Chapter 1 IT ERA
Chapter 1 IT ERA
Chapter 1 IT ERA
Learning Outcome
Learning Contents
It is an extensional term for information technology (IT) that stresses the role of
unified communications and the integration of telecommunications (telephone lines
and wireless signals) and computers, as well as necessary enterprise software,
middleware, storage, and audiovisual systems, that enable users to access, store,
transmit, and manipulate information
The term ICT is also used to refer to the convergence of audiovisual and telephone
networks with computer networks through a single cabling or link system. There are
large economic incentives to merge the telephone network with the computer network
system using a single unified system of cabling, signal distribution, and management.
ICT is a broad subject and the concepts are evolving. It covers any product that will
store, retrieve, manipulate, transmit, or receive information electronically in a digital
form (e.g., personal computers, digital television, email, or robots). Theoretical
differences between interpersonal-communication technologies and mass-
communication technologies have been identified by the philosopher Piyush Mathur.
Skills Framework for the Information Age is one of many models for describing and
managing competencies for ICT professionals for the 21st century.
GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS
Generations of Computers
milliseconds
Electromagnetic relay
memory
Second (1956-1963)
• Assembly Faster, smaller, more Honeywell 400
Language reliable and easier to IBM 7030
Figure 2.16.
Magnetic cores
memory
• Magnetic tapes
Disks for secondary storage
Third (1964-1971)
Fourth (1971-present)
• Operating Small, affordable, IBM PC and its systems for PCs reliable, and
easy to clones
with GUI and
use PCs Apple II
multiple windows More powerful and TRS-80 on a single
reliable mainframe VAX 9000
Figure 2.17. terminal screen systems and • CRAY-1
Microprocessors or
• Multiprocessing supercomputers • CRAY-2
Large Scale IC
OS with concurrent • Totally general purpose • CRAY-X/MP
• Microprocessors;
programming machines
semiconductor
languages • Easier to produce
memory
• UNIX operating commercially
• Larger capacity hard
system with C • Easier to upgrade
disks as inbuilt
programming • Rapid software
secondary storage
language development possible
• Magnetic tapes and
• Object-oriented • Processing speed:
floppy disks as
design and picoseconds
portable storage
programming
media
• PC, Networkbased,
• Pointing devices like
and
mouse and handled
supercomputing
devices applications
• Personal computers
• Supercomputers
based on parallel
vector processing
and symmetric
multiprocessing
technologies Spread
of highspeed
computer networks
Classification of Computers
A. According to Purpose
1. General-purpose digital computer. This is also called all-purpose digital computer. It
can be used for any type of application.
Ex.: Computers that are used for payroll, graphics, analysis, etc.
2. Special purpose digital computer. These computers designed to solve problems of a
restricted type i.e. designed to be especially efficient in a certain class of applications.
Ex.: Embedded systems like ATM machines.
B. According to Data Handled
1. Analog Computers. Computers that are in which numerical magnitudes are
represented by physical quantities, such as electric current, voltage or
resistance, mechanical movements, pressure or temperature. Analog
computers accept data and then process it to produce analog data.
2. Digital Computers. Work with values that are in a discrete form (or data that can be counted).
They are used for business applications, and also scientific operations,
and are ideal when 100% accuracy is desired, thus resulting to data that
are exact in values.
Figure 2.20. Digital Computer
a. Microcomputers
Small computers which are portable.
Uses microprocessor (the CPU on a chip), Read-
Only Memory (ROM) and a Random Access
Memory (RAM). It is sometimes known as a
Single-Chip Processor.Examples: Desktop and floor standing units,
Luggable,Laptops,Notebooks, Pocket PC’s
Figure 2.22. Desktop Computer
and Pen Computers.
b. Minicomputers
These are machines that are in the middle of
microcomputers and mainframes in terms of cost
and capability. Medium-capacity computer that is
larger than a microcomputer but smaller than most
mainframes. A minicomputer can handle a larger
amount of data than a microcomputer and can
perform most of the functions of a mainframe.
