Submitted by:

Tarnate, Hazel R.
BSBA – 4B

Submitted to:
Professor Renilda Martinez
UNIT I
INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY - Sociology focuses on the systematic
understanding of social interaction, social organization, social institutions, and social
change.

Definition of Sociology - Sociology is the study of social life, social change, and the
social causes and consequences of human behaviour. Sociologists investigate the
structure of groups, organizations, and societies and how people interact within these
contexts.

Subject matter of sociology - Sociology is a science with its own subject matter,
'social life as a whole' and deals with more general principles underlying all social
phenomena. Social phenomena is the subject matter of sociology.

1. What is sociology?
Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions. Sociology’s subject
matter is diverse, ranging from crime to religion, from the family to the state, from the
divisions of race and social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture, and from
social stability to radical change in whole societies. Unifying the study of these diverse
subjects of study is sociology’s purpose of understanding how human action and
consciousness both shape and are shaped by surrounding cultural and social
structures.

2. Brief Historical Overview

Although sociology has its roots in the works of philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, and
Confucius, it is a relatively new academic discipline. It emerged in the early 19th century
in response to the challenges of modernity. Increasing mobility and technological
advances resulted in the increasing exposure of people to cultures and societies
different from their own.

The Birth of Sociology as a Discipline

The term sociology was coined by French philosopher Auguste Comte in 1838, who for
this reason is known as the “Father of Sociology.” Comte felt that science could be used
to study the social world. Just as there are testable facts regarding gravity and other
natural laws, Comte thought that scientific analyses could also discover the laws
governing our social lives. It was in this context that Comte introduced the concept of
positivism to sociology — a way to understand the social world based on scientific facts.
He believed that, with this new understanding, people could build a better future.
The Modern History of Sociology
The growth of sociology as an academic discipline in the United States coincided with
the establishment and upgrading of many universities that were including a new focus
on graduate departments and curricula on “modern subjects.” In 1876, Yale University’s
William Graham Sumner taught the first course identified as “sociology” in the United
States. The University of Chicago established the first graduate department of sociology
in the United States in 1892 and by 1910, most colleges and universities were offering
sociology courses. Thirty years later, most of these schools had established sociology
departments. Sociology was first taught in high schools in 1911.

3. Subject Matter of Sociology

Sociology is a distinct science with its own subject matter. It has by now been able to
establish itself as a distinct science concerned with the scientific study of society. It has
accumulated a body of knowledge about society. It has been said surprisingly enough
by some critics that sociology does not have a subject matter of its own.

4. Levels of Sociological Analysis

 Micro level research examines individuals and individual-level interactions of
various kinds, including, for example, people's intentions, feelings, and beliefs.
 Meso level, sociologists tend to study the experiences of groups and the
interactions between groups.
 Macro level research study interactions at the broadest level, such as
interactions between nations or comparisons across nations.

5. Important Fields of Sociology

Sociologist is one who has earned advanced degrees or pursued other advanced
studies in sociology and is engaged in teaching, research or other professional work in
the field of sociology. The careless use of the term sociologist is very common.
Magazine and newspaper writers, social workers, labour leaders, government officials,
social critics etc. may be described incorrectly as sociologist.
Fields of Sociology
1. Rural Sociology - Rural sociology is a field of sociology traditionally associated with
the study of social structure and conflict in rural areas although topical areas such as
food and agriculture or natural resource access transcend traditional rural spatial
boundaries (Sociology Guide 2011).

