Chapter 1 IT ERA

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Chapter 1

Introduction to Information and Communication

Learning Outcome

At the end of this chapter the students should be able to:

• define and explain IT and ICT;


• explain the concepts of ICT;
• identify parts of the computer systems and their functions;
• differentiate categories of computer peripherals; and
• explain why computers are considered powerful thinking machines.

Learning Contents

 Concepts of ICT and IT


 Generations of Computers
-Types of Computers According to Size
 The Computer System and its Parts and Categories
 Uses of Computers In Modern Times
CONCEPTS OF IT AND ICT

Information Technology (it)

 It is the use of computers to store, retrieve, transmit, and manipulate data or


information. IT is typically used within the context of business operations as opposed
to personal or entertainment technologies. IT is considered to be a subset of
information and communications technology (ICT). An information technology
system (IT system) is generally an information system, a communications system
or, more specifically speaking, a computer system – including all hardware,
software and peripheral equipment – operated by a limited group of user.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

 It is an extensional term for information technology (IT) that stresses the role of
unified communications and the integration of telecommunications (telephone lines
and wireless signals) and computers, as well as necessary enterprise software,
middleware, storage, and audiovisual systems, that enable users to access, store,
transmit, and manipulate information

 The term ICT is also used to refer to the convergence of audiovisual and telephone
networks with computer networks through a single cabling or link system. There are
large economic incentives to merge the telephone network with the computer network
system using a single unified system of cabling, signal distribution, and management.

 ICT is an umbrella term that includes any communication device, encompassing


radio, television, cell phones, computer and network hardware, satellite systems and
so on, as well as the various services and appliance with them such as video
conferencing and distance learning.

 ICT is a broad subject and the concepts are evolving. It covers any product that will
store, retrieve, manipulate, transmit, or receive information electronically in a digital
form (e.g., personal computers, digital television, email, or robots). Theoretical
differences between interpersonal-communication technologies and mass-
communication technologies have been identified by the philosopher Piyush Mathur.
Skills Framework for the Information Age is one of many models for describing and
managing competencies for ICT professionals for the 21st century.
GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS

Generations of Computers

Fourth Fifth Generation


First Second Third
Generation (Present -
Generation Generation Generation
(1975 - Beyond)
(1940 -1956) (1956 -1963) (1964 -1975)
Present)

What is Computer generation?


Computer Generation refers to the change in technology that is used for a computer during a
time period. Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware
technologies. But nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which together make
up an entire computer system.

First Generation (1940-1956)


Hardware Software Key Characteristics Example of
Technologies Technologies Computer
• Machine  Bulky in size  ENIAC
language uses 0s  Highly unreliable  EDVAC and 1s  Limited
commercial  EDSAC

Figure 2.13. concept  Difficult commercial  IBM 701


Vacuum tubes production
Mostly scientific
• Stored program use and costly  UNIVAC 1

milliseconds

Figure 2.14. applications  Difficult to use


• Processin
g speed:

Electromagnetic relay
memory

• Punched cards secondary storage

Second (1956-1963)
• Assembly  Faster, smaller, more  Honeywell 400
Language reliable and easier to  IBM 7030

Figure 2.15. system previous generation systems • CDC 1604


Transistors • High-level  Commercial • UNIVAC LARC
• Programming production was still difficult
languages and costly
• Scientific and
• Batch operating program than  IBM 1401

commercial  Processing speed:


application microseconds

Figure 2.16.

Magnetic cores
memory
• Magnetic tapes
Disks for secondary storage

Third (1964-1971)

• Timesharing  Faster, smaller, more  IBM 360/370 operating system reliable,


easier and  PDP-8
• Standardization cheaper to produce  PDP-11 of high-level  Commercially,
easier  CDC 6600
Figure 2.16. programming to use, and easier to
Integrated Circuits  Unbundling of upgrade than previous
(chips)
software from generation systems
hardware • Scientific,
commercial and
• ICs with SSI and interactive on-line
MSI technologies
applications
• Larger magnetic cores
• Processing speed:
memory nanoseconds
• Larger capacity disks
and magnetic tapes
secondary storage
• Keyboard and monitor
Minicomputers;
upward compatible
family of
computers

Fourth (1971-present)

• Operating  Small, affordable,  IBM PC and its systems for PCs reliable, and
easy to clones
with GUI and
use PCs  Apple II
multiple windows  More powerful and  TRS-80 on a single
reliable mainframe  VAX 9000
Figure 2.17. terminal screen systems and • CRAY-1
Microprocessors or
• Multiprocessing supercomputers • CRAY-2
Large Scale IC
OS with concurrent • Totally general purpose • CRAY-X/MP
• Microprocessors;
programming machines
semiconductor
languages • Easier to produce
memory
• UNIX operating commercially
• Larger capacity hard
system with C • Easier to upgrade
disks as inbuilt
programming • Rapid software
secondary storage
language development possible
• Magnetic tapes and
• Object-oriented • Processing speed:
floppy disks as
design and picoseconds
portable storage
programming
media
• PC, Networkbased,
• Pointing devices like
and
mouse and handled
supercomputing
devices applications
• Personal computers
• Supercomputers
based on parallel
vector processing
and symmetric
multiprocessing
technologies Spread
of highspeed
computer networks

Fifth (present- beyond)


• ULSI technology
• Development of true artificial intelligence
• Development of Natural language
processing
• Advancement in Parallel processing
• Advancement in Superconductor

Figure 2.18. Artificial Intelligent technology


 Super Large Scale Integrated (SLSI) chips that  More user friendly interfaces with
are able to store millions of multimedia features
components on a single chip Larger  Availability of very powerful and capacity main
memory, hard disks with compact computers at cheaper
RAID support rates
• Optical disks as portable read-only storage media
• Very large memory
• Notebooks, powerful desktop PCs and workstations
• Powerful severs, supercomputers
• Internet
Cluster computing

Classification of Computers

A. According to Purpose
1. General-purpose digital computer. This is also called all-purpose digital computer. It
can be used for any type of application.
Ex.: Computers that are used for payroll, graphics, analysis, etc.
2. Special purpose digital computer. These computers designed to solve problems of a
restricted type i.e. designed to be especially efficient in a certain class of applications.
Ex.: Embedded systems like ATM machines.
B. According to Data Handled
1. Analog Computers. Computers that are in which numerical magnitudes are
represented by physical quantities, such as electric current, voltage or
resistance, mechanical movements, pressure or temperature. Analog
computers accept data and then process it to produce analog data.

