MODULE 2: MORAL REASONING AND SKEPTICISM 2A.

3 THE MINIMUM CONCEPTION OF MORALITY

2A.2 MORAL REASONING IN ETHICAL ISSUES THE MINIMUM CONCEPTION OF MORALITY

We may now state the minimum conception: Morality is,
REASON AND IMPARTIALITY at the very least, the effort to guide one’s conduct by
Moral judgments must be backed by good reasons; and reason—that is, to do what there are the best reasons for
second, morality requires the impartial consideration of doing—while giving equal weight to the interests of each
each individual’s interests. individual affected by one’s action.

MORAL REASONING This paints a picture of what it means to be a conscientious

When we feel strongly about an issue, it is tempting to moral agent. The conscientious moral agent is someone
assume that we just know what the truth is, without even who is concerned impartially with the interests of
having to consider arguments on the other side. everyone affected by what he or she does; who carefully
Unfortunately, however, we cannot rely on our feelings, no sifts facts and examines their implications; who accepts
matter how powerful they may be. Our feelings may be principles of conduct only after scrutinizing them to make
irrational; they may be nothing but the by-products of sure they are justified; who will “listen to reason” even
prejudice, selfishness, or cultural conditioning. when it means revising prior convictions; and who, finally,
is willing to
Thus, if we want to discover the truth, we must let our act on these deliberations.
feelings be guided as much as possible by reason. This is
the essence of morality. The morally right thing to do is As one might expect, not every ethical theory accepts this
always the thing best supported by the arguments. Of “minimum.” This picture of the conscientious moral agent
course, not every reason that may be advanced is a good has been disputed in various ways. However, theories that
reason. There are bad arguments as well as good ones, and reject it encounter serious difficulties. This is why most
much of the skill of moral thinking consists in discerning moral theories embrace the minimum conception, in one
the difference. form or another.

The first thing is to get one’s facts straight. The facts exist 2B.1 SKEPTICISM IN MORALITY
independently of our wishes, and responsible moral
thinking begins when we try to see things as they are. PYSCHOLOGICAL EGOISM AND ETHICAL EGOISM

Next, we can bring moral principles into play. In our three We respond differently when there is a “crisis.”
examples, a number of principles were involved: that we
should not “use” people; that we should not kill one We have duties to others simply because they are people
person to save another; that we should do what will who could be helped or harmed by what we do. If a certain
benefit the people affected by our actions; that every life action would benefit (or harm) other people, then that is a
is sacred; and that it is wrong to discriminate against the reason why we should (or should not) perform that action.
handicapped. Most moral arguments consist of principles The common-sense assumption is that other people’s
being applied to particular cases, and so we must ask interests count, from a moral point of view.
whether the principles are justified and whether they are
being applied correctly. Some people believe that we have no duties to others. On
their view, known as Ethical Egoism, each person ought to
The rote application of routine methods is never a pursue his or her own self-interest exclusively. This is the
satisfactory substitute for critical thinking, in any area. morality of selfishness. It holds that our only duty is to do
Morality is no exception. what is best for ourselves. Other people matter only
insofar as they can benefit us.
THE REQUIREMENT OF IMPARTIALITY
Almost every important moral theory includes the idea of
impartiality. This is the idea that each individual’s interests Ethical Egoism claims that each person ought to pursue his
are equally important; no one should get special or her own self-interest exclusively. People ought to be
treatment. At the same time, impartiality requires that we self-interested and that our neighbors ought not to give to
do not treat the members of particular groups as inferior, charity. Ethical Egoism makes a claim about morality, or
and thus it condemns forms of discrimination like sexism about the way things should be.
and racism.
Psychological Egoism, by contrast, asserts that each person 6. The moral code of a society determines what is
does, in fact, pursue his or her own self-interest right within that society; that is, if the moral code
exclusively. People are self-interested and that our of a society says it is.
neighbors will not give to charity. Psychological Egoism
makes a claim about human nature, or about the way THE CULTURAL DIFFERENCES ARGUMENT
things are. 1. Different cultures have different moral codes.
2. Therefore, there is no objective truth in morality.
2B.2 (PART 2) AYN RAND'S ARGUMENT 3. Right and wrong are only matters of opinion, and
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=asery3UeBj4 opinions vary from culture to culture.
In this video, you will learn about Ayn Rand argument in
support of Ethical Egoism. WHAT FOLLOWS FROM CULTURAL RELATIVISM
1. We could no longer say that the customs of other
2B.3 CULTURAL RELATIVISM societies are morally inferior to our own.
2. We could no longer criticize the code of our own
DIFFERENT CULTURES HAVE DIFFERENT MORAL CODES society.
The Callatians, who lived in India, ate the bodies of their 3. The idea of moral progress is called into doubt.
dead fathers. The Greeks, of course, did not do that—the
Greeks practiced cremation and regarded the funeral pyre WHAT WE CAN LEARN FROM CULTURAL RELATIVISM
as the natural and fitting way to dispose of the dead. The
Eskimos lived in small settlements, separated by great First, Cultural Relativism warns us, quite rightly, about the
distances, and their customs turned out to be very danger of assuming that all of our practices are based on
different from ours. The men often had more than one some absolute rational standard. They are not. Some of
wife, and they would share their wives with guests, lending our customs are merely conventional—merely peculiar to
them out for the night as a sign of hospitality. Moreover, our society—and it is easy to lose sight of that fact. Cultural
within a community, a dominant male might demand— Relativism begins with the insight that many of our
and get—regular sexual access to other men’s wives. The practices are like this—they are only cultural products.
women, however, were free to break these arrangements
simply by leaving their husbands and taking up with new The second lesson has to do with keeping an open mind.
partners—free, that is, so long as their former husbands As we grow up, we develop strong feelings about things:
chose not to make too much trouble. All in all, the Eskimo We learn to see some types of behavior as acceptable, and
custom of marriage was a volatile practice that bore little other types as outrageous.
resemblance to our custom.
Cultural Relativism provides an antidote for this kind of
dogmatism. Realizing this can help broaden our minds. We
CULTURAL RELATIVISM can see that our feelings are not necessarily perceptions of
Main Idea: “Different cultures have different moral codes. the truth— they may be due to cultural conditioning and
Therefore, there are no universal moral truths, the nothing more.
customs of different societies are all that exist.
Many of the practices and attitudes we find natural are
The following claims have all been made by cultural really only cultural products.
relativists:
1. Different societies have different moral codes; 2B.3 ETHICAL RELATIVISM
that a certain action is right, then that action is https://youtu.be/MzravIHX2aI
right, at least within that society. In this video, you will learn about Ethical relativism or
2. There is no objective standard that can be used to moral relativism. It is the view that ethical or moral values
judge one society’s code as better than another’s. and beliefs are relative to the various individuals or
There are no societies that hold them. Thus, according to the ethical or
3. moral truths that hold for all people at all times. moral relativists, there is no objective right and wrong.
4. The moral code of our own society has no special
status; it is but one among many.
5. It is arrogant for us to judge other cultures. We
should always be tolerant of them.