simple
messages to include critical appraisal of consumers of civic information and
them as well as the ability to produce active citizens with the power to
them in various forms. Furthermore, intervene in a mediated civic world.
literacy is not only a skill possessed by
individuals but a cultural practice
interwoven with producers of
messages, and other resources needed
to decode them. No matter how
literate one is, if the producers of
messages make them illegible or
incomprehensible no exchange of
meaning can take place. This places
some of the onus to support digital
literacy on institutions like schools,
government, and even producers of
messages.41 Contrary to popular
belief,42 this literacy is not inborn, and
if not cultivated can become a barrier
to full participation in civic life – which
increasingly takes place in mediated
forms.
12
Research on Youth Media Habits
which Impact Civic Life
Overall, Canadian youth are very just under two hours a day while 13-
connected to online technologies. 17-year-olds used the Internet for
Through a combination of industry three hours a day.49 Social networking
partnerships with public schools and is particularly popular, with 76 per
private market mechanisms, young cent of online Canadian teens having
people have a variety of access points social networking profiles.50 A recent
and very few are cut off entirely from American study showed that the
the World-Wide Web (although a number of hours per day youth spend
disproportionate number of those engaged with media rose from 6 hours
with limited access live in rural and and 21 minutes to 7 hours and 38
remote communities).43 As of 2004, minutes daily,51 a feat made possible by
Canadian schools had achieved a increased media multitasking. Such
national ratio averaging one computer high rates of media engagement
per 5.5 children and high-speed arouse concern that time spent online
Internet connections were nearly displaces time children might
universal.44 On the home front, otherwise spend being engaged in the
children’s rates of access from home civic arena.
have been climbing from 79 per cent
in 2001 to 97 per cent in 2007.45 As of There is a lack of empirical research
2009, 80 per cent of Canadian which definitively shows the impact
households had broadband access.46 online engagement has on civic
Simultaneously, with the ascent of engagement, particularly for youth
affordable home-based connections, ages 15 and under, but there are
community hubs in Canada have faded numerous studies of adults and older
in importance. These hubs were adolescents which have explored the
originally established to provide a impact of time spent online on civic
virtual public commons with access to life. Using pooled data from 38 studies
hardware and connectivity in addition of Internet usage and civic engagement
to non-commercialized e-mail, Web- in the USA and Canada, it has been
space, and bulletin boards. The role of found that when taken as a whole,
providing hardware and Internet Internet use has a very small but
access has been taken up at the mostly positive or neutral relationship
municipal level by public libraries47 but with civic engagement on adults.52 At
the maintenance of public, non- the very least, it can be said that
commercial online spaces has since Internet use does not detract from civic
eroded due to lack of sustained engagement. By the same turn, a more
support.48 focused national study of Americans
did not find Internet use a positive
Given nearly universal access to the factor for civic participation. The most
Internet, Canadian children can and do civically engaged subjects online
spend a great deal of time online. resembled their offline counterparts
According to the 2007 Microsoft/ and indeed, online and offline civic
Youthography Internet Safety survey, participation overlap a great deal,
9-12-year-olds used the Internet for implying that engagement in civic life
13
both online and off is governed by one or more additional Countering fears that using the Internet is socially
factors such as age, education, and socio-economic status isolating, Statistics Canada found that Internet users do
(with older, better-educated, and wealthier participants sacrifice a small amount of face-to-face time with family
generally more engaged). The main exception to this and friends, but are more likely to cut back on television
trend was the use of blogs and social networking sites for or sleep first. More important, much of the time spent
political purposes, where younger adults outstripped online by the youngest users (15-18 years old) is used for
older users by a wide margin.53 This latter trend has been socializing: 39 minutes daily.61 These findings are
confirmed in Canada.54 In general, though, citizens who confirmed by CIP which showed overall that heavy
are engaged in civic life favour a blended approach where Internet users spend slightly more time with family and
they combine online and face-to-face action.55 Such friends than other groups.62 Furthermore, for users ages
findings mirror European studies of youth and young adult 15-25, using the Internet does not negatively impact their
civic engagement which shows low overall rates of civic personal feelings of belonging in their communities: in
engagement (between 10-13 per cent of respondents) but fact, Internet users are members of more clubs and
a clear bias among the engaged for a mixed online/offline organizations than non-users. Moderate users also
approach.56 volunteer more than non-users, and young users are the
most likely to use the Internet to search for new
Examining the question of youth more precisely, a volunteer opportunities.63 Shifting from the civic to the
national survey of American 14-22-year-olds revealed the political sphere, young Internet users are more likely to
importance of separating intentions from strict usage of engage in public issues with the press and with each other
particular media. In a model considering demographics in online spaces. Among home Internet users ages 18-24,
and a wide range of media habits, using the Internet to 58 per cent had read about a political issue online, 35 per
seek information correlated 0.13 with correctly answering cent read the opinions of other Canadians online, and 21
questions about current politics. This is an effect similar in per cent had corresponded with fellow citizens regarding