These acts as ‘servers’, which are connected to
several workstations or terminals.
Figure 2.23. Minicomputers
c. Mainframes.
The oldest category, air-cooled ,bigger in
sizes, about the size of a jeep and a powerful
computer, often serving many connected terminals
and usually used by large complex organizations like
banks, airlines and insurance companies that
Figure 2.24. IBM 370 handles millions of transactions.
d. Supercomputers
The biggest and fastest computers. They can
perform 50 million instructions per second and are used
in applications such as nuclear weapon development and
accurate weather forecasting. These are the fastest
calculating device ever invented.
Figure 2.25. IBM DEEP
COMPUTER SYSTEM
Hardware Humanware
Computer
System
It consists primarily of four basic units: the input unit, the storage units, the central
processing unit and the output unit. A computer performs five major operations or
functions regardless of its size and make.
These are:
• It accepts data or instructions as input;
• It stores data and instruction;
• It processes data as per the instructions; It controls all operations inside a
computer, and ; Its gives results in the form of output.
Secondary
Storage
Input Unit. It used for transfers’ raw data and control signals into the information
processing system by the user before processing and computation. All the input unit devices provide
the instructions and data are transformed into binary codes that is the primary memory acceptable
format.
The functions of the input unit are:
Central Processing Unit. This is called the brain of the computer system. It consists of three
parts namely, the control unit; the arithmetic logic unit; and the primary storage unit.
a. Control Unit
- It controls, manages and coordinates the operations of the entire computer
system.
b. Arithmetic Logic Unit
- It executes the instructions and performs all the calculations and decisions.
c. Primary Storage Unit
- It is also called as main memory
- the data which is to be output from the computer system is also
temporarily stored
- it is the storage section that holds the computer programs during
execution
- it Stores temporary results of intermediate processing
Output Unit. It give the results of the process and computations to the outside world. The
output units accept the results produced by the computer, convert them into a human readable form
and supply them to the users.
Computer hardware – It consists of internal and peripheral devices. All physical parts of the
computer or everything that we can touch.
e.g.:Input devices, output devices, central processing unit and storage devices
Computer software - also known as programs or applications. It gives “intelligence” to the
computer. They are classified into two classes namely - system software and
application software
Humanware – it is the person who operates computer. The user commands the computer
system to execute on instructions.
Hardware. It consists of all the machinery and equipment in a computer system. In general,
computer hardware is categorized according to which of the five computer operations it performs.
Input devices
Processing devices
Storage devices
Output devices
Input Devices. It is any electronic devices connected to a computer that produce input signals. It is
also used to enter the data and instructions into the computer.
- It translate data from form that humans understand to one that the computer can work with.
Barcode Reader
It is also known as
barcode scanner or point
of sale (POS) scanner, is
an input device capable
of reading barcodes.
Graphics Table
a memory card.
It is an electronically
extracting intended data from
marked fields, such as
checkboxes and fillinfields, on
printed forms. OMR
Handheld Scanner technology scans a printed
form and reads predefined
positions and records where
marks are
Flatbed Scanner
- Recording musical instruments -Recording voice for dictation, singing and podcasts
MIDI Keyboard
It is a controller keyboard, like a typically a piano-style electronic musical keyboard, often
with other buttons, wheels and sliders, used for sending MIDI signals or commands over a
USB or MIDI 5-pin cable to other musical devices or computers.
Pointing Deviceis an input device that allows a user to control a pointer on a screen. A
pointer is asmall symbolon the screen whose location and shape change as a user
moves a pointing device
Output Devices. Hardware that is capable of delivering or showing information to one or more
users. An output device displays, prints and presents the results of a computers work.