2. Urban Sociology - Urban sociology is the sociological study of life and human
interaction in metropolitan areas. It is a normative discipline of sociology seeking to
study the structures, environmental processes, changes and problems of an urban area
and by doing so provide inputs for urban planning and policy making.
3. Medical Sociology - Medical sociology is the sociological analysis of medical
organizations and institutions; the production of knowledge and selection of methods,
the actions and interactions of healthcare professionals, and the social or cultural
effects of medical practice.
4. Criminology - Criminology is the study of crime. Students who major in criminology
learn about the causes of crime related to biology, psychology, or social factors like
socioeconomic status. These majors examine crime in different places, ranging from
neighbourhoods to other countries.
5. Social Psychology - Social psychology is the study of how individual or group
behaviour is influenced by the presence and behaviour of others. The major question
social psychologists ponder is this: How and why are people's perceptions and
actions influenced by environmental factors, such as social interaction?
6. Economic Sociology - Economic sociology is the study of the social cause and
effect of various economic phenomena. The field can be broadly divided into a classical
period and a contemporary one, known as & quot;New economic sociology". 
7. Sociology of Religion - Sociology of religion is the study of the beliefs, practices and
organizational forms of religion using the tools and methods of the discipline of
sociology. This objective investigation may include the use both of quantitative methods
and of qualitative approaches.
8. Industrial Sociology - Industrial sociology is an applied discipline. It is concerned
with the study of human relations as they grow and operate in the field of industries. It
deals with the sociological concepts that have relevance to industry. It concentrates
upon the social organizations of the work place or industry.
9. Sociology of Social Problems - A social problem is any condition or behaviour that
has negative consequences for large numbers of people and that is generally
recognized as a condition or behaviour that needs to be addressed. This definition has
both an objective component and a subjective component.
10. Sociology of Education - The sociology of education is the study of how public
institutions and individual experiences affect education and its outcomes. It is mostly
concerned with the public schooling systems of modern industrial societies, including
the expansion of higher, further, adult, and continuing education.
11. Political Sociology - Political sociology is an interdisciplinary field of study
concerned with exploring how power and oppression operate in society across micro to
macro levels of analysis. 
12. Sociology of the Family - Sociology of the family is a subfield of the subject of
sociology, in which researchers and academics evaluate family structure as a social
institution and unit of socialization from various sociological perspectives.

6. Major Theoretical Perspective in Sociology

 The functionalist perspective - The functionalist perspective is based largely
on the works of Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, and Robert
Merton.
 The conflict perspective - The functionalist perspective views society as
composed of different parts working together.
 The symbolic interactionist perspective - Both the functionalist and the conflict
perspectives are concerned with how broad aspects of society, such as
institutions and large social groups, influence the social world

Significance of Learning Sociology

Sociology increases the understanding and power of social action. Sociology studies
the role of social institutions (home, school, church and more) in the development of the
individuals. Sociology provides critical insight and perspective to the solution of social
problems.

UNIT II
SOCIETY AND CULTURE - Different societies have different cultures; a culture
represents the beliefs and practices of a group, while society represents the people who
share those beliefs and practices. ... Nonmaterial culture, in contrast, consists of the
ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society.

Concept of Society
1. Definition
A society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or a large
social group sharing the same spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same
political authority and dominant cultural expectations. ... These patterns of behaviour
within a given society are known as societal norms.
2. Basic Features of Society
 Likeness - Likeness of members in a social group is the primary basis of their
mutuality.
 The Reciprocal Awareness Differences - Likeness is generative of reciprocity.
Once some are aware of the mutual likeness, they, certainly differentiate against
those who are not like them. The problem of likes and dislikes was concomitant to the
social growth. Consciousness of this kind, alone could make sense of likeness. All social
action is based on reciprocal response. This alone, makes possible, the we-feeling.

 Differences - Sense of likeness in not always sufficient. It alone is not adequate

for social organisation. This does not exclude diversity or variation. The social
structure of humanity is based on the family which rests upon the biological
differences between the sexes, viz, men and women. The economic structure of
society is based upon division of labour in which the professions and economic
activities of people are different or dissimilar. The culture of society prospers with
the differences in thoughts ideals, viewpoints, etc. No two individuals are alike in
their nature.
 Interdependence - Society implies interdependence. It is another essential
element to constitute society. It is not possible for human being to satisfy his
desire in isolation.
 Cooperation - Cooperation is also another essential element to constitute
society. Without cooperation, no society can exist. If the members of the society
do not work together for the common purposes, they cannot lead a happy and
comfortable life. Cooperation avoids mutual destructiveness and results in
economy. In the words of P. Gisbert, “Cooperation is the most elementary
process of social life without which society is impossible.”
 Conflict - Conflict is an ever present phenomenon present in every human
society. Not only cooperation but also conflict in necessary for the formation of
society. They must coexist in a healthy society. Conflict is a process of struggle
through which all things have come into existence.