Figure 2.19. Example of Analog

Computer (Donner 3000)

2. Digital Computers. Work with values that are in a discrete form (or data that can be counted).
They are used for business applications, and also scientific operations,
and are ideal when 100% accuracy is desired, thus resulting to data that
are exact in values.
Figure 2.20. Digital Computer

3. Hybrid Computers. This computer is the outcome of the integration of


analog
computer components and digital components. This integration is
obtained by digital –to-analog converter and analog –to-digital
converter. These computers are usually used in space vehicle
simulation and training astronauts.

Figure 2.21. Example of Hybrid Computer (DPD 45)

4. According to Capacity Capacity refers to :


• amount of data that can be stored in memory;
• speed of internal operation of the other computer;
• capacity of storage devices; and
• number and types of peripheral devices.

a. Microcomputers
Small computers which are portable.
Uses microprocessor (the CPU on a chip), Read-
Only Memory (ROM) and a Random Access
Memory (RAM). It is sometimes known as a
Single-Chip Processor.Examples: Desktop and floor standing units,
Luggable,Laptops,Notebooks, Pocket PC’s
Figure 2.22. Desktop Computer
and Pen Computers.

b. Minicomputers
These are machines that are in the middle of
microcomputers and mainframes in terms of cost
and capability. Medium-capacity computer that is
larger than a microcomputer but smaller than most
mainframes. A minicomputer can handle a larger
amount of data than a microcomputer and can
perform most of the functions of a mainframe.
These acts as ‘servers’, which are connected to
several workstations or terminals.
Figure 2.23. Minicomputers

c. Mainframes.
The oldest category, air-cooled ,bigger in
sizes, about the size of a jeep and a powerful
computer, often serving many connected terminals
and usually used by large complex organizations like
banks, airlines and insurance companies that
Figure 2.24. IBM 370 handles millions of transactions.

d. Supercomputers
The biggest and fastest computers. They can
perform 50 million instructions per second and are used
in applications such as nuclear weapon development and
accurate weather forecasting. These are the fastest
calculating device ever invented.
Figure 2.25. IBM DEEP

COMPUTER SYSTEM

 It is a collection of entities (hardware, software and humanware) that are designed to


receive, process, manage and present information in a meaningful format.
Software

Hardware Humanware

Computer
System

Figure 3.1. A computer system operates on three significant components.

 It consists primarily of four basic units: the input unit, the storage units, the central
processing unit and the output unit. A computer performs five major operations or
functions regardless of its size and make.
These are:
• It accepts data or instructions as input;
• It stores data and instruction;
• It processes data as per the instructions;  It controls all operations inside a
computer, and ;  Its gives results in the form of output.

Secondary
Storage

Data/ Primary Output


Input
Instructions Storage Unit
Unit
Information
Arithmetic
Logic Unit

Control Unit Indicates flow of instructions and data


Indicates the control exercised by the
control unit
Figure 3.1. Computer Systembasic Operation

Input Unit. It used for transfers’ raw data and control signals into the information
processing system by the user before processing and computation. All the input unit devices provide
the instructions and data are transformed into binary codes that is the primary memory acceptable
format.
The functions of the input unit are:

o accept data and set of instructions/command; o convert the data in a form


which the computer can accept; and
o provide this converted data to the computer for further processing.

Central Processing Unit. This is called the brain of the computer system. It consists of three
parts namely, the control unit; the arithmetic logic unit; and the primary storage unit.

a. Control Unit
- It controls, manages and coordinates the operations of the entire computer
system.
b. Arithmetic Logic Unit
- It executes the instructions and performs all the calculations and decisions.
c. Primary Storage Unit
- It is also called as main memory
- the data which is to be output from the computer system is also
temporarily stored
- it is the storage section that holds the computer programs during
execution
- it Stores temporary results of intermediate processing

Output Unit. It give the results of the process and computations to the outside world. The
output units accept the results produced by the computer, convert them into a human readable form
and supply them to the users.

COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

Computer hardware – It consists of internal and peripheral devices. All physical parts of the
computer or everything that we can touch.
e.g.:Input devices, output devices, central processing unit and storage devices
Computer software - also known as programs or applications. It gives “intelligence” to the
computer. They are classified into two classes namely - system software and
application software
Humanware – it is the person who operates computer. The user commands the computer
system to execute on instructions.

Computer Hardware Components

Hardware. It consists of all the machinery and equipment in a computer system. In general,
computer hardware is categorized according to which of the five computer operations it performs.
 Input devices
 Processing devices
 Storage devices
 Output devices

Input Devices. It is any electronic devices connected to a computer that produce input signals. It is
also used to enter the data and instructions into the computer.

- It translate data from form that humans understand to one that the computer can work with.
Barcode Reader

It is also known as
barcode scanner or point
of sale (POS) scanner, is
an input device capable
of reading barcodes.

Classification of Input Digital Camera


Magnetic Ink Character Reader
Devices
It is a device used for
a. Input Devices for Texts machine recognition of
and Images numeric data printed with
Keyboard magnetically charged ink. It
is used on bank ch ecks and
Scanner Optical Mark Reader
It used to capture a source document and made on the form.
converts it into an electronic form.
It is the primary input device that is
used to enter data into a computer or
any other electronic device by
pressing keys. It uses USB or a
Bluetooth device for wireless
communication to connect to a
computer.

Graphics Table

It used by artists which allow them


to draw a picture onto a computer
screen without having to use a
mouse or keyboard. It consists of a
flat, touch-sensitive pad and a A device that takes
drawing device, either a pen or deposit photographs and stores
stylus. the image as data on

a memory card.

It is an electronically
extracting intended data from
marked fields, such as
checkboxes and fillinfields, on
printed forms. OMR
Handheld Scanner technology scans a printed
form and reads predefined
positions and records where
marks are
Flatbed Scanner

Figure 3.3. List of Input devices for Texts and Images

b. Input Devices for Audio


Microphone
Is an input device that allows users to input audio into their computers. Here are
some uses of the microphone:

- Audio for video - Computer gaming - Online chatting

- Recording musical instruments -Recording voice for dictation, singing and podcasts

- Voice recorder - Voice recognition - VoIP – Voice over Internet Protocol

MIDI Keyboard
It is a controller keyboard, like a typically a piano-style electronic musical keyboard, often
with other buttons, wheels and sliders, used for sending MIDI signals or commands over a
USB or MIDI 5-pin cable to other musical devices or computers.

Figure 3.4. List of Input devices for Audio

c. Input Devices for Video

CCTV Camera Digital Video Camera


Webcam

Video input are motio n images captured into


the computer by special input devices .