After processing the inputted data, the computer will give its output. This output can be in
two different formats:
1. Softcopy – Visual (monitor) or Sound (speakers)
2. Hardcopy – Output on a tangible (something you can touch) such as a printer
printout
Dot Matrix Printer Laser Printer Ink Jet Printer Thermal Printer
Storage Devices. It is any hardware device that is used for storing, porting and extracting data
files and objects. It can hold and store information either temporarily and permanently, and can be
internal or external to a computer.
Types of Computer Storage
1. Primary storage
2. Secondary storage
1. Primary Storage. Primary storage is the main memory in a computer. It stores data and
programs that can be accessed directly by the processor.
There are two types of primary storage which are RAM and ROM
RAM stores data during and after processing. ROM is another type of memory permanently
RAM is also known as a working memory. stored inside the computer.
The data in RAM can be read (retrieved) or All the contents in ROM can be accessed and read
written (stored). but cannot be changed.
RAM is volatile which means the programs and ROM is non-volatile. It holds the programs and
data in RAM are lost when the computer is data when the computer is powered off.
powered off.
2. Secondary Storage - Secondary storage is another alternative storage to save your work
and documents. This can be removable, internal, or external. It is very useful to store
programs and data for future use. It is non-volatile, which means that it does not need
power to maintain the information stored in it. It will store the information until it is
erased.
Secondary
Storage
b. Optical Medium. It is a non-volatile storage media, holds content in digital form that are
written and read by laser. These media include various types of CDs and DVDs.
Types of Optical Medium
CAPACITY. It refers to the number of bytes (characters) a storage medium can hold
1 Byte = 8 Bits 1 KB = 1024 Byte
1 Megabyte = 1024 Kilobyte 1GB = 1024 MB
1 Terabyte (TB) = 1 trillion byte 1 Petabyte (PB) = 1 quadrillion byte
1 Exabyte (EB) = 1 quintillion byte 1 Zetabyte (ZB) = 1 sextillion byte
1 Yotabyte (YB) = 1 septillion byte
Table 3.2. Different Storage Capacity
System Unit
The system unit is a boxlike case that houses the computer’s main hardware components
Parts of a System Unit
1. Motherboard/Mainboard. The motherboard is the main
circuit board holding the integrated circuits for the
microprocessor, memory, etc. The motherboard also supports
internal connectors for the hard disk drives & optical drives
(CD, DVD), etc, and external connectors for the mouse,
keyboard, printer, speakers, etc.
Figure . Optical
3.15 Drive
3. Optical Drive (CD/DVD). A DVD drive allows removable optical discs to be used to
store information.
4. Memory/RAM. Memory is the processor’s working area and is here all operations
actually take place while the computer is running.
Memory is also called Random Access Memory and consists of small memory ‘chips’
which fit into slots on the Figure 3.16. Memory motherboard.
Figure 3.18.
Processor and data
7. Heat Sink/Fan. This sits on top of the CPU and draws heat up into the
fins of the Heat Sink, and then the Fan pulls air up and through the fins cooling
them. That is how the CPU is stays cool, otherwise it would over heat and shut
down the
computer.
Figure 3.20. Heat Sink/Fan
13. CMOS Battery. It provides CMOS with the power when the
computer is turned off all motherboards comes with a battery.
These batteries mount on the motherboard in one of three ways: the
obsolete external battery, the most Figure 3.26. CMOS Battery
common onboard battery, and built-in battery.
CMOS – Complementary Metal Oxide Semi- Conductor
Computer Software
It refers to the set of computer programs, procedures that describe the programs, how they
are to be used. We can say that it is the collection of programs, which increase the capabilities of
the hardware. Software guides the computer at every step where to start and stop during a
particular job. The process of software development is called programming.
Computer software is a generic term for organized collections of code representing instructions
executed by a computer. Software is often written first as source code, and then converted to a
binary format that is specific to the device on which the code will be executed.
Categories of Software
Computer software is normally classified into two broad categories.