3. Types or Categories of Society

 Hunting and gathering societies.
 Pastoral societies.
 Horticultural societies.
 Agricultural societies.
  Industrial societies.
 Post-industrial societies

Concept of Culture
1. Definition
Culture is the characteristics and knowledge of a particular group of people,
encompassing language, religion, cuisine, social habits, music and arts. ... The word
"culture" derives from a French term, which in turn derives from the Latin "colere," which
means to tend to the earth and grow, or cultivation and nurture.

2. Basic Features of Culture

 Learned - It is not biological; we do not inherit it. Much of learning culture is
unconscious. We learn culture from families, peers, institutions, and media. The
process of learning culture is known as enculturation. While all humans have
basic biological needs such as food, sleep, and sex, the way we fulfil those
needs varies cross-culturally.
 Shared - Because we share culture with other members of our group, we are
able to act in socially appropriate ways as well as predict how others will act.
Despite the shared nature of culture, that doesn’t mean that culture is
homogenous (the same). The multiple cultural worlds that exist in any society are
discussed in detail below.
 Based on symbols - A symbol is something that stands for something else.
Symbols vary cross-culturally and are arbitrary. They only have meaning when
people in a culture agree on their use. Language, money and art are all symbols.
Language is the most important symbolic component of culture.
 Integrated - This is known as holism, or the various parts of a culture being
interconnected. All aspects of a culture are related to one another and to truly
understand a culture, one must learn about all of its parts, not only a few.
 Dynamic - This simply means that cultures interact and change. Because most
cultures are in contact with other cultures, they exchange ideas and symbols. All
cultures change, otherwise, they would have problems adapting to changing
environments. And because cultures are integrated, if one component in the
system changes, it is likely that the entire system must adjust.

3. Elements of Culture
 Symbols - Every culture is filled with symbols, or things that stand for something
else and that often evoke various reactions and emotions. Some symbols are
 actually types of nonverbal communication, while other symbols are in fact
material objects. 

 Language - Perhaps our most important set of symbols is language. In English,

the word chair means something we sit on. In Spanish, the word silla means the
same thing. As long as we agree how to interpret these words, a shared
language and thus society are possible. By the same token, differences in
languages can make it quite difficult to communicate. 
 Norms - Cultures differ widely in their norms, or standards and expectations for
behaving. We already saw that the nature of drunken behaviour depends on
society’s expectations of how people should behave when drunk. Norms of
drunken behaviour influence how we behave when we drink too much.
Norms are the formal and informal rules regarding what kinds of behaviour are
acceptable and appropriate within a culture. Norms are specific to a culture, time
period, and situation.
 Rituals - Different cultures also have different rituals, or established procedures
and ceremonies that often mark transitions in the life course. As such, rituals
both reflect and transmit a culture’s norms and other elements from one
generation to the next. Graduation ceremonies in colleges and universities are
familiar examples of time-honoured rituals.
 Values - Values are another important element of culture and involve judgments
of what is good or bad and desirable or undesirable. A culture’s values shape its
norms. In Japan, for example, a central value is group harmony.
 Artifacts - The last element of culture is the artifacts, or material objects, that
constitute a society’s material culture. In the most simple societies, artifacts are
largely limited to a few tools, the huts people live in, and the clothing they wear.
One of the most important inventions in the evolution of society was the wheel.

4. Important Aspects of Culture

 Communicate with one another
 Build relationships
 Create a sense of community

UNIT III - SOCIALIZATION

Concept of Socialization
1. Definition
The act of adapting behaviour to the norms of a culture or society is called socialization.
Socialization can also mean going out and meeting people or hanging out with
friends. ... If you constantly chat with your co-workers, your manager might inform you
that you are there to work, not for socialization.