strength to reading newspapers, which has traditionally an issue. These rates were the highest of any age group.64
been seen as the gold standard for civically-oriented The Statistics Canada study concludes that Internet use
media (correlation 0.134). Among all mass media uses has not had a very clear positive or negative overall effect
(including television, books, radio, magazines, and movies) on civic engagement but that it is reorganizing the terms
the only negative influence on civic engagement was of engagement, allowing new communities to arise,
spending a large number of hours in casual TV viewing dispersed in space and time.65
(correlation -0.08), as opposed to informational use of
television.57 (For example, watching national newscasts In summary, there is no strong, homogenous effect of
had a small positive impact on both political knowledge Internet use on civic engagement. This is both good and
and participation in civic activities.)58 What this tells us is bad news for educators. The good news is that digital
that when it comes to TV, the motivation of viewers is media are not obstacles which must be overcome to
more important than time spent viewing. Such findings enable engagement with one’s larger community. The bad
echo older global surveys which found that in general, news is that they do not necessarily activate passive
better and more diverse media resources in the home members of a community and transform them into
corresponded to children’s interest in voting and political engaged digital citizens. What we do know for certain is
participation.59 Canadian data also shows that among that engaged citizens have assimilated a range of media
citizens who follow the news only 17 per cent rely into their daily lives, both as sources of information and
exclusively on one source, but those who do usually turn as tools to communicate and act. New media have not
to television.60 Like television, the Internet has been fully replaced older, more traditional forms of
absorbed into information-seeking uses of media for engagement but most civic engagement is now a blend of
engaged users, and providing children with more media electronic and face-to-face interaction which exploits the
channels to more information may support this trend. strengths of each. Knowing this, educators should
The numbers of hours young people spend with media consider emphasizing the ability of students to assess,
only tell part of the story, and paying attention to this criticize and synthesize information from many different
metric alone ignores the different motivations viewers sources and in many different forms: the very definition of
have when they consume media. digital literacy. At the same time, taking an active role in a
civic activity nowadays is highly likely to require skills like
Even if the Internet and other media can facilitate coordinating efforts in networked environments,
knowledge and engagement, there are still fears that producing multimedia texts for an invisible audience, and
solitary media use erodes social capital. The best exerting “virtual” but very real pressure on leaders. This
Canadian data has probed citizens as young as 15 in is the facet of digital literacy which focuses on production,
national studies carried out by Statistics Canada and as skills integral to empowering young citizens.
young as 12 in the Canadian Internet Project (CIP). 14
Social networking / video gaming and civic engagement
Although heavy television use has been identified as a they have amassed online via social networking sites:
detriment to civic engagement, it doesn’t necessarily Latino students staged massive demonstrations in
follow that all entertainment media detracts from California over immigration laws by harnessing their
engagement. As discussed in the previous section, MySpace networks,69 public school students coordinated
motivation is the key when considering the impact of Facebook invitations to organize a march to protest
media use. For example, in a sample of college students it proposed cuts to education funding in New Jersey,70 and
was found that over time intensity of Facebook use in Canada a group of young drivers successfully used
increases levels of social capital.66 Such findings bolster the Facebook groups to counter proposed changes to Ontario
idea that online tools have an important place in civic driving laws in 2008.71 More generally, CIP finds that
engagement and, more importantly, that media which although youth primarily cite socializing as the number
look like ‘fun and games’ on the surface may serve one reason they join social networking sites (44 per cent
multiple purposes. Both American and Canadian research rank it as their main reason) there is a small segment
confirms the importance of social networking to those (11%) which uses it primarily to obtain and circulate
who are seriously engaged. In the United States, the Pew information; this segment increases with age. In fact, given
Research Center found that “those under age 25 that young users prefer the Internet and interpersonal
constitute just 10 per cent of our survey respondents but contacts as sources of news, social networking sites are
make up 40 per cent of those who make political use of poised to rival search engines for finding news and
social networking sites and 29 per cent of those who post information,72 which demonstrates that social networking
comments or visual material about politics online.”67 As sites are not narrow instruments but rather can be
for Canada, the CIP reports that “overall, Internet deployed for many different purposes depending on the
engagement (frequency of Internet use) and social user’s goals. The difference between informational and
engagement (involvement with social networking sites) entertainment use rests not as an immutable trait of the
are better predictors of civic engagement than is technology but on the user’s needs.
information-seeking as a reason for going online.”68
Teenagers have made waves in the popular press by Although academic research on social capital and social
coordinating huge rallies that tap into the social capital networking sites has mainly targeted university-aged
15
students, there is an emerging set of research on video
gaming which looks specifically at teens. Little video game
content is explicitly civic, but virtual communities that
spring up around games provide examples of spontaneous
interest-driven groups where civic skills are exercised.