• System Software
• Application Software
SYSTEM SOFTWARE
It is responsible for controlling, integrating, and managing the individual
hardware components of a computer system so that the other software and the
users of the system see it as a functional unit without having to be concerned with
the low-level details such as transferring data from memory to disk, or rendering
text onto a display.
These are general programs designed for performing tasks such as controlling all
operations required to move data into and out of the computer.
It communicates with printers, card reader, disk, tapes etc. monitor the use of
various hardware like memory, CPU etc.
So without system software it is impossible to operate your computer. The following
diagram is shown in Figure 3.29 is the relation between hardware, software and you as a user of
computer system.
USERS
APPLICATION
SOFTWARE
SYSTEM
SOFTWARE
HARDWARE
1. Operating System
The part of the OS that manages the computer’s resources is known as the Kernel
(otherwise known as the supervisor program). It manages the computer’s resources (CPU,
memory and peripherals).
Batch Multitasking/Time
Operating Sharing OP
System
Multi-
Mobile Real Time
OS processing
OP OS
Distributed Network
OS OS
Network
OS
BATCH
U
U JOB
JOBS C
S
S OPERATING P
E
E JOB SYSTEM U
R
R JOBS
JOB BATCH
Word
Web OPERATING C
Browser SYSTEM P
U
Printing
3. Real time
User
Application Program
Hardware
Figure 3.35
. Real Time Operating System
Communication
Network
Network Operating System runs on a server. It provides the capability to serve to manage
data, user, groups, security, application, and other networking
functions.
File Server
Client
Client
• Is are those OS which is especially that are designed to allows and power
smartphones, tablets, and wearables devices to run applications and programs.
• Some most famous mobile operating systems are Android and iOS, but others
include BlackBerry, Web, and watchOS.
2. Utilities Programs
This are small, powerful programs with a limited capability, they are usually
operated by the user to maintain a smooth running of the computer system.
Various examples include file management, diagnosing problems and
finding out information about the computer etc. Notable examples of utility
programs include copy, paste, delete, and file searching, disk defragmenter,
disk cleanup.
3. Device Drivers
Specialized programs that allow communication between a device and the
computer. Loaded into memory each time a computer is started. When a
new device is added, new device drivers must be installed.
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
It is a type of software that performs task to directly
benefit or assist the user. It is installed on top of an Operating
System such as MS Windows.
Humanware
It is also called as the living ware. It refers to the users of the computer system,
either direct or indirect users.
System Computer
Analyst Operator
Computer
Engineers Software
Engineers
Project
Manager
Technicians
Database
Administrator Peopleware
Web Developer
Programmer Server
Administrator
Individual people who
uses computer in their Information
job, entertainment etc. Technology
Specialist
Computer Engineers.
o they are engage in software design and application to address the needs of a
particular industry or sector. They are primarily responsible for the update
in the software as well as providing additional customization of current
software to ensure the system’s functionality.
Software Engineers
o they are primarily responsible for the design and development of the
software of the computers, as well as its testing and evaluation.
Information Technology Specialists
o they tasked to plan and coordinate the installation, operation, troubleshooting
and maintenance of the computer’s software and hardware systems.
Website Designer
o they are engage in the construction of the navigation schemes of a website.
Compute Technicians o They in charge with the repair and maintenance of computers
and its servers
o They also build or configure new hardware as well as installing and
bringing up to date the software
o They are also tasked with the creation and maintenance of computer
networks.
Computer Operator
o They are responsible for monitoring and controlling computer systems
especially mainframe computer systems in a company or organization.
System Analyst o They work to solve problems related to computer technology. Many
analysts set up new computer systems, both the hardware and software; add
new software applications to increase computer productivity.
Project Manager
o They are the person who has the overall responsibility for the successful
initiation, planning, design, execution, monitoring, controlling and closure
of a project.
Programmer
o They refer to a specialist in one area of computer programming or to a
generalist who writes code for many kinds of software.
