Q.1 Explain all design issues for several layers in Computer.

What is connection – oriented

and connectionless service?

Answer :- Some design patterns, like most of those described by Gamma and Helms Design Patterns,
describe the implementation of micro-architectures. These micro-architectural design patterns are useful,
for the most part, to describe small-scale object interactions.

Other design patterns are useful for abstracting large systems of objects. These are architectural design
patterns. An architectural pattern is any pattern concerned with the construction context of a whole
system, rather than just some part of a system.

The distinction between micro-architectures and system architectures depends on your point of view and
the scale of your system. If your system has 5 objects then the micro-architecture-style design patterns
are architectural patterns because they consider the structure, relative communication, and design
philosophy for the system. But more commonly, architectural design patterns are used to describe the
structure of bigger systems where the number of objects is measured in hundreds or thousands.

One common architectural design pattern is called Layers. Here it is:

Design Pattern: Layers

Intent
Layers is an architectural design pattern that structures applications so they can be decomposed into
groups of subtasks such that each group of subtasks is at a particular level of abstraction.

Some Examples
The traditional 3-tier client server model, which separates application functionality into three distinct
abstractions, is an example of layered design. Much has been written about the 3-tier client-server model
and I wont discuss it further, other to say that this is the result of layered design thinking.

Figure 1: A simplified view of the 3-tier client-server architecture.

In a more general sense, the OSI 7-layer networking model and the Internet Protocol Stack, both
illustrated in Figure 2, are networking protocols that illustrate the use of layering in network architecture.

Figure 2: The OSI 7-layer model, largely supplanted by the more recent and popular Internet Protocol
Stack.

Here is a brief table describing the layers of the OSI 7-layer model.

Layer Role

Application Provides services to user. Examples include telnet, TCP, HTTP.

Presentation Structures information and attaches semantics.

Session Provides dialog control and synchronization facilities.

Responsible for segmenting long messages into packets. Recovers lost packets
Transport with acknowledgments and retransmissions. Flow control. Congestion control.
Breaks messages into packets and guarantees delivery.

Responsible for routing packets from source to destination host. Selects a route
Network
from sender to receiver.
 Responsible for moving packet from one node (host or packet switch) to next
Data Link
node. Error detection and correction. Medium access.

The physical layer, the lowest layer in the OSI stack, is responsible for moving
information between two systems connected by a single physical link. The
Physical
physical layer provides the abstraction of bit transport, independent of the link
technology. Specifies voltage levels, bit spacings.

The OSI 7-layer model is a cool example because it neatly shows the general types of services required
for computers to talk to each other. The Internet protocol stack is a refinement of the OSI 7-layer model,
minus the Presentation and Session layers, whose services are either not needed or abstracted into the
neighboring layers.

Note that each of the layers in the OSI stack dont necessarily function on distinct hardware or memory
space. For example, its common to find the Data Link and Physical layers tightly coupled and interleaved
(for performance reasons) within the same Ethernet network interface card.

A large system requires decomposition. One way to decompose a system is to segment it into
collaborating objects. In large systems a first-cut rough model might produce hundreds or thousands of
potential objects. Additional refactoring typically leads to object groupings that provide related types of
services. When these groups are properly segmented, and their interfaces consolidated, the result is a
layered architecture.

Benefits

Segmentation of high-level from low-level issues. Complex problems can be broken into smaller more
manageable pieces.

Since the specification of a layer says nothing about its implementation, the implementation details of a
layer are hidden (abstracted) from other layers.

Many upper layers can share the services of a lower layer. Thus layering allows us to reuse functionality.

Development by teams is aided because of the logical segmentation.

Easier exchange of parts at a later date.

Two distinct techniques are used in data communications to transfer data. Each has its own
advantages and disadvantages. They are the connection-oriented method and the
connectionless method:

 Connection-oriented    Requires a session connection (analogous to a phone call)

be established before any data can be sent. This method is often called a "reliable"
network service. It can guarantee that data will arrive in the same order.
Connection-oriented services set up virtual links between end systems through a
 network, as shown in Figure 1. Note that the packet on the left is assigned the
virtual circuit number 01. As it moves through the network, routers quickly send it
through virtual circuit 01.

 Connectionless    Does not require a session connection between sender and

receiver. The sender simply starts sending packets (called datagrams) to the
destination. This service does not have the reliability of the connection-oriented
method, but it is useful for periodic burst transfers. Neither system must maintain
state information for the systems that they send transmission to or receive
transmission from. A connectionless network provides minimal services.

Figure 1

Connection-oriented methods may be implemented in the data link layers of the protocol
stack and/or in the transport layers of the protocol stack, depending on the physical
connections in place and the services required by the systems that are communicating. TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol) is a connection-oriented transport protocol, while UDP (User
Datagram Protocol) is a connectionless network protocol. Both operate over IP.

The physical, data link, and network layer protocols have been used to implement
guaranteed data delivery. For example, X.25 packet-switching networks perform extensive
error checking and packet acknowledgment because the services were originally
implemented on poor-quality telephone connections. Today, networks are more reliable. It
is generally believed that the underlying network should do what it does best, which is
deliver data bits as quickly as possible. Therefore, connection-oriented services are now
primarily handled in the transport layer by end systems, not the network. This allows lower-
layer networks to be optimized for speed.

LANs operate as connectionless systems. A computer attached to a network can start

transmitting frames as soon as it has access to the network. It does not need to set up a
connection with the destination system ahead of time. However, a transport-level protocol
such as TCP may set up a connection-oriented session when necessary.
The Internet is one big connectionless packet network in which all packet deliveries are
handled by IP. However, TCP adds connection-oriented services on top of IP. TCP provides
all the upper-level connection-oriented session requirements to ensure that data is delivered
properly. MPLS is a relatively new connection-oriented networking scheme for IP networks
that sets up fast label-switched paths across routed or layer 2 networks.

A WAN service that uses the connection-oriented model is frame relay. The service provider
sets up PVCs (permanent virtual circuits) through the network as required or requested by
the customer. ATM is another networking technology that uses the connection-oriented
virtual circuit approach.

Q.2 Classify Guided medium (wired).Compare fiber optics and copper wire.

Answer : - Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to
another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.

Guided Transmission Media uses a "cabling" system that guides the data signals along
a specific path. The data signals are bound by the "cabling" system. Guided Media is
also known as Bound Media. Cabling is meant in a generic sense in the previous
sentences and is not meant to be interpreted as copper wire cabling only. Cable is the
medium through which information usually moves from one network device to
another.

Twisted pair cable and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and
transport signals in the form of electric current. Optical fiber is a glass or plastic cable
that accepts and transports signals in the form of light.
There four basic types of Guided Media :

1.Open Wire

2.Twisted Pair

3.Coaxial Cable

4.Optical Fiber

Figure 4.3 : Types of guided media

Transmission Medium
Guided
Unguided
Guided Medium
Twisted-Pair
Coaxial
Open wire
Optical
OPEN WIRE

Open Wire is traditionally used to describe the electrical wire strung along power
poles. There is a single wire strung between poles. No shielding or protection from
noise interference is used. We are going to extend the traditional definition of Open
Wire to include any data signal path without shielding or protection from noise
interference. This can include multiconductor cables or single wires. This media is
susceptible to a large degree of noise and interference and consequently not
acceptable for data transmission except for short distances under 20 ft.

Figure4.4: Open wire

TWISTED-PAIR (TP) CABLE

Twisted pair cable is least expensive and most widely used. The wires in Twisted Pair
cabling are twisted together in pairs. Each pair would consist of a wire used for the
+ve data signal and a wire used for the -ve data signal. Any noise that appears on one
wire of the pair would occur on the other wire. Because the wires are opposite
polarities, they are 180 degrees out of phase When the noise appears on both wires, it
cancels or nulls itself out at the receiving end. Twisted Pair cables are most effectively
used in systems that use a balanced line method of transmission : polar line coding
(Manchester Encoding) as opposed to unipolar line coding (TTL logic).

Physical description

·Two insulated copper wires arranged in regular spiral pattern.

·Number of pairs are bundled together in a cable.

·Twisting decreases the crosstalk interference between adjacent pairs in the

cable, by using different twist length for neighboring pairs.

A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic
insulation, twisted together. One of the wire is used to carry signals to the receiver,
and the other is used only a ground reference.

The Electronic Data Rate Digital/Analog

Industries Association
(EIA) has developed
standards to classify
UTP cable into seven
categories. Categories
are determined by cable
quality, with CAT 1 as
the lowest and CAT 7 as
the highest.Category

CAT 1 < 100 Kbps Analog

CAT 2 4 Mbps Analog/Digital

CAT 3 10 Mbps Digital

CAT 4 20 Mbps Digital

CAT 5 100 Mbps Digital

CAT 6 200 Mbps Digital

CAT 7 600 Mbps Digital