2. Process of Socialization
Socialization is a learning process that begins shortly after birth. Early childhood is the
period of the most intense and the most crucial socialization. It is then that we acquire
language and learn the fundamentals of our culture. 

3. Goals of Socialization
 Teaching impulse control and developing a conscience
 Preparing people to perform certain social roles
 Cultivating shared sources of meaning and value

4. Human Biological Bases of Socialization

 Lack of instincts - The word "instinct", in its current social science usage refers
to the complex patterns of behaviour for which some animal species program as
organic. For example, nest-building among birds is unclear. But people do not
have the same behaviour attached organic, even though they were built many
physiological reflexes.
 Contact social needs - People to persistent social contact. Studies conducted
on primates and human infants have shown that a lack of stimulation to inhibit
contact in infancy and turn to learn the development of higher functionality.
Satisfaction of social contacts and initiations needs of the people is a strong
biological imperative.
 Longer duration of Childhood Dependency - The third biological condition that
makes extensive socialization is important for the people, is the child of someone
much longer period of physical dependence and sexual immaturity than the other
animals. The need for Community Space strategy and skills acquisition further
extends dependency. Such a long period of dependency, where the children are
cared for and controlled by others, resulting in an extreme emotional dependence
that continues throughout life.
 Learning capacity - A high level of intelligence is an innate human biological
potential. So, people are highly educable; they may be more than other animals
can also get more information over a longer period.
 Language - the ability of people to learn is a characteristic of his capacity for
language. Other animals may have some degree of intelligence, but only the
people have excuses because they language. Expressive language and arouses
emotions; Brings feelings, values and knowledge. Or as a vehicle for knowledge
 or attitude, language is the most important factor in the development of human
society. Symbolic communication, which is possessed only by humans, makes
language possible. The natural man has the potential and ability to create culture
and to be guided by cultural and social norms. In the midst of all these is
language.
5. Modes of Social Learning
 Observation
 Imitation
 Modelling

6. Patterns of Socialization
 Primary - Primary socialization takes place early in life, as a child and
adolescent.
 Secondary socialization - takes place throughout an individual's life, both as a
child and as one encounters new groups.

7. Types of Socialization
 Primary socialization - This type of socialization happens when a child learns
the values, norms and behaviours that should be displayed in order to live
accordingly to a specific culture.
 Secondary socialization - This type of socialization occurs when a person
learns an appropriate behaviour to be displayed within a smaller group which is
still part of a larger society. The changes within the values, attitudes and beliefs
of an individual are seen to be less important than the changes made in him as
he participates in the larger society.
 Developmental socialization - This type of socialization involves a learning
process wherein the focus in on developing our social skills.
 Anticipatory socialization - This type of socialization refers to the process
wherein a person practices or rehearses for future social relationships.
 Resocialization - This type of socialization involves rejecting previous behaviour
patterns and accepting new ones so the individual can shift from one part of his
life to another. Resocialization is said to be happening throughout human life
cycle.

8. Agents and Components of Socialization

Agents of socialization, or institutions that can impress social norms upon an individual,
include 
 Family - A family serves to reproduce society biologically, through procreation,
and socially, through the socialization of children.
 Neighbourhood - A neighbourhood is a geographically localized community
within a larger city, town, or suburb.
 School - Education is the process by which society transmits its accumulated
knowledge, skills, customs and values from one generation to another.
 Day care – Day care, in which children are cared for by a person other than their
legal guardians, contributes to their socialization.
 Religion - Religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and
worldviews that relate humanity to spirituality and moral values.
 Peer groups - A peer group, whose members have interests, social positions,
and age in common, have an influence on the socialization of group members.
 Media Bias - Media bias refers the bias of journalists and news producers within
the mass media. Bias exists in the selection of events and stories that are
reported and how they are covered. The term “media bias” implies a pervasive or
widespread bias contravening the standards of journalism, rather than the
perspective of an individual journalist or article. The direction and degree of
media bias in various countries is widely disputed.
 Mass Media and Technology - Since mass media has enormous effects on our
attitudes and behaviour, it contributes to the socialization process.
 Workplace - The workplace performs its socialization process through on
boarding, through which employees acquire skills to adjust to their new role.
 The Division of Labor - Division of labor is the specialization of cooperative
labor in specific, circumscribed tasks and similar roles.
 The Incest Taboo, Marriage, and the Family - An incest taboo is any cultural
rule or norm that prohibits sexual relations between relatives.
 Ideology - Ideology is a coherent system of ideas that constitutes one’s goals,
expectations, and actions.
 Resocialization and Total Institutions - A total institution is a place where a
group of people is cut off from the wider community and their needs are under
bureaucratic control.