Database Administrator
o They are responsible for the performance monitoring, security, integrity,
troubleshooting, as well as backup and data recovery of a database. They
use specialized software to store and organize data.
Server Administrator
o It has the overall of a server. This is usually in the context of a business
organization, where a server administrator overseas the performance and
condition of multiple servers in the business, or it can be in the context of a
single person running a game server.
2. Personal Computing
Small and medium-size businesses as well as individuals form the bulk of personal computing
practitioners. Personal computing means the use of stand-alone computers equipped with all the
system, utility, and application software and I/O devices that an individual needs to perform one
or more tasks.
4. Education
Although computers will never replace books and teachers, the can enhance learning in a way no
other medium can. Through its interactive capability, computers have added a new dimension to
the learning process.
5. Artificial Intelligence
Artificial intelligence is an area of computer research which aims to endow the computer with
certain forms of human intelligence such as the capability to understand natural language or to
reasons under uncertain condition.
1. Knowledge-based and expert system refers to man’s knowledge based on his judgment
algorithmic sense about a specific application area.
2. Natural languages refer to software that enables computer systems to accept, interpret and
execute instructions written in the native or natural language or the end user.
3. Simulation of human sensory capabilities in computer system, such as seeing, hearing and
touching, has been made possible, although in varying report,” the computer will
obligingly follow.
4. Robotics refers to the use of computerized robots in the manufacturing sector. Industrial
robots, which are usually equipped with an arm and a hand, can be instructed to do
repetitive tasks such as screwing on the bolts or painting cars.
Computers are used as control systems for a wide variety of industrial and consumer
devices. This includes simple special purpose devices like microwave ovens and remote controls,
factory devices such as industrial robots and computer-aided design, and also general purpose
devices like personal computers and mobile devices such as smartphones. The Internet is run on
computers and it connects hundreds of millions of other computers and their users.
Early computers were only conceived as calculating devices. Since ancient times, simple
manual devices like the abacus aided people in doing calculations. Early in the Industrial
Revolution, some mechanical devices were built to automate long tedious tasks, such as guiding
patterns for looms. More sophisticated electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in
the early 20th century. The first digital electronic calculating machines were developed during
World War II. The first semiconductor transistors in the late 1940s were followed by the silicon-
based MOSFET (MOS transistor) and monolithic integrated circuit (IC) chip technologies in the
late 1950s, leading to the microprocessor and the microcomputer revolution in the 1970s. The
speed, power and versatility of computers have been increasing dramatically ever since then, with
MOS transistor counts increasing at a rapid pace (as predicted by Moore's law), leading to the
Digital Revolution during the late 20th to early 21st centuries.
Input Devices
An input device is essentially a piece of hardware that sends data to a computer. Most
input devices either interact with or control the computer in some way. The most common input
devices are the mouse and the keyboard, but there are many others. The key distinction between
an input device and an output device is that the former sends data to the computer, whereas the
latter receives data from the computer. Input and output devices that provide computers with
additional functionality are also called peripheral or auxiliary devices.
1. Keyboard
Keyboards are the most common type of input device. Before keyboards, interaction with
computers was generally carried out using punch cards and paper tape. Most English language
keyboards use the QWERTY layout for the alphabetic keys, which are surrounded by number,
symbol, function, and other key types. By pressing the relevant keys, a user can feed data and
instructions to the computer.
2. Mouse
A mouse interacts with a computer through a process known as "point and click." Essentially,
when a user moves the mouse on the mouse pad, the pointer moves in a corresponding direction
on the computer's monitor screen. The concept of a computer mouse has its roots in the trackball,
a related pointing device invented in 1946 that used a "roller ball" to control a pointer. Most
modern computer mice have two buttons for clicking and a wheel in the middle for scrolling up
and down documents and web pages.