Although the research is cross-sectional in nature, findings
show that many gamers prefer playing in groups both
online and in person. Within that setting, many identify
gaming experiences where players apply fundamental skills
that are important in similar civic situations occurring “at
least sometimes”. These include helping or guiding other
players (76 %), thinking about moral or ethical issues
(52%), learning about a problem in society (44%), learning
about social issues (40%), helping make decisions about
how a community should be run (43%), and organizing/
managing game groups (30%). In general, teens who
endorsed experiencing more of these civic tasks in games
were also more likely to be civically engaged in other with others at least monthly.78 As a pastime which reaches
communities away from the game. Comparing the 25 per nearly all teens (including increasing numbers of girl
cent of respondents who reported the most civic gamers), it may be that many children’s first experiences
activities when game playing to the 25 per cent who in the civic realm will happen while playing a video game.
reported the fewest: 70 per cent of the top quartile seek
political information online versus 55 per cent of the Although the most popular online gaming and social
lowest quartile; 70 per cent of the top quartile engage in networking communities are commercial and built around
fundraising, while only 51 per cent of the lowest quartile diversion, there are parallel communities consciously built
do so; 34 per cent (versus 17 per cent) had tried to around civic engagement: Zora79 is an experimental virtual
persuade someone to vote a certain way in an election; world designed to encourage negotiation and cooperation
and 15 per cent (versus 6 per cent) had marched in a among players80 while TakingITGlobal81 is a collaborative
protest. All these differences were larger than can be social networking community for youth activists.82 These
accounted for by chance.73 Moreover, the subset of teens examples illustrate the civic purposes entertainment
that write and contribute to online message boards about technology can serve.
video games had even higher levels of civic engagement: When deciding on which media to promote or teach in
38 per cent had tried persuading someone to vote for a school, it is crucial to consider the different uses students
certain party and 18 per cent had marched in a protest.74 can derive from platforms which are stereotyped as time-
As with the research on television and Internet usage, wasters. Both social networking and video gaming have
measures of time spent playing games did not affect civic potential civic value and are pertinent subject matter
engagement as much as the reported frequency of civic insofar as they both engage the majority of youth, yet
activities occurring within the game itself. For example, both are popular targets for filtering and banning by
playing as part of a group did not correlate with civic schools and parents.
engagement outside the game, but organizing or managing
that group did.75
All this demonstrates that civic education is not strictly
about having a command of historical facts about the
nation’s democracy or being encultured with particular
personal values. Games which ostensibly have no
curricular content to teach may serve as a good training
ground for skills to act in a civic environment -- especially
those with both physical and virtual elements.76 Whereas
cafés and other semi-private spaces were once sites of
community engagement, it could be that online games and
social networking can serve a similar purpose to build real
social capital in virtual space.77 In Canada, online gaming is
very popular, with 79 per cent of 12-17-year-olds playing
16
The Present State of Civics Education
17
popular since they are uncontrover- in the long-term than do programs exercising civic skills,105 but it is also a
sial and palatable. Both are, of course, which combine activities like service- form of truancy which educators are
important attitudes to develop, but learning, debate, and interaction with forced to sanction.106
they do not automatically translate civic actors.95 Ironically, this is also
into knowledge or skills which true when it comes to improving The role of digital technology in this
empower students to act on more knowledge of government.96 style of civic education is twofold.
difficult issues in the civic realm, First, since students benefit most
especially when considering the The final approach in civics education from working on meaningful civic
importance of digital literacy for is arguably the most difficult to projects with community leaders and
effective participation. organize and execute, and is the least organizations – and digital
common among educators.97 This technologies act as a bridge between
The second mainstream style of civic focuses on the skills, including digital school and community – digital
instruction focuses on knowledge of literacy, which students need to technology makes this kind of
political mechanisms and the history participate in the public sphere by collaboration between classrooms
of party politics in Canada. This assigning simulated or real civic and outside organizations viable.
approach teaches present-day activities. These diverse exercises Second, civic and political
citizenship by returning to the include: blended service-learning organizations, as well as citizens who
original struggles of colonists to claim programs where students combine are already highly engaged, have
independence from their European community volunteer work with taken up digital technologies with
empires and establish a system of classroom reflection;98 mock- such enthusiasm that citizens who
elected government. It is easily taught elections where students vote in wish to participate need a minimum
in a lecture-based format,88 easy to parallel alongside federal or provincial level of digital literacy and even
evaluate through tests and elections;99 model parliaments and greater skill if they want to excel in
assignments,89 and generally treats debates in the classroom;100 and this field. These skills are not inborn
citizenship as a gift which is inherited direct collaboration with civic and require guidance and practice to
in a static form.90 Such an approach organizations. To the extent that hone, making schools an important
simultaneously meets the these activities offer students a more site for students to practice
requirements of a history or political active role in their learning as well as citizenship skills for both present and
science curriculum and delineates the chances to exercise a critical future needs.
basic rights Canadian citizens enjoy. perspective and skills to engage
Generally speaking, this style of directly, they are more compatible Interestingly, extracurricular
teaching is most compatible with the with the actualizing citizen style of involvement has had consistently
dutiful citizen model of engagement91 learning favoured by youth. The strong effects on subsequent civic
insofar as it takes a conservative major difference between simulated engagement like volunteering and
approach that emphasizes the value and real civic activities is the sense of voting.107 Breaking down the
of the existing system.92 In theory, a political efficacy101 and social capital102 differences which set apart the
corollary of this historical education that the latter instils. As a rule of opportunities presented in
equips students with a practical thumb, the more classroom activities classroom-style learning and
knowledge of their own personal are related to real forms of extracurricular activities,108 it
rights and obligations as Canadian engagement, the stronger the impact becomes clear that online affinity
citizens to vote, engage with their will be on learning and future spaces support many of the same
MPs or even run for office. Put engagement.103 Across several studies, learning opportunities as
another way, this type of teaching civics education with a focus on extracurricular involvement but with
aims at producing more citizens who working on a real problem in the lowered barriers for participation.109
engage in the civic sphere but only in community improves learning By harnessing ICT in the classroom,
the terms already set out for them.93 outcomes and produces better long- teachers can extend these benefits to
From an educational perspective term impact on future civic more students while better equipping
there is a risk of teaching the material engagement. Yet the spectre of them to thrive in the public sphere.
without inviting students to exercise ceding more autonomy to students
a critical perspective or incorporate over their learning, especially where
contemporary issues which are civics and new media are concerned,
relevant to them.94 In practice, is a frightening prospect for many
curriculum which is strictly educators.104 A student walk-out
knowledge-based shows fewer gains organized online is a valid example of
18
New Directions for Digital Civics Education
19
New Directions for Digital Civics Education
Introducing new technology into the students using the Internet as a should be integrated at each step of
classroom can be a difficult choice for distraction from class work, the civic learning process. In the
educators.110 On the one hand, there combined with the spectre of them preceding sections evidence has been
is the desire to continually keep encountering dangerous strangers, presented which shows that although
education in step with the outside hateful manifestos, pornographic political knowledge can be evaluated
world to keep subjects relevant. On content, and cyberbullying, makes the using the same methods as other
the other hand, educators are already Internet most often a threat to be subjects,115 this knowledge doesn’t
charged with a heavy burden of managed in the context of the meet its full potential unless paired
instructing students in fundamental classroom113 and an even greater with communication skills and
competencies like print literacy and disincentive to teach digital literacy. political efficacy. Teaching to living,
numeracy in addition to a growing electronic texts in a civics curriculum
range of academic, moral, and life Civics education is also difficult to fit is important not only because they
skills. If there’s barely time to ensure into a full schedule. Although it lacks are the best source of information
students know how to read and add, the perceived risks associated with for ongoing, contemporary issues but
what kind of priority does digital teaching Internet literacy, in terms of also because students as a population
citizenship get? This is a complicated priority civics still ranks behind more already depend on them as their
set of skills which is built upon a testable subjects which have clear primary source of news. Seventy-one
foundation of fluency using digital benchmarks and goals for students to per cent of youth ages 12-17 rank the
media coupled with civic skills and achieve. Internet as an important or very
political knowledge. Where civics education is taught, important source of information,
there is a risk of it being taught though only 32 per cent of those
At its very best, digital literacy is same youth trust most or all of the
considered an extension of the basic without any concern for digital
literacy. Yet how is it that most information available online.116 This
literacies (like reading and writing) finding dovetails with students’
that are needed to function in a Canadians know anything about the
decisions being made in parliament? growing desire for instruction in
world where most information is school on how to evaluate the
electronically mediated. At worst, How do most of them decide which
MP to vote for without going to the credibility of online information.117
digital literacy is considered an Taking students’ existing information-
irrelevant or transitory ornament on trouble of meeting all the candidates
in their riding? How do like-minded seeking habits into account can
the underlying, supposedly static skill inform teaching practice to help
of decoding and composing texts. people separated by huge distances
coordinate rallies and protests? Most enhance the skills they need to use
Why bother teaching kids to tweet most often and equip them with the
(posting to Twitter, a micro-blog importantly, how can anyone quickly
address a large enough audience to necessary critical eye to successfully
where entries are 140 characters or find and use credible information
less) given that every new platform create change? Sometimes we take
for granted the fact that the entire online.
seems to have the lifespan of a gnat?
Deployed without integration into world of politics and civics exists in
the curriculum, technology in the an almost purely mediated form.114
classroom tends to contribute only Though much of our engagement
to mastery of technology itself and may be virtual, it is no less real.
not to other areas of study, as has Although there is no magic bullet that
been the case with laptop will resolve these dilemmas, one
computers.111 In the case of the possible solution is to recognize the
Internet, the tie-breaker for this substantial degree of digital fluency
impasse tends to be the difficulty required to effectively engage youth
inherent in filtering the medium for in the civic arena and teach to both
use in schools.112 The frustration of simultaneously. Digital media can and
20
Sites of Learning and their Features
Research has isolated a few sites of around shared interests and are merely logging more hours in
learning for civic knowledge and skills almost entirely driven by participants’ service.121
which are bound up in practices that interests in specific topics such as
may help or hinder civic outcomes. case-moddingΩ, anime subbingΘ, or All three sites of learning (the
Interventions which take place as fan fictionΨ. These kinds of spaces classroom, extracurricular activities,
part of mandatory classroom learning operate on a voluntary basis, but and networked spaces) offer different
have been used primarily because unlike structured extracurricular or opportunities to develop skills which
they reach the majority of students. service-learning activities, the are transferable to the civic realm.
Given that the decline in youth voting affordances of online technology However, given the demonstrated
is mostly among youth who do not lowers the barriers of time and space track record of success for
go to university,118 the high school needed to commit to these groups. structured activities in promoting
classroom is the last effective place Just as an example, imagine the long term civic engagement,122 this
to reach potential voters. The constraints and opportunities of a area deserves extra attention. The
learning which takes place there, book club which is centrally important question is: what is it
however, is highly controlled and organized as an after school activity about activities outside of the
rarely strays outside the classroom versus one which exists online, in a classroom which encourage civic
to engage with the larger community. public networked space. Although engagement over the long term, and
the former benefits from face to face how can classroom learning integrate
On the other hand, extracurricular meetings and the nuances that add to more of those features? As outlined
and service-learning programs are dialogue, it is limited in many ways. below, activities which depart from
enmeshed between the settings of The club can only convene when the classroom, as well as activities
school and community. Activities like members’ schedules overlap and then that provide rehearsals for later adult
sports teams, clubs, and volunteer only if they have access to a space engagement (while still empowering
associations are animated and which can accommodate them. There students in the present) boast better
sustained by member participation. are certain time parameters for outcomes. What’s more, these
What’s more, such organizations may participation that are informally set groups have many of the same
forge links with the community at by the meetings: the club might not structural features as online affinity
large depending on their purpose. be accommodating to members who spaces that spontaneously form
Researchers speculate that this only want to drop in for just 5 around common interests. With a
entails more of a personal investment minutes or members who want to little direction and planning,
on part of the members and more stay for 4 hours. The same club in a educators can build upon the already
opportunities for personal networked space, on the other hand, high engagement youth have with
development.119 This kind of learning can handle a wider range of networked spaces and mobilize them
is more informal, but allows for more participation and adapts well to for civic engagement.
practice in collaboration and sliding scales of participation. An
leadership. Such activities tend to run The classroom and structured
investment of 5 minutes in the online extracurricular activities can both be
on an opt-in basis, where students space can have actual value for other
have to choose to participate. As excellent sites of civic education, but
members. Furthermore, a major use the affordances of networked space
such, it is hard to determine to what of networked space is to organize
extent these programs change subsume many of the same
and sustain real-life meetings and opportunities (or else provide them
attitudes as opposed to reinforcing organizations, so members still
existing ones. at a lower cost) as well as presenting
benefit from both styles of some unique affordances. The field of
Lastly, youth have a strong presence participation. Some scholars forecast possibilities opened by networked
in online participatory cultures,120 that thanks to networked technology, space for civics educators can be
which exist in a networked space that participation in groups will soon be broken down into widened ranges of
is not confined to any single location. measured by output rather than by contact and content.
Participatory cultures coalesce Ω
hobby based around building custom PC towers from new, recycled, and homemade parts
Θ
21
hobby based around adding subtitles to Japanese animation not commercially available in the
Western world for online distribution
Ψ
hobby of writing new fiction based on existing canon characters and settings written and dis-
tributed by fans of the original work
Contact Content
We sometimes forget that the classroom and the public Just like the school and the classroom, books are a
school are a form of technology. The system of technology which has become so commonplace that we
standardizing a curriculum and delivering it in stages to no longer consider it to be technology at all. Yet books
groups of age-stratified students is meant to speed up the are a technology which prescribes a certain style of
transmission of knowledge while consuming fewer learning. Especially when ordered en masse, like when
resources like teacher time and attention. The design of choosing textbooks for an entire school, the emphasis is
many classrooms bespeaks their reliance on broadcast on knowledge which will be broad and useful across many
styles of learning: rows of desks pointed forward at a situations. The World Wide Web often lacks the depth
blackboard, a teacher or a projector screen. The and rigour of a good book but it is a “just-in-time”
relationship favoured by this technology is one where the learning tool which adapts, keeps pace with current
teacher is central and students orbit around him or her. events and delivers new content cheaply and as needed.
Second, the classroom is a self-contained cell which is For the purposes of making a civics education relevant to
cordoned off from the surrounding community, even particular students’ interests, the Internet is indispensable.
other classes in the same school. It is possible to work It can support a wider range of topics than a school
against this architecture, but it requires a concerted library can provide resources for, it can support the most
effort. One way of quickly and cheaply enriching the class current issues and is more closely aligned with how the
with more linkages is to integrate networked technology adult world consumes news. Overall, inclusion of web
to complement classroom instruction. A well-designed resources in civics education is not just a motivator for
networked space unlocks communication between peers students but also an enhancement to learning.
and a new dimension for learning and civic engagement.
This is not just an aspiration: a Canadian study on civics
education revealed that discussing politics with peers had
a much larger effect than the actual classroom lessons.123
Such findings are in parallel with American research on
deliberating with peers and future engagement.124 Peer-to-
peer learning is at the heart of participatory cultures, and
allows students to move back and forth between the
roles of mentor and novice depending on the topic at
hand or their partner in an activity. These kinds of
exchanges capitalize on the untapped resource of
students’ existing knowledge and they are the norm in
networked space.
Not only does a well-implemented network unlock more
linkages between students within a single class, if made
public such a network can benefit from participation by
other members of the community. Compared to the
investment of visiting a classroom, networked technology The themes of contact and content re-emerge in the
allows greater degrees of participation by more people areas to follow.
like city councillors, parents, and activists who can enrich
discussions online.
22
The Participation Paradox
Although attempting to replicate the experience of self-chosen extracurricular activities in a classroom setting where
participation is mandatory may sound like a contradiction, it is possible in degrees. 'Voluntary' and 'mandatory' are not
black and white distinctions, especially in education. Motivation exists along a continuum and research focusing on
autonomy has found that within this spectrum there are meaningful differences between the different shades of
'mandatory'. In general, using controlling measures sparingly and granting students more autonomy enhances the
learning experience.125 If the underlying goal of civics education is to foster enduring civic engagement (as opposed to
simply passing the tests at the end of the course) then this kind of autonomous learning opportunity is paramount.
Mandating a civics course is a controlling measure, but there are many ways to give students a larger stake in the
process, especially with the supportive affordances of networked technology. Suggestions include:
• Allowing students to choose an issue in the community • Helping students brainstorm what they want to do and
they want to act upon. Using different media resources assisting them in whatever form they choose. If students
like the Internet, students can research the nature of want to produce a persuasive text as their end project,
the issue and compile relevant bookmarks and citations encourage them to find examples across many different
to share among the class through social networking media (such as podcasts, informational Web sites, video
sites, blogs, or bulletin board systems. blogs, press releases, and viral e-mail campaigns) and
choose which one best suits their goal. If students want
• Evaluating the quality and source for each bookmark. to act directly, encourage them to explore different
Disputes over the legitimacy of a source can be resolved tools to organize this (i.e. listservs, social networking
in classroom deliberations that may continue online sites, short message services) and experiment with
after school. The archive of the computer-mediated different methods to find the best one to enlarge their
discussion may be a valuable reference later. pool of collaborators.
• Assembling the best sources in a wiki for students to • As students have varying levels of proficiency with
edit collaboratively over the course of the project. different technologies, teachers should encourage more
Proposed changes can also be discussed in class and skilled students to help their peers get up and running.
online. The wiki will help students stay abreast of new
developments. • Consider the benefits of making part or all of the class’s
output for the project publicly viewable online to invite
• Using a variety of sources, especially the Internet, to participation from parents, students in other classes, and
encourage students to identify community leaders and the community at large.
agencies who are involved in the issue. If none exist,
teachers may consider researching direct action taken
by non-profits and community members.
The parameters of the task set by the educator should be as broad as possible to allow students to set the agenda and
keep the material personally relevant. Unless students are already veterans of civic action, there will be challenges and
learning opportunities for educators to point out and frame no matter what course of action is decided on. In this
model the educator is facilitating learning while students take a leading role in the content and structure of the activity.
23
Locating the issues for maximum impact
Granting students greater autonomy in civics education material in class have increased rates of civic participation,
makes the experience more personally relevant. Despite political participation and political consumerism. Sadly, the
popular beliefs to the contrary, before civic education highest-impact media-based activities are also the rarest
even begins youth tend to have well-developed attitudes reported experiences in student surveys.135 Media which
and opinions of how systems of government work – or are “live” like blogs, television, newspapers and online
how they don’t126. In the case of minority students, whose forums are the only resources that keep pace with
experience of government may be vastly different from current civic issues. If an educator’s goal is to cultivate
that of their mainstream peers, these preconceived student competence to act in a civic arena, textbook-
attitudes can hinder learning goals if students perceive the based instruction is too far removed in time to translate
curriculum to be written from a perspective that ignores into interest in contemporary issues. Furthermore, it
their life experiences. Traditional civics education, shelters students from the real-life exercise of evaluating
entrenched in the distant past and dependent upon and deciphering mediated messages from producers with
textbooks which have enshrined an incontestable differing intent and levels of reliability. The skills needed
historical narrative,127 may be the reason minority to navigate the labyrinth of competing partisan and
students retain fewer benefits from such courses.128 In persuasive messages are arguably more pertinent in the
terms of developing better civic attitudes, personally long term than a rock-solid command of historical facts
relevant curriculum has been proven to have a positive about Canadian government, but for reasons of
effect on students across the board.129 Although convenience the latter remains more popular.136
knowledge of government offices and mechanisms is a
foundation for civic engagement,130 anchoring the
curriculum too much in the past and in canonical texts
speaks more to the dutiful citizen mindset than the
actualizing citizen ethos preferred by students.131 Situating a
civics curriculum in the present has been proven to better
reach diverse students because they see it as being more
personally relevant.132 When designing a civics curriculum
around the present-day civic arena, educators have no
choice but to depend heavily on new media to fuel
activities in and out of class. On the other hand, since
new media have fewer gatekeepers than print resources,
media literacy must also figure prominently in lesson
objectives as well. Although this represents a foray into
slightly riskier, less predictable territory for teachers, the
benefits of increased interest, knowledge and engagement
are strong enough to warrant the risk.133 Specifically, using
online information in classroom discussions translates into
significantly better retention of knowledge and more
interest in following civic activity once the course
concludes.134 Moreover, students who use online news
sources, discuss politics online and deliberate on such
24
Crossing the threshold into the public arena
As a side-benefit, integrating networked technology into Technology like teleconferencing makes student
civics education also expands the breadth of potential interaction with leaders increasingly easy, which is a real
topics and projects: the sheer volume of lobbying groups, blessing since this appears to be an important touchstone
non-government organizations, charities, and special for them to see civic leaders as approachable human
interest groups that have an online presence makes civics beings. This is only one example of how networked
education an ideal opportunity for interest-driven technology not only streams important information for
learning. Networked technologies not only enlarge the use in the classroom, but also how the classroom can
pool of civic causes students can take up as subject become a laboratory for democracy which can cross over
matter, but can also be used to gain greater access to into the larger community.138 Whereas much schoolwork
important figures in the community and abroad. In a is a rehearsal for real tasks students may undertake later
quasi-experimental study of the CityWorks program, it was as adults, combining networked technology and civics
found that visits from civic leaders had the strongest education gives students a chance to contribute their
impact across learning outcomes.137 Kahne describes the work to real projects in the civic arena and exercise
program below: political efficacy. There is a profound emotional difference
between submitting an essay for grading by one’s teacher
and adding content to a wiki where that same essay will
As citizens of a fictional city called Central enter the public domain alongside the work of one’s
Heights, students participated in six fellow citizens, including classmates, parents, journalists
simulations of prototypical processes related and community leaders. Such experiences encourage a
to local government, learning about a variety sense of efficacy because they are authentic.
of issues and the processes and people
responsible for making decisions about these
issues…Students also met with various
community leaders from local government,
including judges, elected officials, media
representatives, and community activists who
served as potential role models. Students also
participated in a service‐learning activity by
researching and taking action to address a
local issue of the students’ choice…These
curricular experiences were designed to
foster students’ motivation to learn,
commitment to participate, and development
of participatory skills (Kahne et al., 2006, pp.
391-392).
25
Networked teamwork
One of the most problematic but subtle aspects of In the context of digital civics education, the above
lecture-based civic education is that it inadvertently advantages mean that when conducting activities in a
solidifies the young person’s status as a passive party in networked space, students tend to deliberate more
the political process. A civics education where student carefully on the messages they are sending and receiving,
debate is discouraged or where students are not invited a habit which is central to good digital citizenship.144
to raise issues which matter to them personally What’s more, students are more willing to voice opinions
reproduces the same disconnect between the adult- they might otherwise have kept to themselves when face-
sanctioned world of politics and young citizens. Even to-face and are less susceptible to being swayed from
teachers who work hard to make their classrooms their views by dominant peers. All this contributes to the
egalitarian and deliberative risk falling into the trap of enrichment of the discussion and forces students to deal
simply lecturing to students.139 In contrast, scholars with diverse opinions in a civic forum. Some of this
speculate that the reason extracurricular activities research specifically supports students taking a more
encourage civic engagement so strongly is because they active role in learning; for example, work by Hillman
are a rare chance for youth to break out of that mould found that utterances were more balanced between
and feel a sense of empowerment.140 In a U.S. study of teachers and students in a CMC class compared to face-
experiences students had across domains, the to-face,145 implying more give and take in discussions and
extracurricular domain consistently offered more learning less recitation. Within the digital realm, Cramer has
opportunities for personal and interpersonal development further analysed how different degrees of adult
like skills, identity, social capital, leadership, and ties to moderation affects a long term CMC discussion by
the community. The comparison groups were younger students.146 Overall, adult moderators who
opportunities found in class and spending time with impose more heavily into the discussion make themselves
friends.141 As mentioned before, networked affinity spaces the axis around which comments circulate, while those
have spontaneously encouraged similar styles of who refrain from intervening encourage more peer to
organization to develop, particularly among youth. Jenkins peer discussion.147 Given limitations on classroom time,
has written at length about how affinity spaces such as networked spaces also allow discussions to extend
these have fluid hierarchies based on contributions and throughout the day148 rather than limiting work away from
expertise, where members alternate freely between the class to be completely isolated and disengaged from peer
role of mentor, peer, and learner depending on the feedback. Whereas many of these studies were
situation.142 Whereas this sort of give-and-take conducted on networked spaces for distance learning
relationship is common in extracurricular activities and courses, where comparisons were made between 100 per
affinity spaces, it can be easily sidelined in a classroom cent computer-delivered versus 100 per cent traditional
setting where authority and expertise is centralized lecture-style content, most high school programs can be a
around a teacher. Turning to research on computer- blend of both networked and face-to-face work.
mediated communication (CMC), there is emerging
evidence that networked spaces can be highly supportive All of CMC’s benefits aside, whether or not educators are
of de-centred participatory discussion and learning. Most convinced of its ability to enhance learning, the fact
of this research has been conducted on university-aged remains that these technologies are at the heart of most
students, so special consideration needs to be applied civic institutions. Participation in the civic world will
when translating this into practice at the high school level. increasingly depend on how well students can express
An extensive review published in 2007 concludes that themselves in a digital environment, without recourse to
compared to face-to-face group work, networked verbal intonation and without being able to read an
collaboration has many notable advantages: audience’s reaction in real-time. By the same token,
students will similarly need to read texts which are
CMC groups tended to outperform face-to- organized, at times sloppily, as hierarchal threads written
face groups in critical thinking, personal by many users instead of linear texts with a single author.
perspective sharing, and task-focused The changing reality outside school walls justifies
interaction. Face-to-face participants rated preparing students to engage with these kinds of texts in
group cohesion and group effectiveness school.
higher than CMC participants did, while
CMC participants revealed lower levels of
evaluation apprehension and peer
influence.143 26
Skills for life, skills for work
27
New Goals for Secondary Civics Curriculum
28
Points to Remember When Planning Civics
Curriculum
29
Conclusion
30
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