UNIT IV - SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND SOCIAL INTERACTION

Concept of Social Organization
In sociology, a social organization is a pattern of relationships between and among
individuals and social groups. ... These interactions come together to constitute
common features in basic social units such as family, enterprises, clubs, states, etc.
These are social organizations.
1. Definition of Social Group
In the social sciences, a social group is two or more humans who interact with one
another, share similar characteristics, and have a collective sense of unity. This is a
very broad definition, as it includes groups of all sizes, from dyads to whole societies.

2. Basic Features of Social Groups

 Mutual Awareness - The members of a social group must be mutually related to
one another.
 One or more Common Interests - Groups are mostly formed for the fulfilment of
certain interests.
 Sense of Unity - Each social group requires sense of unity and a feeling of
sympathy for the development of a feeling or sense of belongingness. 
 We-feeling - A sense of we-feeling refers to the tendency on the part of the
members to identify themselves with the group.
 Similarity of Behaviour - For the fulfilment of common interest, the members of
a group behave in a similar way
 Group Norms - Each and every group has its own ideals and norms and the
members are supposed to follow these.

Classifications of Social Groups

1. Primary Group:
The concept of the primary group was introduced by C.H. Cooley. By primary groups he
meant the intimate, personal, ‘face-to-face’ groups.
2. Secondary Group:
In the changed circumstances, we develop, in contrast to the intimacy and spontaneity
of primary groups, formal organisations described as secondary groups (this term was
not introduced by Cooley) in which the individuals have functionally defined roles as
members of the group.
3. In-group and Out-group:
The groups with which an individual identifies himself completely are his in-groups. He
has feelings of attachment, sympathy and affection towards the members of these
groups.
4. Reference Group:
The concept of reference group was first developed by Hayman. Subsequently, Turner,
R.K. Merton and Sheriff elaborated it further. The concept of reference group, as
originally developed, may be explained thus: In some situations we conform not to the
norms of the groups to which we actually belong but rather to those of the groups to
which we should like to belong, those with which we would like to be identified.
5.  Voluntary Groups and Involuntary Groups:
The distinction between voluntary and involuntary groups corresponds exactly with that
made between achieved and ascribed statuses. There are some groups we join on our
own. These are voluntary groups of which we choose to become members.
6. Large Group and Small Group:
Groups may also be classified on the basis of the number of members composing the
group. A large groups is obviously a group comprising a large number of members and
small group a group of limited number of members.
7. Patterned and Non-Patterned Group:
There are groups which are organised on a hierarchical principle. Thus when a football
team participates in a competition, the team consists of, besides the players
themselves, a team manager, a coach and a captain chosen from among the players,
All of them are assigned very specific roles and the relationship among them is also
governed by specific norms.

Concept of Social Relationship

An interaction between individuals that affects every participant. Social relationships
include the interactions, which bind people together into sports teams and groups.

Concept of Social Status

Social status is the level of social value a person is considered to hold. More
specifically, it refers to the relative level of respect, honour, assumed competence, and
deference accorded to people, groups, and organizations in a society.

Types of Social Status

1. Achieved Status
An achieved status is one that is acquired on the basis of merit; it is a position that is
earned or chosen and reflects a person's skills, abilities, and efforts.
2. Ascribed Status
An ascribed status, on the other hand, is beyond an individual's control. It is not earned,
but rather is something people are either born with or had no control over.

Concept of Social Roles

Social roles are the part people play as members of a social group. With each social
role you adopt, your behaviour changes to fit the expectations both you and others have
of that role. 

Social Interactions in Everyday Life

1 .Definition of Social Interaction
Any process that involves reciprocal stimulation or response between two or more
individuals. Social interaction includes the development of cooperation and competition,
the influence of status and social roles, and the dynamics of group behaviour,
leadership, and conformity

2. Four Symbolic Interactionist Micro Sociological Perspectives

 Structural-Functional -  also called functionalism, sees society as a structure
with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of the
individuals in that society.
 Social Conflict - Looks at society as a competition for limited resources. This
perspective is a macro-level approach most identified with the writings of German
philosopher and sociologist Karl Marx (1818–1883), who saw society as being
made up of two classes, the bourgeoisie (capitalist) and
the proletariat (workers), who must compete for social, material, and political
resources such as food and housing, employment, education, and leisure time.
 Feminism - is the extension of feminism into theoretical, fictional, or
philosophical discourse. It aims to understand the nature of gender inequality.
Feminist theory often focuses on analysing gender inequality.
 Symbolic Interactionism - is a micro-level theory that focuses on meanings
attached to human interaction, both verbal and non-verbal, and to
 symbols. Communication—the exchange of meaning through language and
symbols—is believed to be the way in which people make sense of their social
worlds.

Social Institutions
1. Definition of Social Institutions
A social institution is an interrelated system of social roles and social norms, organized
around the satisfaction of an important social need or social function. Social Institutions
are organized patterns of beliefs and behaviour that are centered on basic social needs.

2. Functions of Social Institutions

Reproduction
The institutions reproduce human race, goods, services, traditions and all other patterns
of social life. Human race is reproduced in family. Material goods and services are
produced and distributed by economic institutions. Power and authority and status and
role are produced and enforced by the political institutions. The religious institutions’
products are rituals, values, beliefs and ceremonies. Educational institutions provide
different techniques and ways of living for the people.

Socialization
All the institutions preserve social norms by transmitting them to the people participating
in them. The process of socialization starts from birth and continues up to the end of life.
Man is always in learning process. The learning of the ways of life in social groups is
called’ socialization. Or the inducting of man into social life is. Socialization. This
process goes on through the institutions because man lives in them. He learns norms of
social life only in the institutions. Family teaches the elementary norms called folkways.
The neighbourhood teaches mores and educational institutions guide in legal courses of
social life. The bazars and markets guide us in economic dealing. The religious
institutions help us in the normative social life of a religion.

Sense of Purpose
Every institution is established for the fulfilment of a special purpose. Harvard University
provide C configuration. This store of culture remains dead if not transmitted with a
change. Every generation adds something into it from its experience while passing on to
the next generation. The process of transmission is completed by formal and informal
education through various social institutions. Even the market places play this role. The
mosque, the bus journey, the marriage customs, the labor service and the
administration of the public affairs, all are transmitting institutions of cultural traits.
Personality Development
The institutions shape personalities of the individuals. A child born to an Indian or
Pakistani family if socialized in America will display American personality traits in him
after 1 to 10 years of life. It means personality is not a biological process. It is a social
process and depends upon the institutions which socialize it. Personality develops in the
institutions which socialize it. 

3. Major Social Institutions

1. Political - Government as political institution, administers the regulatory functions of

Law and order, and maintains security in society. Form of government and its method of
working depends on the accepted patterns of behaviour in a society. Development work
is now-a-days a major responsibility of the government. For effective implementation of
programmes, government may decentralise its functioning by creating local self-
government like panchayats at different level.
2. Education - is the process of socialisation, which begins informally at home and then
formally in educational institutions. Education as an institution helps develop knowledge,
skill, attitude and understanding of the people and strive to make them competent
members of the society. Education widens the mental horizon of the people and make
them receptive to new ideas.
3. Economic - Economy provides basic physical sustenance of the society by meeting
the needs for food, shelter, clothing, and other necessary supply and services.
Economic institutions include agriculture, industry, marketing, credit and banking
system, co-operatives etc.
4. Family - is the most basic social institution in a society, and is a system of organized
relationship involving workable and dependable ways of meeting basic social needs.
5. Religion - is belief in supernatural. Religion constitutes a set of beliefs regarding the
ultimate power in the universe, the ideal and proper pattern of behaviour, and
ceremonial ways to expressing these beliefs. Religion also provides a foundation for the
mores of the society. Taboos in various cultures have religious sanction. Religion
provides a means by which individuals can face crises and ups and downs in life with
strength and fortitude.

Concept of Social Control

1. Concept and Necessity of Social Control
 Concept of Social Control - Social control is the study of the mechanisms, in
the form of patterns of pressure, through which society maintains social order
and cohesion. Regardless of its source, the goal of social control is to maintain
conformity to established norms and rules.
  Necessity of Social Control - Social control is necessary for maintaining order
in the society. It is necessary for every society or group to maintain its social
order and this is possible only when its members behave in accordance with that
social order. An important objective of social control is to maintain the old order.

2. Types of Social Control

 Direct Control - or the use of punishments and rewards to incentivize particular
behaviours
 Indirect Control - or the affectionate identification with individuals who adhere to
social norms
 Internal Control - or the manipulation of an individual’s conscience or sense of
guilt to encourage conformity.

UNIT V – SOCIAL PROCESSES

Concept of Social Processes
Social processes are the ways in which individuals and groups interact, adjust and
readjust and establish relationships and pattern of behaviour which are again 

Modes of Social Processes

 Accommodation - Accommodation is another important associative social process. It
is, infact a sort of co-operation among people after their conflict comes to an end.
Because conflict cannot continue for an indefinite period. It must be resolved at some
stage or other. The end of conflict directs the way for accommodation.
 Assimilation - Another integrative or associative social process is assimilation. It
is also one form of social adjustment. It is a process whereby persons and
groups acquire the culture of other group in which they come to live, by adopting
its attitudes and values, its patterns of thinking and behaving, in short, its way of
life. It is more permanent than accommodation. We reach this stage of
assimilation only after accommodation.
 Cooperation - Co-operation is the most fundamental associative social process.
The term “Co-operation” has been derived from two Latin words: ‘Co’ means
‘together’ and ‘Operari’ meaning ‘to work’. Hence cooperation means working
together or joint activity for the achievement of common goal or goals
 Competition - The most important fundamental dissociative social process is
competition. It is a form of opposition or social struggle. It is a contest among
individuals or groups to acquire something which has limited supply or insufficient
in quantity and not easily available. It is characterized by non-co-operation. Here
the competitors forces their attention on the goal or the reward they are
 struggling to achieve but not on themselves. They try to achieve the goal by
methods other than force or fraud.
 Conflict - Another significant dissociative social process is conflict. It is an ever
present process in human society. Whenever a person or persons or groups
seek to gain reward not by surpassing other competitors but by preventing them
from effective competition, conflict takes place. In other words, it is a competition
in its more hostile and personal forms. It is a process of seeking to obtain
rewards by eliminating or weakening the competitors. It is seen that conflict
makes an individual or group try to frustrate the effort of another individual or
group who are seeking the same object.

Social Stratification
1. Definition
Social stratification refers to a ranking of people or groups of people within a society.
The existence of a system of social stratification also implies some form of legitimation
of the ranking of people and the unequal distribution of valued goods, services, and
prestige.

2. Importance of Studying Social Stratification

1. Matches ability with higher positions:
According to Davis Moore, a major function of the stratification is to match the most able
people with the most important position in the society.
2. Encourages hard work:
The main function of social stratification is to make the people of upper strata to work
hard and to live up to their positions and status. Pearson argues that American society
values the achievements and efficiency of individual and puts emphasis on hard work
and productive activity wit
3. Helps the process of pursuit of different professions:
Society needs both manual and non-manual workers. