Philosophical Foundations of Education

The philosophical foundation of curriculum helps determine the driving purpose of

education, as well as the roles of the various participants. While all foundations
propose to set goals of curriculum, philosophy presents the manner of thinking from
which those goals are created.

The major philosophies of education can be broken down into three main types:
teacher-centered philosophies, student-centered philosophies, and society-centered
philosophies. These include Essentialism, Perennialism, Progressivism, Social
Reconstructionism, Existentialism, Behaviorism, Constructivism, Conservatism, and
Humanism.

Essentialism and Perennialism are the two types of teacher-centered philosophies of

education. Essentialism is currently the leading style of public education in the United
States. It is the teaching of basic skills that have been proven over time to be needed
in society. Perennialism focuses on the teaching of great works.

There are three types of student-centered philosophies of education. Progressivism

focuses on developing the student’s moral compass. Humanism is about fostering
each student to his or her fullest potential. Constructivism focuses on using education
to shape a student’s world view.

There are two types of socially-centered philosophies of education.

Reconstructionism is the perspective that education is the means to solve social
problems. Behaviorism focuses on cultivating behaviors that are beneficial to society.

Idealism
Proponent: Plato

Idealistic philosophy in education emphasizes ‘the exaltation of personality’, which is

the result of self-realization, achieved by spiritual knowledge, self-discipline and
dignified teacher. Idealism assigns a very important place to the teacher who is
respected as a guide, and philosopher. They emphasize the importance of moral and
spiritual education and points out the values of humanities, social sciences, art and
literature. It emphasizes man’s perfection in various facets of life-physical, spiritual,
intellectual, moral, esthetic and social.

Teaching methods focus on handling ideas through lecture, discussion, and Socratic
dialogue (a method of teaching that uses questioning to help students discover and
clarify knowledge). Introspection, intuition, insight, and whole-part logic are used to
bring to consciousness the forms or concepts which are latent in the mind. Character
is developed through imitating examples and heroes.
Idealism assigns a special role to the teacher. It considers teacher as a spiritual guide
for the child. The teacher serves as a living model for the student. He sets the
environment in which education takes place. He carries the child from darkness to
light. He is to guide the student towards utmost possible perfection

Idealism considers student as an individuals with inner potentials. Education should

help the student to realize these potentials. Curriculum should consist of those
knowledge and experiences which help the student to attained development. The
teacher should impart essentials of knowledge and assist to develop moral and
aesthetic values in the child.

Essentialism
Proponent: William Bagley

This philosophy advocates training the mind. Essentialist educators focus on

transmitting a series of progressively difficult topics and promotion of students to the
next level or grade. Subjects are focused on the historical context of the material
world and culture, and move sequentially to give a solid understanding of the present
day. This philosophy stresses core knowledge in reading, writing, math, science,
history, foreign language, and technology. The tools include lecturing, memorization,
repetition, practice, and assessment.

In the essentialist system, students are required to master a set body of information
and basic techniques for their grade level before they are promoted to the next higher
grade. The content gradually moves towards more complex skills and detailed
knowledge. Essentialists argue that classrooms should be teacher-oriented. The
teacher should serve as an intellectual and moral role model for the students. The
teachers or administrators decide what is most important for the students to learn with
little regard to the student interests. The teachers also focus on achievement test
scores as a means of evaluating progress.

Students in this system would sit in rows and be taught in masses. The students
would learn passively by sitting in their desks and listening to the teacher. An example
of essentialism would be lecture based introduction classes taught at universities.
Students sit and take notes in a classroom which holds over one hundred students.
They take introductory level courses in order to introduce them to the content.

a. Why teach?
-learners to acquire basic knowledge, skills and values.
-to transmit the traditional moral values and intellectual knowledge that students need
to become model citizens

b. What to teach?
-programs are academically rigorous-the basic skill or the fundamental r’s –reading,
‘riting, ‘rithmetic, right conduct needed in preparation for adult life.
-traditional discipline –Math, natural Science, History, Foreign Languages and
Literature
-frown upon vocational courses
-what is most important and place little emphasis on students interest

c. How to teach?
-emphasize mastery of subject matter
-teachers fountain of information and paragon of virtue
-teachers observe “core requirements, longer school days and a longer academic
year”
-rely heavily on the use of prescribed textbooks
-heavy stress on memorization and discipline

Progressivism
Proponent: John Dewey

In our progressive approach, we see the individual child’s curiosities, abilities and
learning style as important factors in designing, differentiating and assessing each
student’s learning. We encourage children to follow their interests, pursue problems in
a way that makes sense to them and defend their conclusions by explaining their
thinking in a variety of ways. We engage students with hands-on investigations,
projects and design challenges across the grades and subject areas inspiring greater
interest, depth and understanding. Our approach values the skills involved in
formulating one’s own questions, as well as answering those of a teacher. We view
mistakes as important opportunities for both learning and assessment.

Progressivists believe that individuality, progress, and change are fundamental to

one's education. Believing that people learn best from what they consider most
relevant to their lives, progressivists center their curricula on the needs, experiences,
interests, and abilities of students. Progressivist teachers try making school
interesting and useful by planning lessons that provoke curiosity. In a progressivist
school, students are actively learning. The students interact with one another and
develop social qualities such as cooperation and tolerance for different points of view.
In addition, students solve problems in the classroom similar to those they will
encounter in their everyday lives. Progressivists believe that education should be a
process of ongoing growth, not just a preparation for becoming an adult. An obvious
example of progressivism would be our class. We are in groups a lot and we actively
learn through discussion.

Perennialism
Proponents: Thomas Aquinas/Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler

Perennialism is sometimes referred to as “culturally conservative,” because it does

not challenge gender stereotypes, incorporate multiculturalism, or expose and
 advocate technology, as would be expected of contemporary literature.

Perennialist classrooms are also centered on teachers in order to accomplish these

goals. The teachers are not concerned about the students' interests or experiences.
They use tried and true teaching methods and techniques that are believed to be
most beneficial to disciplining students' minds. The perennialist curriculum is universal
and is based on their view that all human beings possess the same essential nature.
Perennialists think it is important that individuals think deeply, analytically, flexibly,
and imaginatively. They emphasize that students should not be taught information
that may soon be outdated or found to be incorrect. Perennialists disapprove of
teachers requiring students to absorb massive amounts of disconnected information.
They recommend that schools spend more time teaching about concepts and
explaining they are meaningful to students.

The goal of a perennialist education is to teach students to think rationally and

develop minds that can think critically. A perennialist classroom aims to be a closely
organized and well-disciplined environment, which develops in students a lifelong
quest for the truth.

a. Why teach?
-we are all rational animals
-develop the students’ rational and moral powers

b. What to teach?
-curriculum is universal or general-heavy on the humanities, general education
-less emphasis on vocational and technical education
-what the perennialist teachers teach are lifted from the Great Books

c. How to teach?
-centered around teachers
-students engaged in Socratic dialogues or mutual inquiry sessions to develop an
understanding of history’s most timeless concepts.

Existentialism
Proponent: Sӧren Kierkegaard, Martin Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Albert
Camus.

Existentialism in education is a teaching and learning philosophy that focuses on the

student’s freedom and agency to choose their future. Existentialist educators believe
there is no god or higher power guiding their students. Thus, they encourage all
students to exercise personal agency and create their own meaning for life.

The teacher in existentialist education is there to provide pathways for students to

explore their own values, meanings, and choices. In order to do this, learners need to
be aware of as many options and choices as possible; they need to feel empowered
 and free to determine their own values and identities; and they need a multiplicity of
experiences to enhance their self-awareness. The teacher’s primary responsibility is
to provide all these things, and to maintain a learning environment where students
feel encouraged to express themselves through discussion, creative projects, and
choice of study areas

The role of the student is to determine their own values and identity. Existentialist
education recognizes the role of both culture and individual nature in identity
formation. The existentialist student maintains a dialogue between the self and
cultural values: considering the self in cultural context, and considering cultural values
in relation to the self.

a. Why Teach?
-to help students understand and appreciate themselves as unique individual who
accept complete responsibility for their thoughts, feelings and action.
-to help students define their own essence by exposing them to various paths
-education of the whole person

b. What to teach?
-students are given a wide variety of options from which they to choose
-tremendous emphasis is given to Humanities to provide students with vicarious
experiences that will help unleash their own creativity and self-expression
-vocational education is regarded more-encourage creativity and imagination
c. How to teach?

-Focus on individual-learning is self-paced, self-directed.

-great deal of individual contact with the teacher-employ values clarification strategy

Behaviorism
Proponent: Edward Thorndike

Behaviourist pedagogy, or behaviourism, looks at the observable actions of students

and assesses whether they are learning as effectively as possible.

The central belief of a behaviourist is that students learn through reinforcement -

constant feedback that tells them whether what they are doing is right or wrong. This
comes in the form of test scores, homework marks and more. Behaviorism assumes
humans are like animals, ignores the internal cognitive processes that underlie
behavior, and focuses solely on changes in observable behavior.

However, behaviourism has its critics. Some say that the approach disregards student
identity and individuality, whilst other pedagogical theorists claim it studies actions of
the body rather than that of the brain, and is therefore inept at assessing real learning.
An example of behaviorism is when teachers reward their class or certain students
with a party or special treat at the end of the week for good behavior throughout the
 week. The same concept is used with punishments. The teacher can take away
certain privileges if the student misbehaves.

Despite this, schools still employ behaviourist techniques in the classroom on a

regular basis. Whilst it might not be effective in its purest form, elements of
behaviourism are still crucial to the modern curriculum and the teaching of our
students.

a. Why teach?
-modification and shaping of student’s behavior by providing a favorable environment

b. What to teach?
-look people and other animals as complex combination of matter that act only in
response to internally or externally physical stimuli.
-teach students to respond favorably to various stimuli in the environment.

c. How to teach?
-ought to arrange environment conditions
-ought to make the stimuli clear and interesting to capture and hold the learners’
attention.
-ought to provide appropriate incentives to reinforce positive responses to awaken or
eliminate negative ones.

Linguistic Philosophy
Proponent: Gottlob Frege

Linguistic philosophy is a unique approach towards understanding languages and

philosophy. It is a methodical and analytical study of a language to understand it
better and includes the analyses of its structure, meaning, development and evolution
through times and its varied interpretation accordingly.

Linguistic philosophy believes and wants its students to believe that solutions to
philosophical problems can be found by reformation of the language or a deeper and
better comprehension of the language.

a. Why teach?
-to develop the communication skills of the learners
-to develop in the learner the skill to send message clearly and receive messages
correctly.

b. What to teach?
-learners should be taught to communicate clearly

Communication takes place in three ways: verbal, nonverbal and paraverbal

 Verbal–the content of our message, the choice and arrangement of our words.
 This can be oral or written.
 Nonverbal–the message we send through body language.
 Paraverbal–refers to how we say what we say –tone, pacing and volume of our
voices.

 Teach learners to use language that is correct, precise, grammatical, coherent,

and accurate.
 Help student expand their vocabularies
 Teach the learner how to communicate clearly
 Caution the learners of the verbal and non-verbal barriers of communication
 Teach the learner to speak as many language as you can

c. How to teach?
-teach language and communication through experiential way.
-make the classroom a place for the interplay of minds and hearts.
-facilitates dialogue among learners because in the exchange of words there is also
an exchange of ideas.

Constructivism
Proponent: Jean Piaget

Constructivism is the theory that says learners construct knowledge rather than just
passively take in information. As people experience the world and reflect upon those
experiences, they build their own representations and incorporate new information
into their pre-existing knowledge (schemas).

Related to this are the processes of assimilation and accommodation.

 Assimilation refers to the process of taking new information and fitting it into an
existing schema.
 Accommodation refers to using newly acquired information to revise and
redevelop an existing schema.

Consequences of constructivist theory are that:

 Students learn best when engaged in learning experiences rather passively
receiving information.
 Learning is inherently a social process because it is embedded within a social
context as students and teachers work together to build knowledge.
 Because knowledge cannot be directly imparted to students, the goal of
teaching is to provide experiences that facilitate the construction of knowledge.

There are four key areas that are crucial to the success of a constructivist classroom:
 The instructor takes on the role of a facilitator instead of a director.
 There are equal authority and responsibility between the students and the
instructor.
 Learning occurs in small groups.
  Knowledge is shared between both the students and the instructor.

a. Why teach?
-to develop intrinsically motivated and independent learners adequately equipped with
learning skills for them to be able to construct knowledge and make meaning of them.

b. What to teach?
-learners are taught how to learn, learning processes and skills

c. How to teach?
-teacher provides students with data or experiences that allow them to hypothesize,
predict, manipulate objects, pose questions, research, investigate, imagine and
invent.
-constructivist classroom is interactive
-promotes dialogical exchange of ideas among learners and between teachers and
students.
-teacher’s role is to facilitate the process.

 Knowledge is constructed by learners through an active, mental process of

development.
 The minds are full of ideas waiting to be midwifed by the teacher with his/her
skillful facilitating skills.

Realism
Proponent: Aristotle

Educational realism is the belief that we should study logic, critical thinking, and the
scientific method to teach students to perceive and understand reality. As you might
imagine, there is a heavy emphasis on math and science, though the humanities can
also be influenced by educational realism.

Education should provide to the pupil and insight with the help of which he may make
sensible choices and decisions in order to lead a successful and pleasurable life.

Realism wants that the natural tendencies and activities of the child should not be
repressed and that the child should be helped to develop up to his utmost perfection
so that he may control the natural environment to his best advantage.

The Realist curriculum emphasizes the subject matter of the physical world,
particularly science and mathematics. The teacher organizes and presents content
systematically within a discipline, demonstrating use of criteria in making decisions.
Teaching methods focus on mastery of facts and basic skills through demonstration
and recitation. Students must also demonstrate the ability to think critically and
scientifically, using observation and experimentation. Curriculum should be
scientifically approached, standardized, and distinct-discipline based. Character is
 developed through training in the rules of conduct.

Realism considers the child as a dynamic and growing entity ready to face reality of
life. The laws of nature control the child. The aim of education is to prepare the child
to face. Hence the realist suggest that the curriculum should be broad based and
include variety of subjects, especially science subjects. While selecting the subjects,
the learner’s background and social demand should be considered. Realism suggests
objective methods of teaching. Importance must be given to observation,
experimentation and activities. According to realism discipline is developed by
controlling environment.

Reconstructionism
Proponent: Theodore Burghard Hurt Brameld

Social Reconstructionism is an educational philosophy that views schools as tools to

solve social problems. Social reconstructionists reason that, because all leaders are
the product of schools, schools should provide a curriculum that fosters their
development. Reconstructionists not only aim to educate a generation of problem
solvers, but also try to identify and correct many noteworthy social problems that face
our nation. Rather than a philosophy of education, reconstructionism may be referred
to as more of a remedy for a society that seeks to build a more objective social order.

Reconstructionist want teachers to be social activist. They believe the improvement in

society results from continuous thoughtful change and the best change agent is the
educational process. Teachers need to focus on critical issues and allow students to
have an active say in education.

The reconstructionist classroom contains a teacher who involves the students in

discussions of moral dilemmas to understand the implications of one’s actions.
Students individually select their objectives and social priorities and then, with
guidance from the teacher, create a plan of action to make the change happen.

With the implementation of social reconstructionism in education, a student can gain

first-hand experience in studying real social problems and controversial issues. The
curriculum applied to education reflects democratic ideals and "emphasize civic
education". This education helps student to think in critical terms and expose their
assumptions and practices. Lack of proper structure and some type of confusion and
frustration created between students are limitation of social reconstructionism in
education.

Eastern Philosophies
Proponent: Zou Yan

Eastern philosophy is derived from Islam, Confucianism, Taoism and Mahayana

 Buddhism. This, is fundamentally influence the system of life, and certainly creates
their education system.

Eastern Philosophy is a diverse body of approaches to life and philosophizing,

particularly centered on understanding the process of the Universe and the endless
"becoming". In Western culture, the term Eastern Philosophy refers very broadly to
the various philosophies of "the East," namely Asia, including China, India, and
Japan. Eastern thought developed independently of Western and Islamic thought, but
has greatly influenced both in Modern times. Eastern Philosophy does not have the
rigid academic traditions found in Western thinking.

The Student Involvement within Classroom Activity

 prefer passive learning
 The Eastern normally obtained the knowledge directly from their teachings of
religion, such as Islam, Buddhism, Confucianism, Hinduism and Taoism.
 teaching and learning process through Eastern education philosophy stresses
on the major outcomes from the teachers
 teachers are fully responsible on the class effectiveness, by preparing and
planning all the activities for their students
 the students are not trained or required to do anything, but every materials are
given by the teachers
 they are not required to carry out any research on the topics that are going to
be discussed in the next lesson, but only responsible to receive input from their
teachers

The Ways of Teaching Process

 holds on to the concept of teaching
 Students receive fully knowledge from the teachers inside the classroom
 Students in a way receive knowledge in a rigid way as they only seem to learn
and study straightly from the teachers

The Expression of Learning Process

 the students practice the concept of memorizing, as this philosophy focuses
mainly on book learning and memorization within the teaching and learning
process
 the students practice the concept of memorizing, as this philosophy focuses
mainly on book learning and memorization within the teaching and learning
process
 Eastern education philosophy emphasizes on conformity and originality.
Students have tons of school rules to follow and such rules main aim is to
produce perfect students.

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