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Muralidharan

SOLAR ENERGY

• Sunlight is a portion of the electromagnetic

radiation given off by the Sun, in particular
infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light.
• On Earth, sunlight is filtered through Earth's
atmosphere, and is obvious as daylight when
the Sun is above the horizon.

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• Solar energy originates with the

thermonuclear fusion reactions occurring in
the sun.
• This energy consists of radiant light and
heat energy from the sun.
• Out of all energy emitted by sun only a
small fraction of energy is absorbed by the
earth.
• Just this tiny fraction of the sun’s energy is
enough to meet all our power needs.

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Absorption and reflection

• Part of the radiation reaching an object is
absorbed and the remainder reflected.
• Usually the absorbed radiation is converted to
thermal energy, increasing the object's
temperature.
• Manmade or natural systems, however, can
convert part of the absorbed radiation into
another form such as electricity or chemical
bonds, as in the case of photovoltaic cells
or plants.

Solar Irradiance
• Solar irradiance is the power per unit area
received from the Sun in the form of
electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength
range of the measuring instrument.
• Total solar irradiance (TSI), is a measure of the
solar power over all wavelengths per unit area
incident on the Earth's upper atmosphere.
– While the solar irradiance above the atmosphere
varies with the Earth-Sun distance and solar cycles, the
losses depend on the time of day (length of light's path
through the atmosphere depending on the Solar
elevation angle), cloud cover, moisture content, and
other impurities.

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Insolation
Insolation is the power received on Earth per unit
area on a horizontal surface.

Direct/Beam
Insolation
Diffused

• Direct/Beam insolation is the solar

insolation measured at a given location on
Earth with a surface element perpendicular
to the Sun's rays, excluding diffuse insolation
(the solar radiation that is scattered or
reflected by atmospheric components in the
sky).
Direct insolation = solar irradiance above - the atmospheric losses due to
the atmosphere absorption and scattering

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• Diffuse sky radiation is solar radiation

reaching the Earth's surface after having
been scattered from the direct solar beam by
molecular suspensoids in the atmosphere. It
is also called skylight, diffuse skylight, or sky
radiation and is the reason for changes in the
color of the sky.

Geographical variation in the intensity

of Sunlight

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• Annual variations in day length for locations at the

equator, 30°, 50°, 60°, and 70° North latitude.

Solar Constant (Isc)

• Solar constant (Isc) : Total energy received from the sun per unit
time on a surface of unit area kept perpendicular to the
radiation in space just outside the earth’s atmosphere when
the earth is at its mean distance from the sun.
• A standard value of solar constant is 1353 W/m2.
• The earth is closer to the sun in the summer and furthest away
in the winter. This variation in distance produces a nearly
sinusoidal variation in the intensity of solar radiation that
reaches earth.
• The value on any day can be calculated from
  360n 
I EXT  I SC 1  0.033 cos 
  365 
where n is the day of the year. IEXT is the extra terrestrial radiation.

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• The days are longer around the summer solstice and

shorter around the winter solstice. When the Sun's
path crosses the equator, the length of the nights at
latitudes +L° and -L° are of equal length. This is known
as an equinox. There are two solstices and
two equinoxes in a tropical year.

ைத, மா , பங் னி, த் ைர, ைவகா , மற் ம் ஆனி

உத்த ராயனம்
உத் த ராயனம் (Northward movement of sun)
(Northward movement of sun)

த னாயணம் த னாயணம்
(Southward movement of sun) (Southward movement of sun)

ஆ , ஆவணி, ரட்டா , ஐப் ப , கார்த் ைக, மார்க

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• Monthly values of available insolation in Wm-2 for the

equator, 30 °, 60 ° and 90° North.

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SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY

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Earth-sun distance

Earth’s geometry

Northern
Hemisphere

Southern
Hemisphere

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LOCATION OF NEWDELHI
28° 36′ 50.02″ N, 77° 12′ 32.42″ E

• Latitude (Angle of latitude- ) :

– The latitude of a location on the earth’s surface
is the angle made by radial line joining the given
location to the centre of the earth with its
projection on the equator plane.

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• Declination () : It is defined as the angular

displacement of the sun from the plane of the earth’s
equator. It is positive when measured above the
equatorial plan in the northern hemisphere. The
declination can be determined from the equation
 360
  23.45 x sin  284  n  deg rees
 365 
where n is the day of the year counted from January
1.

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• Hour angle () :

– The hour angle at any moment is the angle through
which the earth must return to bring the meridian
of the observer directly in line with the sun’s rays.
In other words, at any moment, it is the angular
displacement of the sun towards east or west of
local meridian(due to rotation of the earth on its
axis).
=[solar time – 12:00] in hours X 15 degrees

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• Inclination angle (altitude) - 

– The angle between the sun’s ray and its projection
on a horizontal surface is known as the inclination
angle.

• Zenith angle (z)

– It is the angle between the sun’s ray and the
perpendicular (normal) to the horizontal plane.

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• Solar Azimuth angle (s)

– It is the angle on a
horizontal plane,
between the line due
south and the
projection of the sun
rays on the horizontal
plane. It is taken as +ve
when measured from
south towards west.

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• Slope(Tilt angle )
– It is the angle between the inclined plane surface
(collector), under consideration and the horizontal.
It is taken to be positive for the surface sloping
towards south.

• Surface Azimuth angle ()

– It is the angle in the horizontal plane, between the
line due south and the horizontal projection of the
normal to the inclined plane surface(collector).
– It is +ve when measured from south towards west.

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Solar azimuth angle is the angle

between line due south and the
projection of sun rays on horizontal
plane.

Surface azimuth angle is the angle between

line due south and the projection of normal
to the surface on horizontal plane.

• Angle of incidence (i):

– It is the angle between the sun’s ray incident on the
plane surface (collector) and the normal to that
surface.

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• Air Mass (AM)

– This term is used as a measure of the distance
travelled by beam radiation through the
atmosphere before it reaches a location on the
earth’s surface.
– It defined as the ratio of the mass of the
atmosphere through which the beam radiation
passes to the mass it would pass through if the
sun is directly overhead(ie. at its zenith).
– one airmass is the amount of air directly above an
observer

For a path length “L” through the atmosphere, the solar

radiation incident at angle “z” relative to the normal to
the earth’s surface, the air mass coefficient is :

where “L0” is the zeroth path length(ie. Normal to the

earth’s surface at seal level) and “z” is the zenith angle in
degrees.
The air mass number is thus dependent on the Sun’s elevation path
through the sky and therefore varies with time of the day and with the
passing seasons of the year, and with the latitude of the observer.

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The spectrum outside the atmosphere, is referred to as "AM0", meaning "zero

atmospheres". Solar cells used for space power applications, like those on
communications satellites are generally characterized using AM0.

The spectrum after travelling through the atmosphere to sea level with the sun directly
overhead is referred to, by definition, as "AM1". This means "one atmosphere".

"AM1.5” atmosphere thickness, corresponds to a solar zenith angle of z=48.2°. Similarly

AM2 corresponds to z=60° to AM3 z=70°.

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Parameter Definition Notation

Declination It is defined as the angular displacement of the sun from 
the plane of the earth’s equator.
Hour angle The hour angle at any moment is the angle through which 
the earth must return to bring the meridian of the
observer directly in line with the sun’s rays.
Inclination angle It is the angle between the sun’s ray and its projection on 
a horizontal surface is known as the inclination angle.
Zenith angle It is the angle between the sun’s ray and the z
perpendicular (normal) to the horizontal plane.
Solar Azimuth It is the angle on a horizontal plane, between the line due s
angle south and the projection of the sun’s ray on the
horizontal plane.
Slope(Tilt angle) It is the angle between the inclined plane surface 
(collector), under consideration and the horizontal.
Angle of It is the angle between the sun’s ray incident on the plane i
incidence surface (collector) and the normal to that surface.
Surface Azimuth It is the angle in the horizontal plane, between the line 
angle due south and the horizontal projection of the normal to
the inclined plane surface(collector).

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Angle of Incidence on Horizontal and

Inclined Planes
cos  i  cos  cos   sin  sin  cos  cos
 cos  
cos  sin  sin  sin   sin  sin  cos   cos  sin  cos  
where
 i  Angle of incidence
  Latitude
  Tilt angle
  Surface Azimuth Angle
  HourAngle
  Declinatio n Angle

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Solar Day Length

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Contd..

•
Solar Time
Solar time is measured with reference to “solar noon”, which is the time when the
sun is crossing the observer’s meridian. The sun traverses each degree of longitude
in 4 minutes.
• The solar time is converted to solar time by incorporating two corrections,as follows
Solar time  Standard time  4(Lst  Lloc )  E
where LST & LLOC are the standard Longitude used for measuring standard of the
country and Longitude of the observer’s location.
The + sign is used if the standard meridian of the country lies in the western
hemisphere (with reference to prime meridian) and –ve if that lies in the eastern
hemisphere. E is the correction arising out of the variation in the length of the solar
day due to variations in the earth’s rotation and orbital revolution, and is called the
“equation of time”. E can be determined either by
E  9.87 sin 2B - 7.53 cos B - 1.5 sin B .... minutes
 360 
where B   n  81
 364 

• Solar day which is the duration between two solar noons is not exactly 24 hours
throughout the year.

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MEASURING SOLAR RADIATION

AND SUNSHINE

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• A pyranometer is a type of actinometer used

for measuring solar irradiance on a planar
surface and it is designed to measure the solar
radiation flux density (W/m2) from the
hemisphere above within a wavelength range
0.3 μm to 3 μm.
Thermopile
Pyranometer

Photodiode-based
Pyranometer
Pyranometer

Photovoltaic
pyranometer

A solar radiation sensor that can be applied in scientific grade solar radiation
observations. It complies with the "secondary standard" specifications within
the latest ISO and WMO standards. The scientific name of this instrument is
Thermopile pyranometer.

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Construction
• Outer dome made from a hemisphere of optical-quality glass.
• Inner dome made from a smaller hemisphere of optical glass.
• Black carbon disk (illuminated by the Sun) absorbs a broad range of
wavelengths of solar radiation and acts as the sensing element.
• Second, control disk (not illuminated by the Sun) acts as a
comparison and compensating element. Any sources of temperature
rise other than solar heat (perhaps an air-conditioning unit
positioned nearby) will warm both disks equally, so we can be
reasonably confident that the difference between the two disks (and
the temperature rise we're measuring) is caused only by the Sun.
• Thermopile temperature sensor compares the temperature rise of
the two disks.
• Output lead (usually about 10m or 30ft long).
• Replaceable silica gel cartridge (dessicant) absorbs moisture to
prevent dew forming inside on cold nights.
• Adjustable screw legs let you level the pyranometer using its built-in,
high-precision spirit level, which is sensitive to a fraction of a degree
(not shown on this diagram).

Working Principle
• The thermoelectric detection principle is used
– incoming radiation is almost completely absorbed by a
horizontal blackened surface.
– The resulting increase of temperature is measured via
thermocouples connected in series or series-parallel to
make a thermopile.

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• The active (hot) junctions are located beneath the

blackened receiver surface and are heated by the
radiation absorbed in the black coating.
• The passive (cold) junctions of the thermopile are
in thermal contact with the pyranometer housing,
which serves as a heat-sink.
• More recent, higher performance, pyranometers
use a Peltier element. This is also thermoelectric,
but the dissimilar metals of a thermocouple /
thermopile are replaced by dissimilar
semiconductors

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• It is necessary to protect the black detector coating

against external influences which may affect the
measurement; such as precipitation, dirt and wind.
Nearly all pyranometers use an optical quality glass
for their hemispherical single or double domes.

• Depending upon the glass, the transmission is from

300 nm or less to about 3000 nm. Double domes
give better stability under dynamically changing
conditions by further ‘insulating’ the sensor surface
from environmental effects such as wind and rapid
temperature fluctuations.
• The shape of the dome, and the refractive index of
the material, improves the response of the sensor
when the sun is close to the horizon, ‘bending’ the
incoming radiation beam. The higher refractive
index further improves the directional response and
better thermal conductivity than glass provides
other performance benefits.

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• The detector generates a small voltage in

proportion to the temperature difference between
the black absorbing surface and the instrument
housing. This is of the order of 10 µV (microvolts)
per W/m2, so on a sunny day the output will be
around 10 mV (millivolts).
• Each pyranometer has a unique sensitivity, defined
during the calibration process, which is used to
convert the output signal in microvolts into global
irradiance in W/m2.

• Pyranometers measure the global solar radiation,

i.e.; they receive both direct and diffuse components
of radiation.
• The same instrument can be used to measure
diffuse radiation by shielding the sensor element
from direct radiation.
• The shielding of direct radiation is accomplished by
fitting a shading ring of predesigned width the
shadow of which just shields the sensor of the
pyranometer.
• The ring needs an adjustment once a day, such that
the path of the sun from sunrise to sunset is included
in the plane formed by the shading ring and its base
diameter.

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• Though, all the pyranometers described produce an electric

output, which can be read out by a millivoltmeter or a
microvoltmeter, continuous recording for subsequent
integration ( to obtain, hourly, or daily totals ) need
recorders and or integrators that need uninterrupted power
supply.
• In the absence of which power failures, not only disrupt the
recording, may also cause initialization problems and the
readings become suspect.

Shading ring pyronamometer

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PYRHELIOMETER
• A pyrheliometer is an instrument for measurement
of direct beam solar irradiance.
• Sunlight enters the instrument through a window
and is directed onto a thermopile which converts
heat to an electrical signal that can be recorded.
• The signal voltage is converted via a formula to
measure watts per square metre. It is used with a
solar tracking system to keep the instrument
aimed at the sun. A pyrheliometer is often used in
the same setup with a pyranometer.

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Pyrheliometer: (1) protection cap, (2) window with

heater, (3) sight, (5) sensor, (7) humidity indicator,
(10) cable connection

• The tube is aligned with the direction of the sun’s

rays with the help of a two axis tracking mechanism
and an alignment indicator. Thus the black plat
receives only beam radiation and a small amount
of diffused radiation falling within the acceptance
angle of the instrument.

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SUNSHINE RECORDER
• A sunshine recorder is a device that records the
amount of sunshine at a given location. The results
provide information about the weather and climate as
well as the temperature of a geographical area. This
information is useful in meteorology, science,
agriculture, tourism, and other fields. It has also been
called a heliograph.
• There are two basic types of sunshine recorders. One
type uses the sun itself as a time-scale for the
sunshine readings. The other type uses some form of
clock for the time scale.

• Sunshine recorder essentially consists of a

glass sphere mounted in a spherical bowl and a
metallic groove which holds a record card.
Sun's rays are refracted and focused sharply on
the record card beneath the glass sphere,
leaving burnt marks on the card

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Burn marks on the record card

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PROBLEM 1

i) -90° ii)-45° iii) 0° iv) 45° v)90° vi) 135°

PROBLEM 2

Solar time  Standard time  4(Lst  Lloc )  E

Mumbai is in Eastern hemisphere hence –ve sign

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Problem 3

Hint :

 360
  23.45 x sin  284  n deg rees
 365 

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PROBLEM 4

 360
Hint :   23.45 x sin  284  n  deg rees
 365 

Problem 5

Hint :

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Problem 6

 360
HINT :   23.45 x sin  284  n  deg rees
 365 

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Problem 7

 360
HINT :   23.45 x sin  284  n  deg rees
 365 

Case 2 : 21st December

Find n =
Find  =
Find s =

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