Figure 3.4. List of Input devices for Video


d. Pointing Device

Pointing Deviceis an input device that allows a user to control a pointer on a screen. A
pointer is asmall symbolon the screen whose location and shape change as a user
moves a pointing device

Mouse Trackball Touchpad Joystick

Figure 3.5. List of Pointing Input devices

Output Devices. Hardware that is capable of delivering or showing information to one or more
users. An output device displays, prints and presents the results of a computers work.
After processing the inputted data, the computer will give its output. This output can be in
two different formats:
1. Softcopy – Visual (monitor) or Sound (speakers)
2. Hardcopy – Output on a tangible (something you can touch) such as a printer
printout

Different Types of Output Devices

LCD Monitor LCD Monitor LED Monitor LCD Projector

Dot Matrix Printer Laser Printer Ink Jet Printer Thermal Printer

Speaker Woofer Headset Earphone

Figure 3.7. Different Types of Output Devices

Storage Devices. It is any hardware device that is used for storing, porting and extracting data
files and objects. It can hold and store information either temporarily and permanently, and can be
internal or external to a computer.
Types of Computer Storage
1. Primary storage
2. Secondary storage

1. Primary Storage. Primary storage is the main memory in a computer. It stores data and
programs that can be accessed directly by the processor.
There are two types of primary storage which are RAM and ROM

Figure 3.8. RAM and ROM

Table 3.1. The Difference between RAM and ROM


Random-Access Memory (RAM) Read-Only Memory (ROM)
RAM is an acronym for Random- Access ROM is an acronym for Read- Only Memory. The
Memory which means the data and program in data or program in ROM can only be read but
RAM can be read and written. cannot be written at all

RAM stores data during and after processing. ROM is another type of memory permanently
RAM is also known as a working memory. stored inside the computer.

The data in RAM can be read (retrieved) or All the contents in ROM can be accessed and read
written (stored). but cannot be changed.
RAM is volatile which means the programs and ROM is non-volatile. It holds the programs and
data in RAM are lost when the computer is data when the computer is powered off.
powered off.

A computer uses RAM to hold temporary Programs in ROM have been


instructions and data needed to complete tasks. prerecorded.
This enables the CPU (Central Processing Unit) It can only be stored by the manufacturer once and
to access instructions and data stored in the it cannot be changed.
memory very quickly

2. Secondary Storage - Secondary storage is another alternative storage to save your work
and documents. This can be removable, internal, or external. It is very useful to store
programs and data for future use. It is non-volatile, which means that it does not need
power to maintain the information stored in it. It will store the information until it is
erased.
Secondary
Storage

Magnetic Optical Flash


Medium Medium Memory

Figure 3.9. Types of Secondary Story

Types of Secondary Storage

a. Magnetic Medium. It is a non-volatile storage medium. It can be any type of storage


medium that utilizes magnetic patterns to represent information. Examples of magnetic
storage are magnetic disk such as a floppy disk, used
for off-line storage; hard disk, used for secondary storage and magnetic tape such as video
cassette; audio storage reel-to-reel tape.

Floppy Disk Magnetic Tape


Hard Disk Video Cassette

Figure 3.10. Types of Magnetic Medium

b. Optical Medium. It is a non-volatile storage media, holds content in digital form that are
written and read by laser. These media include various types of CDs and DVDs.
Types of Optical Medium

CD CD ROM DVD CD-R CD-RW DVD-RW DVD-RAM


Figure 3.11. Types of Optical Medium

c. Flash Memory. It is a solid-state, non-volatile, rewritable memory that functions like


RAM and a hard disk drive. Flash memory store bits of electronic data in memory cells
just like DRAM (Dynamic RAM) but it also works like a hard disk drive that when the
power is turned off, the data remains in the memory. Flash memory cards and flash
memory sticks are examples of flash memory.

Types of Flash Memory


Solid State Hard
Disc Memory Stick Flash memory Micro Flash Memory
Figure 3. 12. Types of Flash Memory

CAPACITY. It refers to the number of bytes (characters) a storage medium can hold
1 Byte = 8 Bits 1 KB = 1024 Byte
1 Megabyte = 1024 Kilobyte 1GB = 1024 MB
1 Terabyte (TB) = 1 trillion byte 1 Petabyte (PB) = 1 quadrillion byte
1 Exabyte (EB) = 1 quintillion byte 1 Zetabyte (ZB) = 1 sextillion byte
1 Yotabyte (YB) = 1 septillion byte
Table 3.2. Different Storage Capacity

System Unit
The system unit is a boxlike case that houses the computer’s main hardware components
Parts of a System Unit
1. Motherboard/Mainboard. The motherboard is the main
circuit board holding the integrated circuits for the
microprocessor, memory, etc. The motherboard also supports
internal connectors for the hard disk drives & optical drives
(CD, DVD), etc, and external connectors for the mouse,
keyboard, printer, speakers, etc.

Figure 3.13. Motherboard

2. Hard Disk Drive Storage (HDD). It used as the


main storage device for programs and data when the computer is
not being used. Information is stored on the hard drive
magnetically and the capacity of the device is usually measured in
Megabytes, Gigabytes, or Terabytes, etc.
Figure . Hard Disk
3.14 Drive

Figure . Optical
3.15 Drive
3. Optical Drive (CD/DVD). A DVD drive allows removable optical discs to be used to
store information.

4. Memory/RAM. Memory is the processor’s working area and is here all operations
actually take place while the computer is running.
Memory is also called Random Access Memory and consists of small memory ‘chips’
which fit into slots on the Figure 3.16. Memory motherboard.

5. Microprocessor/Central Processing Unit/CPU. This is


the ‘computer on a chip’ and is the device which actually
executes the instructions.

Figure 3.17. Microprocessor/CPU

Components of the CPU


a. Control unit. Coordinates and controls all parts of the computer system.
b. Arithmetic-logic unit. Performs arithmetic or logical operations
c. Registers. Temporarily store the most frequently used instructions

Figure 3.18.
Processor and data

6. Computer Power Supply. This supplies the


electricity to all the parts in the computer.

Figure 3.19. Computer Power Supply

7. Heat Sink/Fan. This sits on top of the CPU and draws heat up into the
fins of the Heat Sink, and then the Fan pulls air up and through the fins cooling
them. That is how the CPU is stays cool, otherwise it would over heat and shut
down the
computer.
Figure 3.20. Heat Sink/Fan

8. Network card. Attach to the PCI (Peripheral component interconnect )


slot used for a Broadband connection, like cable or DSL.
Figure 3.21. Network Card

Figure 3.22. Sound


Card

9. Sound Card. It is a computer expansion card that facilitates the input


and output of audio signals to and from a computer under control of computer
programs.

10. Graphics Card. It is an expansion card


whose function is to generate and output
images to a display

Figure 3.23. Graphics


Card

11. Chipset. It is a collection of chips that provide the switching circuitry


needed to move data throughout the computer.
Figure 3.24. Chipset
12. Cooling Fan . Cooling Fan is used for cooling purposes.

Figure 3.25. Cooling


Fan

13. CMOS Battery. It provides CMOS with the power when the
computer is turned off all motherboards comes with a battery.
These batteries mount on the motherboard in one of three ways: the
obsolete external battery, the most Figure 3.26. CMOS Battery
common onboard battery, and built-in battery.
CMOS – Complementary Metal Oxide Semi- Conductor

14. IDE (Integrated Drive


Electronics) Controller. It is
responsible for controlling the hard
drive and CDROM.

Figure 3.27. IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) Controller

15. SATA (Serial Advance


Technology Attachment)
Controller. Major upgrade of IDE controller, responsible for
controlling the hard drive and CDROM. Figure 3.28. SATA (Serial
Advance Technology Attachment)

Computer Software Components

Computer Software
It refers to the set of computer programs, procedures that describe the programs, how they
are to be used. We can say that it is the collection of programs, which increase the capabilities of
the hardware. Software guides the computer at every step where to start and stop during a
particular job. The process of software development is called programming.
Computer software is a generic term for organized collections of code representing instructions
executed by a computer. Software is often written first as source code, and then converted to a
binary format that is specific to the device on which the code will be executed.
Categories of Software
Computer software is normally classified into two broad categories.
• System Software
• Application Software

SYSTEM SOFTWARE
 It is responsible for controlling, integrating, and managing the individual
hardware components of a computer system so that the other software and the
users of the system see it as a functional unit without having to be concerned with
the low-level details such as transferring data from memory to disk, or rendering
text onto a display.
 These are general programs designed for performing tasks such as controlling all
operations required to move data into and out of the computer.
 It communicates with printers, card reader, disk, tapes etc. monitor the use of
various hardware like memory, CPU etc.
So without system software it is impossible to operate your computer. The following
diagram is shown in Figure 3.29 is the relation between hardware, software and you as a user of
computer system.

USERS

APPLICATION
SOFTWARE

SYSTEM
SOFTWARE

HARDWARE

Figure 3. 29. Relation between hardware, software and user

Types of System Software

1. Operating System

 It is software that controls and monitors the running of applications


 It provides a “platform” for software developers who have to design
applications with the OS in mind.
 It is responsible for the management and coordination of activities and the
sharing of the resources of the computer  It is an interface between
computer and user.

USER APPLICATION OPERATING HARDWARE


SYSTEM

Figure 3.30. Operating System is an interface between computer


and user

Function of an Operating System

The part of the OS that manages the computer’s resources is known as the Kernel
(otherwise known as the supervisor program). It manages the computer’s resources (CPU,
memory and peripherals).

Memory Resource Backing Store Secondary-


Management Allocation and Management Storage
Sharing Management

Process Communication File I/O System


Management Management Management Management

Interrupt Networking Job Device Security Handling Accounting Management

Figure 3.31. Function of an Operating System@ guru99.com

Most operating systems perform the following tasks:


a. Memory Management. In several programs can be opened at once, the OS
has to allocate memory to each program that is running, including itself.
b. Resource Allocation and Sharing. Some computer systems can “multi-task”,
i.e. several programs can run at once. The OS allocates processing time,
memory and resources to each.
c. Backing Store Management. The OS maintains a directory of the HDD so
that files and free space can be located quickly. The OS controls the transfer of
the data from disk to memory and back again.
d. Interrupt Handling. The OS will detect “interrupts”, e.g. when the printer is
out of paper; when the user is pressing the ESC key; or when a hardware
device or an application is malfunctioning. The OS will display the appropriate
error message and may suggest corrective action to the user.
e. Process management. It helps OS to create and delete processes. It also
provides mechanisms for synchronization and communication among
processes.
f. File management. It manages all the file-related activities such as organization
storage, retrieval, naming, sharing, and protection of files.
g. Device Management. It keeps tracks of all devices. This module also
responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller. It also performs the task
of allocation and de-allocation of the devices.
h. I/O System Management. One of the main objects of any OS is to hide the
peculiarities of that hardware devices from the user.
i. Secondary-Storage Management. Systems have several levels of storage
which includes primary storage, secondary storage, and cache storage.
Instructions and data must be stored in primary storage or cache so that a
running program can reference it.
j. Security. This module protects the data and information of a computer system
against malware threat and authorized access.
k. Command interpretation. This module is interpreting commands given by
the acting system resources to process that commands.
l. Networking. A distributed system is a group of processors which do not share
memory, hardware devices, or a clock. The processors communicate with one
another through the network.
m. Job accounting. It keeps track of time & resource used by various job and
users.
n. Communication management. The Coordination and assignment of
compilers, interpreters, and another software resource of the various users of
the computer systems.
Types of Operating System

Batch Multitasking/Time
Operating Sharing OP
System
Multi-
Mobile Real Time
OS processing
OP OS

Distributed Network
OS OS

Network
OS

Figure 3.32. Types of Operating System

1. Batch Operating System

BATCH
U
U JOB
JOBS C
S
S OPERATING P
E
E JOB SYSTEM U
R
R JOBS
JOB BATCH

Figure 3.33. Batch Operating System

• Some computer processes are very lengthy and time-consuming. To speed


the same process, a job with a similar type of needs are batched together and
run as a group.
• The user of a batch operating system never directly interacts with the
computer. In this type of OS, every user prepares his or her job on an offline
device like a punch card and submit it to the computer operator.
2. Multi-Tasking/Time-sharing Operating Systems

Word

Web OPERATING C
Browser SYSTEM P
U

Printing

Figure 3.34. Multi-Tasking/Time-Sharing Operating System

• Time-sharing operating system enables people located at a different


terminal (shell) to use a single computer system at the same time.
• The processor time (CPU) which is shared among multiple users is termed
as time sharing.

3. Real time
User

Application Program

Real Time Operating System

Hardware

Figure 3.35
. Real Time Operating System

• It is also known as embedded operating system and it is totally depending upon


the clock interrupts.
• A real time operating system time interval to process and respond to inputs is
very small. Examples: Military Software Systems, Space Software Systems.
4. Distributed Operating System
Workstation Terminal File Server

Communication
Network

Database Server Computer Node Workstation

Figure 3.36. Distributed Operating System

• It is used in many processors located in different machines to provide very fast


computation to its users.
• It is a model where distributed applications are running on multiple computers
linked by communication network.
• It is also an extension of the network operating system that supports higher
levels of communication and integration of the machines on the network.

5. Network Operating System

Network Operating System runs on a server. It provides the capability to serve to manage
data, user, groups, security, application, and other networking
functions.
File Server

Client

Client

Figure 3.37. Network Operating System


6. Mobile OS

Figure 3.38. Mobile Operating System

• Is are those OS which is especially that are designed to allows and power
smartphones, tablets, and wearables devices to run applications and programs.
• Some most famous mobile operating systems are Android and iOS, but others
include BlackBerry, Web, and watchOS.

Examples of Operating System

a. The Unix Operating System. It was first created in Bell Labs


way back in the 1960s. It became popular in the 1970s for high-
level computing, but not on the consumer level. Since a lot of
Internet services were originally hosted on Unix machines, the
platform gained tremendous popularity in the 1990s. It still leads the industry
as the most common operating system for Web servers.
b. The Macintosh OS (Mac OS). Develop by Apple Computer in
January 24, 1984. It is pre-installed on the Macintosh 128K model
computer. The Mac OS is credited for the widely used feature of
every OS to date. The GUI (Graphical User Interface); the use of icons,
buttons a pointing cursor, and a point and click command to execute
instructions rather than the usual command line driven interface.
c. The MS-DOS (Microsoft-Disk Operating System). It
commercialized by Microsoft. It was the most dominant operating
system for the PC compatible platform during the 1980’s. It is
command line driven interface program where the user interacts with the
computer through command prompts to execute different program.
d. Microsoft Windows Operating System. It is first introduced an
operating environment named Windows in November 1985 as an
add-on to MS-DOS in response to the growing interest in
graphical user interface (GUI).
e. Linux Operating System. Linux is an open source operating
system (OS) for personal computers, servers and many other
hardware platforms that is based on the Unix operating system.
Linux was originally created by Linus Torvalds as a free alternative
operating system to more expensive Unix systems. Linux has grown since its
creation due in part to its open source roots. Open source software is freely
licensed and users may copy and even change the code.
There are several operating systems that use the Linux kernel.
These include: Ubuntu, Debian, Red Hat, Fedora, Chrome OS and
Android (for smartphones).

2. Utilities Programs
 This are small, powerful programs with a limited capability, they are usually
operated by the user to maintain a smooth running of the computer system.
Various examples include file management, diagnosing problems and
finding out information about the computer etc. Notable examples of utility
programs include copy, paste, delete, and file searching, disk defragmenter,
disk cleanup.

3. Device Drivers
 Specialized programs that allow communication between a device and the
computer. Loaded into memory each time a computer is started. When a
new device is added, new device drivers must be installed.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
It is a type of software that performs task to directly
benefit or assist the user. It is installed on top of an Operating
System such as MS Windows.

Types of application software


a. Proprietary Application Software / Customized Software. It is software
designed for a particular customer. In this case we need to hire a computer
programmer or software creator to develop software for the customer.
b. Packaged software. It is the kind of “off-the-shelf application software” program
developed for sale to the general public. It can be purchased programs, leased, or
rented from a vendor that develops programs and sells them to many organization.
The word package is a commonly used term for a computer program (or group of
programs) that has been developed by a vendor and is available for purchase in a
prepackaged form.
Examples of Application Software
1. Word Processing software - Use this kind of tool to create worksheets, type
letters, and type papers. The following examples are MS Word, WordPerfect,
MS Works, and AppleWorks.
2. Desktop Publishing software - Use this software to make signs, banners,
greeting cards, illustrative worksheets, newsletters, etc. The following
examples are Adobe PageMaker, MS Word, MS Publisher, AppleWorks, MS
Works, and Quark Express.
3. Spreadsheet software - Use this kind of tool to compute numberintensive
problems such as budgeting, forecasting, etc. A spreadsheet will plot nice
graphs very easily. The following examples are MS Excel, Quattro Pro, Lotus
1-2-3, MS Works, and AppleWorks.
4. Database software - Use this software to store data such as address,
membership and other text information. A database can be used to easily sort
and organize records. The following examples are MS Access, Filemaker Pro,
AppleWorks, and MS Works.
5. Presentation software - Use this software to create multimedia stacks of
cards/screens that can effectively present a lesson or a sales pitch. The user
often clicks on buttons to advance to the next screen in a sequence. The
following examples are MS PowerPoint, AppleWorks (slideshows),
HyperStudio, Flash, Director, HyperCard, Digital Chisel, SuperCard, and
Corel Envoy.
6. Internet Browsers - This software allows one to surf the Web. Often they can
read email and create Web pages too. The following examples are Netscape
Navigator (or Netscape Communicator), MS Internet Explorer, AOL Browser,
Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Opera Web Browser, and Safari Web
Browser.
7. Email programs - These programs send and receive email. The following
examples are Netscape Messenger (part of Netscape Communicator), MS
Outlook Express, MS Outlook, Eudora, and AOL browser.
8. Graphics Programs (pixel-based) - This software allows one to touch up
photographs and create graphics from scratch. The following examples are
Adobe Photoshop, Paint Shop Pro, AppleWorks, MS Works, MS Paint (comes
free on Windows PC's), and Painter.
9. Graphics Programs (vector-based) - This software creates graphics that are
similar to illustrations or cartoon drawings. The following examples are Adobe
Illustrator, Corel Draw, AppleWorks, MS Works, and MS Word.
10. Communications software - This software allows two computers with
modems to communicate through audio, video, and/or chat-based means. The
following examples are MS NetMeeting, AOL Instant Messenger, IRC, ICQ,
and CU-SeeMe.
Capabilities of Software
a. Object Linking and Embedding (OLE). It allows information to be shared
between applications, e.g. a spreadsheet created in Excel can be imported into
Word.
b. Portability of Data. People, who have different types of computers with different
operating systems and applications, often need to transfer files and programs
among their computers. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) allows files to be transferred
over the Internet among different types of computers.
c. Upgradability. Software upgrades can provide new and useful features but they
can also cause problems, such as documents may not be compatible versions, e.g. a
Word 6 file can be read in Word 97 but a Word 97 file cannot be read in Word 6;
data formatting may be lost if a Word 97 document is saved to Word 6 format
because Word 97 contains new features that Word 6 does not have; upgraded
software frequently required more memory, more disk space and a faster
processor, so hardware need to be upgraded.

Humanware

It describes the customer experience of software and hardware. More particularly,


it has to do with the facilities of a computer system being developed based on the interests
and needs of a user.

It is also called as the living ware. It refers to the users of the computer system,
either direct or indirect users.
System Computer
Analyst Operator
Computer
Engineers Software
Engineers
Project
Manager
Technicians
Database
Administrator Peopleware
Web Developer

Programmer Server
Administrator
Individual people who
uses computer in their Information
job, entertainment etc. Technology
Specialist

Figure 3.39. Different types of humanware

Computer Engineers.
o they are engage in software design and application to address the needs of a
particular industry or sector. They are primarily responsible for the update
in the software as well as providing additional customization of current
software to ensure the system’s functionality.
Software Engineers
o they are primarily responsible for the design and development of the
software of the computers, as well as its testing and evaluation.
Information Technology Specialists
o they tasked to plan and coordinate the installation, operation, troubleshooting
and maintenance of the computer’s software and hardware systems.
Website Designer
o they are engage in the construction of the navigation schemes of a website.
Compute Technicians o They in charge with the repair and maintenance of computers
and its servers
o They also build or configure new hardware as well as installing and
bringing up to date the software
o They are also tasked with the creation and maintenance of computer
networks.

Computer Operator
o They are responsible for monitoring and controlling computer systems
especially mainframe computer systems in a company or organization.
System Analyst o They work to solve problems related to computer technology. Many
analysts set up new computer systems, both the hardware and software; add
new software applications to increase computer productivity.
Project Manager
o They are the person who has the overall responsibility for the successful
initiation, planning, design, execution, monitoring, controlling and closure
of a project.
Programmer
o They refer to a specialist in one area of computer programming or to a
generalist who writes code for many kinds of software.
Database Administrator
o They are responsible for the performance monitoring, security, integrity,
troubleshooting, as well as backup and data recovery of a database. They
use specialized software to store and organize data.
Server Administrator
o It has the overall of a server. This is usually in the context of a business
organization, where a server administrator overseas the performance and
condition of multiple servers in the business, or it can be in the context of a
single person running a game server.

USES OF COMPUTERS IN MODERN TIMES

1. Information Systems/Data Processing


Information System or Data Processing refers to a category of computer use that enables
organization to utilize to the fullest the data they possess.

2. Personal Computing
Small and medium-size businesses as well as individuals form the bulk of personal computing
practitioners. Personal computing means the use of stand-alone computers equipped with all the
system, utility, and application software and I/O devices that an individual needs to perform one
or more tasks.

3. Science and Research


Result of scientific endeavors would take a long time to realize if it were not for the use of
computers in this specialty area.

4. Education
Although computers will never replace books and teachers, the can enhance learning in a way no
other medium can. Through its interactive capability, computers have added a new dimension to
the learning process.

5. Artificial Intelligence
Artificial intelligence is an area of computer research which aims to endow the computer with
certain forms of human intelligence such as the capability to understand natural language or to
reasons under uncertain condition.

Field of Artificial Intelligence is divided into four categories:

1. Knowledge-based and expert system refers to man’s knowledge based on his judgment
algorithmic sense about a specific application area.
2. Natural languages refer to software that enables computer systems to accept, interpret and
execute instructions written in the native or natural language or the end user.
3. Simulation of human sensory capabilities in computer system, such as seeing, hearing and
touching, has been made possible, although in varying report,” the computer will
obligingly follow.
4. Robotics refers to the use of computerized robots in the manufacturing sector. Industrial
robots, which are usually equipped with an arm and a hand, can be instructed to do
repetitive tasks such as screwing on the bolts or painting cars.

The Computer System and its Parts and Categories

What is a Computer System?


A computer is a machine that can be instructed to carry out sequences of arithmetic or
logical operations automatically via computer programming. Modern computers have the ability to
follow generalized sets of operations, called programs. These programs enable computers to
perform an extremely wide range of tasks. A "complete" computer including the hardware, the
operating system (main software), and peripheral equipment required and used for "full"
operation can be referred to as a computer system. This term may as well be used for a group of
computers that are connected and work together, in particular a computer network or computer
cluster.

Computers are used as control systems for a wide variety of industrial and consumer
devices. This includes simple special purpose devices like microwave ovens and remote controls,
factory devices such as industrial robots and computer-aided design, and also general purpose
devices like personal computers and mobile devices such as smartphones. The Internet is run on
computers and it connects hundreds of millions of other computers and their users.
Early computers were only conceived as calculating devices. Since ancient times, simple
manual devices like the abacus aided people in doing calculations. Early in the Industrial
Revolution, some mechanical devices were built to automate long tedious tasks, such as guiding
patterns for looms. More sophisticated electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in
the early 20th century. The first digital electronic calculating machines were developed during
World War II. The first semiconductor transistors in the late 1940s were followed by the silicon-
based MOSFET (MOS transistor) and monolithic integrated circuit (IC) chip technologies in the
late 1950s, leading to the microprocessor and the microcomputer revolution in the 1970s. The
speed, power and versatility of computers have been increasing dramatically ever since then, with
MOS transistor counts increasing at a rapid pace (as predicted by Moore's law), leading to the
Digital Revolution during the late 20th to early 21st centuries.

Conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a


central processing unit (CPU) in the form of a metal-oxidesemiconductor (MOS) microprocessor,
along with some type of computer memory, typically MOS semiconductor memory chips. The
processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing and control
unit can change the order of operations in response to stored information. Peripheral devices
include input devices (keyboards, mice, joystick, etc.), output devices (monitor screens, printers,
etc.), and input/output devices that perform both functions (e.g., the 2000s-era touchscreen).
Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and they enable
the result of operations to be saved and retrieved.

Input Devices
An input device is essentially a piece of hardware that sends data to a computer. Most
input devices either interact with or control the computer in some way. The most common input
devices are the mouse and the keyboard, but there are many others. The key distinction between
an input device and an output device is that the former sends data to the computer, whereas the
latter receives data from the computer. Input and output devices that provide computers with
additional functionality are also called peripheral or auxiliary devices.
1. Keyboard
Keyboards are the most common type of input device. Before keyboards, interaction with
computers was generally carried out using punch cards and paper tape. Most English language
keyboards use the QWERTY layout for the alphabetic keys, which are surrounded by number,
symbol, function, and other key types. By pressing the relevant keys, a user can feed data and
instructions to the computer.

2. Mouse
A mouse interacts with a computer through a process known as "point and click." Essentially,
when a user moves the mouse on the mouse pad, the pointer moves in a corresponding direction
on the computer's monitor screen. The concept of a computer mouse has its roots in the trackball,
a related pointing device invented in 1946 that used a "roller ball" to control a pointer. Most
modern computer mice have two buttons for clicking and a wheel in the middle for scrolling up
and down documents and web pages.
3. Touchpad
Also known as a trackpad, a touchpad is a common substitute for a computer mouse. It is
essentially a specialized surface that can detect the movement of a user's finger and use that
information to direct a pointer and control a computer. Touchpads were first introduced for
laptops in the 1990s, and it's now rare to find a laptop without one.

4. Scanner
The word "scanner" can be used in a number of different ways in the computer world, but here I
am using it to refer to a desktop image scanner. Essentially, a scanner is an input device that uses
optical technology to transfer images (or sometimes text) into a computer, where the signal is
converted into a digital image. The digital image can then be viewed on a monitor screen, saved,
edited, emailed, or printed.

5. Digital Camera
Digital cameras are used to capture photographs and videos independently. Later, these photo and
video files can be transferred to a computer by connecting the camera directly with a cable,
removing the memory card and slotting it into the computer, or through wireless data transfer
methods such as Bluetooth. Once the photos are on the computer, they can be saved, edited,
emailed, or printed.
6. Microphone
A microphone captures audio and sends it to a computer where it is converted to a digital format.
Once the audio has been digitized, it can be played back, copied, edited, uploaded, or emailed.
Microphones can also be used to record audio or to relay sounds live as part of a video chat or
audio stream.

7. Joystick
Joysticks are commonly used to control characters and vehicles in computer video games.
Essentially, a joystick is a handle that pivots on a base and sends its angle or direction to the
computer as data. Many video gaming joysticks feature triggers and buttons that can be pressed to
use weapons or projectiles in games.

8. Graphic Tablet
Also known as digitizers, graphic tablets are input devices used for converting handdrawn artwork
into digital images. The user draws with a stylus on a special flat surface as if they were drawing
on a piece of paper. The drawing appears on the computer screen and can be saved, edited, or
printed. While scanners can only create digital images from drawings, graphic tablets offer greater
control and versatility for artists by allowing them to see their drawing appear live on their
monitor as they create it.

9. Touch Screen
Many devices nowadays use a touch screen rather than a mouse as a way for users to point, drag,
or select options on a screen. As the name suggests, a touch screen is a touch-sensitive monitor
screen that reacts to fingers moving across it. Touch screens are particularly common in portable
devices, such as tablets, palmtops, laptops, and smartphones.

10. Webcam
Webcams are different from digital cameras in two ways. Firstly, they cannot operate
independently from a computer, and second, they have no inbuilt memory. Although webcams can
capture photographs and videos, they are more often used to livestream videos or facilitate video
chats.

Output Devices

What Is an Output Device?


An output device is a piece of computer hardware that receives data from a computer and then
translates that data into another form. That form may be audio, visual, textual, or hard copy such
as a printed document.
The key distinction between an input device and an output device is that an input device sends
data to the computer, whereas an output device receives data from the computer.

For example, using a microphone to record a podcast is an example of using an input device.
Listening to the recorded podcast through a connected speaker is an example of using an output
device. Both output and input devices are examples of auxiliary or peripheral devices.

Analyzing the Functionality of a Device


There are four different categories of output device: visual, data, print, and sound. Each output
device example has a specific history, so here I cover specifically how each device works, when
it became a part of technology history, popular brands on the market selling the device, and a
fun fact.

1. Monitor Mode: Visual


Function: A monitor consists of a screen, circuitry, a power supply, buttons to adjust screen
settings, and a casing that contains all of these components. A monitor displays data from a
computer onto a screen so the user can interact with the data via a digital interface.

Popular Brands: Acer, Alienware, Apple, Asus, Dell, HP, LG, Lenovo, Samsung

Origin Story: The first monitors used the same technology as early televisions, relying on
a cathode ray tube and a fluorescent screen. This technology was first utilized for computer
monitors in 1965 in the Uniscope 300 machine, which had a builtin CRT display. CRT display
lights up a series of dots with a beam on an active part of the screen. This resulted in a maximum
resolution of 1600 by 1200 pixels. LCD (liquid crystal display) entered the market in 2000 and
outsold CRT monitors in 2007. Nowadays, monitors incorporate flat display technology. Plasma
monitors are brighter than both CRT and LCD and function by illuminating tiny charged gas
bubbles, or plasma, in the screen.
2. Printer Mode: Print
Function: The function of a printer is to create a copy of whatever is sent from the computer to the
printer. Printers take electronic data sent from a computer and generate a hard copy.

Popular Brands: Brother, Canon, Epson

3. Headphones Mode: Sound

Function: Headphones output audio from a computer through two individual headphones for a
single listener. Also known as earphones, headphones allow you to listen to audio without
disrupting other people in the vicinity.

Popular Brands: Sennheiser, JBL, Bose, Sony, Skullcandy

4. Computer Speakers Mode: Sound

Function: Computer speakers are hardware devices that transform the signal from the computer's
sound card into audio. Speakers create sound using internal amplifiers that vibrate at different
frequencies according to data from the computer. This produces sound.

5. Projector Mode: Visual

Function: As its name suggests, this output device "projects" computer images or video onto a
wall or screen.
6. GPS (Global Positioning System) Mode: Data

Function: GPS is a radio-based navigation system that’s composed of a sender computer and a
receiver. The sender broadcasts signals to 24 satellites that ping to the sender the exact location of
the sender computer in the form of latitude and longitude coordinates. The satellites use
microwave signals to “talk” to the GPS, giving information on location, vehicle speed, and a
number of other pieces of data.

7. Sound Card Mode: Sound

Function: The sound card controls the output of sound signals, enabling devices like speakers and
headphones to work. The sound card is known as an expansion card, which means it can be added
to the motherboard. Although a sound card is not essential to a computer's basic functionality, you
need one if you wish to play games, watch movies, listen to music, and use audio and video
conferencing.

Popular Brands: Audigy, ASUS, Creative, EVGA

8. Video Card Mode: Visual

Function: As with the sound card, the video card is an expansion card that slots into the
motherboard. The video card processes images and video, enabling visuals to be seen on a display.
Most computers have basic video and graphics capabilities built into the computer's motherboard,
but for faster, more detailed graphics, a video card is required.

Popular Brands: NIVIDIA, ASUS, MSI, EVGA


9. Braille Reader Mode: Print

Function: A braille reader is a peripheral device that enables a blind person to read text displayed
on a computer monitor. The text is sent by the computer to the device, where it is translated into a
braille format and made readable by pushing rounded pins up through a flat surface. Braille
readers are also called braille displays and come in various sizes. Braille readers come in the form
of separate devices from a keyboard or as part of a keyboard. Most use piezoelectric technology,
or electricity generated by mechanical stress, to create a single line of text at a time in the form of
raised bumps.

10. Speech-Generating Device (SGD) Mode: Sound

Function: SGDs, also known as voice output communication aids, generate text to speech. A user
types something and when the command is sent, the SGD reads the sentence out loud.

What is Digital Data Storage?


Digital data storage is essentially the recording of digital information in a storage medium,
typically by electronic means. The storage device usually enables a user to store large amounts of
data in a relatively small physical space, and makes sharing that information with others easy. The
device may be capable of holding the data either temporarily or permanently.

Digital data storage devices have many uses. For example, computers usually depend upon
information storage to function. Storage media can also be used to back up important information
(storing digital data can involve durability and reliability issues, so making independent copies of
the information is normally a wise precaution). Some storage devices are also portable, meaning
that they can be used to transfer information from one computer to another.

Digital data storage media generally fall into one of five categories: magnetic storage devices,
optical storage devices, flash memory devices, online/cloud storage, and paper storage. I will give
one or more examples of each category below.

1. Hard Disk Drive


A hard disk drive (also known as a hard drive, HD, or HDD) can be found installed in almost
every desktop computer and laptop. It stores files for the operating system and software programs,
as well as user documents, such as photographs, text files, and audio. The hard drive uses
magnetic storage to record and retrieve digital information to and from one or more fast-spinning
disks.

2. Floppy Disk
Also know as a diskette, floppy, or FD, the floppy disk is another type of storage medium that uses
magnetic storage technology to store information. Floppy disks were once a common storage
device for computers and lasted from the mid-1970's through to the start of the 21st century. The
earliest floppies were 8-inch (203 mm) in size, but these were replaced by 5 1⁄4-inch (133 mm)
disk drives, and finally a 3 1⁄2 inch (90 mm) version.

3. Tape
In the past, magnetic tape was often used for digital data storage, because of its low cost and
ability to store large amounts of data. The technology essentially consisted of a magnetically thin
coated piece of plastic wrapped around wheels. Its relative slowness and unreliability compared to
other data storage solutions has resulted in it now being largely abandoned as a media.

4. Compact Disc (CD)


The compact disc, known for short as a CD, is a form of optical storage, a technology which
employs lasers and lights to read and write data. Initially compact discs were used purely for
music audio, but in the late 1980's they began to be also used for computer data storage. Initially,
the compact discs that were introduced were CDROM's (read only), but this was followed by CD-
R's (writable compact discs) and CDRW's (re-writable compact discs).

5. DVD and Blu-ray Discs


The DVD (digital versatile disc) and Blu-ray disc (BD) are formats of digital optical disc data
storage which have superseded compact discs, mainly because of their much greater storage
capacity. A Blu-ray disc, for example, can store 25 GB (gigabytes) of data on a single-layer disc
and 50 GB on a dual-layer disc. In comparison, a standard CD is the same physical size, but only
holds 700 MB (megabytes) of digital data.

6. USB Flash Drive


Also known as a thumb drive, pen drive, flash-drive, memory stick, jump drive, and USB stick,
the USB flash drive is a flash memory data storage device that incorporates an integrated USB
interface. Flash memory is generally more efficient and reliable than optical media, being smaller,
faster, and possessing much greater storage capacity, as well as being more durable due to a lack
of moving parts.

7. Secure Digital Card (SD Card)


A common type of memory card, SD cards are used in multiple electronic devices, including
digital cameras and mobile phones. Although there are different sizes, classes, and capacities
available, they all use a rectangular design with one side "chipped off" to prevent the card from
being inserted into the camera or other device the wrong way.

8. Solid State Drive (SSD)


A solid state drive uses flash memory to store data and is sometimes used in devices such as
netbooks, laptop, and desktop computers instead of a traditional hard disk drive. The advantages
of an SSD over a HDD include a faster read/write speed, noiseless operation, greater reliability,
and lower power consumption. The biggest downside is cost, with an SSD offering lower capacity
than an equivalently priced HDD.

9. Cloud Storage
With users increasingly operating multiple devices in multiple places, many are turning to online
and cloud computing solutions. Cloud computing basically involves accessing services over a
network via a collection of remote servers. Although the idea of a "cloud of computers" may
sound abstract to those unfamiliar with this metaphorical concept, in practice it can provide
tremendous storage solutions for devices that are connected to the internet.

10. Punch Card


Punch cards (or punched cards) were a common method of data storage used in the early
computers. Basically, they consisted of a paper card with punched or perforated holes that have
been created by hand or machine. The cards were entered into the computer to enable the storage
and accessing of information. This form of data storage media pretty much disappeared as new
and better technologies were developed.

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS

FIRST GENERATION OF COMPUTERS


• Characterized by vacuum tubes started in 1951.
• UNIVAC I (Universal Integrated Automatic Computer)
• UNIVAC first commercially viable electronic digital computer
• It handled alphabetic characters instead of just numbers.
• IBM 701 marked the company’s initial foray into the market
• IBM 650 it was designed as a logical upgrade to the existing punched card machines.

SECOND GENERATION
• 1959 marked the invention of transistors
• Faster input-output devices were also developed
• IBM Competitors: Burroughs, UNIVAC, NCR, CDC, and Honeywell, collectively known as
BUNCH
• 1963 marked the successful introduction to the market of minicomputers via Digital Equipment
Corporation’s PDP-8

THIRD GENERATION OF COMPUTERS


• 1967 arose the third generation of computer the invention of smaller electronic circuits called
integrated circuits
• IBM’s System 360 the first used computer in this generation
• Integrated circuit was composed of numerous transistors manufactured as a single unit

FOURTH GENERATION
• 4004 chip the First Microprocessor introduce by Intel Corporation
• A four-bit processor with 2,200 transistors • 1971 the fourth generation of computers.
• Altair 8800 1975 introduce computing to individuals and small companies
• 1981 IBM grab the lead in microcomputer industry through IBM PC (Personal Computer)

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