3. Touchpad
Also known as a trackpad, a touchpad is a common substitute for a computer mouse. It is
essentially a specialized surface that can detect the movement of a user's finger and use that
information to direct a pointer and control a computer. Touchpads were first introduced for
laptops in the 1990s, and it's now rare to find a laptop without one.
4. Scanner
The word "scanner" can be used in a number of different ways in the computer world, but here I
am using it to refer to a desktop image scanner. Essentially, a scanner is an input device that uses
optical technology to transfer images (or sometimes text) into a computer, where the signal is
converted into a digital image. The digital image can then be viewed on a monitor screen, saved,
edited, emailed, or printed.
5. Digital Camera
Digital cameras are used to capture photographs and videos independently. Later, these photo and
video files can be transferred to a computer by connecting the camera directly with a cable,
removing the memory card and slotting it into the computer, or through wireless data transfer
methods such as Bluetooth. Once the photos are on the computer, they can be saved, edited,
emailed, or printed.
6. Microphone
A microphone captures audio and sends it to a computer where it is converted to a digital format.
Once the audio has been digitized, it can be played back, copied, edited, uploaded, or emailed.
Microphones can also be used to record audio or to relay sounds live as part of a video chat or
audio stream.
7. Joystick
Joysticks are commonly used to control characters and vehicles in computer video games.
Essentially, a joystick is a handle that pivots on a base and sends its angle or direction to the
computer as data. Many video gaming joysticks feature triggers and buttons that can be pressed to
use weapons or projectiles in games.
8. Graphic Tablet
Also known as digitizers, graphic tablets are input devices used for converting handdrawn artwork
into digital images. The user draws with a stylus on a special flat surface as if they were drawing
on a piece of paper. The drawing appears on the computer screen and can be saved, edited, or
printed. While scanners can only create digital images from drawings, graphic tablets offer greater
control and versatility for artists by allowing them to see their drawing appear live on their
monitor as they create it.
9. Touch Screen
Many devices nowadays use a touch screen rather than a mouse as a way for users to point, drag,
or select options on a screen. As the name suggests, a touch screen is a touch-sensitive monitor
screen that reacts to fingers moving across it. Touch screens are particularly common in portable
devices, such as tablets, palmtops, laptops, and smartphones.
10. Webcam
Webcams are different from digital cameras in two ways. Firstly, they cannot operate
independently from a computer, and second, they have no inbuilt memory. Although webcams can
capture photographs and videos, they are more often used to livestream videos or facilitate video
chats.
Output Devices
For example, using a microphone to record a podcast is an example of using an input device.
Listening to the recorded podcast through a connected speaker is an example of using an output
device. Both output and input devices are examples of auxiliary or peripheral devices.
Popular Brands: Acer, Alienware, Apple, Asus, Dell, HP, LG, Lenovo, Samsung
Origin Story: The first monitors used the same technology as early televisions, relying on
a cathode ray tube and a fluorescent screen. This technology was first utilized for computer
monitors in 1965 in the Uniscope 300 machine, which had a builtin CRT display. CRT display
lights up a series of dots with a beam on an active part of the screen. This resulted in a maximum
resolution of 1600 by 1200 pixels. LCD (liquid crystal display) entered the market in 2000 and
outsold CRT monitors in 2007. Nowadays, monitors incorporate flat display technology. Plasma
monitors are brighter than both CRT and LCD and function by illuminating tiny charged gas
bubbles, or plasma, in the screen.
2. Printer Mode: Print
Function: The function of a printer is to create a copy of whatever is sent from the computer to the
printer. Printers take electronic data sent from a computer and generate a hard copy.
Function: Headphones output audio from a computer through two individual headphones for a
single listener. Also known as earphones, headphones allow you to listen to audio without
disrupting other people in the vicinity.
Function: Computer speakers are hardware devices that transform the signal from the computer's
sound card into audio. Speakers create sound using internal amplifiers that vibrate at different
frequencies according to data from the computer. This produces sound.
Function: As its name suggests, this output device "projects" computer images or video onto a
wall or screen.
6. GPS (Global Positioning System) Mode: Data
Function: GPS is a radio-based navigation system that’s composed of a sender computer and a
receiver. The sender broadcasts signals to 24 satellites that ping to the sender the exact location of
the sender computer in the form of latitude and longitude coordinates. The satellites use
microwave signals to “talk” to the GPS, giving information on location, vehicle speed, and a
number of other pieces of data.
Function: The sound card controls the output of sound signals, enabling devices like speakers and
headphones to work. The sound card is known as an expansion card, which means it can be added
to the motherboard. Although a sound card is not essential to a computer's basic functionality, you
need one if you wish to play games, watch movies, listen to music, and use audio and video
conferencing.
Function: As with the sound card, the video card is an expansion card that slots into the
motherboard. The video card processes images and video, enabling visuals to be seen on a display.
Most computers have basic video and graphics capabilities built into the computer's motherboard,
but for faster, more detailed graphics, a video card is required.
Function: A braille reader is a peripheral device that enables a blind person to read text displayed
on a computer monitor. The text is sent by the computer to the device, where it is translated into a
braille format and made readable by pushing rounded pins up through a flat surface. Braille
readers are also called braille displays and come in various sizes. Braille readers come in the form
of separate devices from a keyboard or as part of a keyboard. Most use piezoelectric technology,
or electricity generated by mechanical stress, to create a single line of text at a time in the form of
raised bumps.
Function: SGDs, also known as voice output communication aids, generate text to speech. A user
types something and when the command is sent, the SGD reads the sentence out loud.
Digital data storage devices have many uses. For example, computers usually depend upon
information storage to function. Storage media can also be used to back up important information
(storing digital data can involve durability and reliability issues, so making independent copies of
the information is normally a wise precaution). Some storage devices are also portable, meaning
that they can be used to transfer information from one computer to another.
Digital data storage media generally fall into one of five categories: magnetic storage devices,
optical storage devices, flash memory devices, online/cloud storage, and paper storage. I will give
one or more examples of each category below.
2. Floppy Disk
Also know as a diskette, floppy, or FD, the floppy disk is another type of storage medium that uses
magnetic storage technology to store information. Floppy disks were once a common storage
device for computers and lasted from the mid-1970's through to the start of the 21st century. The
earliest floppies were 8-inch (203 mm) in size, but these were replaced by 5 1⁄4-inch (133 mm)
disk drives, and finally a 3 1⁄2 inch (90 mm) version.
3. Tape
In the past, magnetic tape was often used for digital data storage, because of its low cost and
ability to store large amounts of data. The technology essentially consisted of a magnetically thin
coated piece of plastic wrapped around wheels. Its relative slowness and unreliability compared to
other data storage solutions has resulted in it now being largely abandoned as a media.
9. Cloud Storage
With users increasingly operating multiple devices in multiple places, many are turning to online
and cloud computing solutions. Cloud computing basically involves accessing services over a
network via a collection of remote servers. Although the idea of a "cloud of computers" may
sound abstract to those unfamiliar with this metaphorical concept, in practice it can provide
tremendous storage solutions for devices that are connected to the internet.
GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS
SECOND GENERATION
• 1959 marked the invention of transistors
• Faster input-output devices were also developed
• IBM Competitors: Burroughs, UNIVAC, NCR, CDC, and Honeywell, collectively known as
BUNCH
• 1963 marked the successful introduction to the market of minicomputers via Digital Equipment
Corporation’s PDP-8
FOURTH GENERATION
• 4004 chip the First Microprocessor introduce by Intel Corporation
• A four-bit processor with 2,200 transistors • 1971 the fourth generation of computers.
• Altair 8800 1975 introduce computing to individuals and small companies
• 1981 IBM grab the lead in microcomputer industry through IBM PC (Personal Computer)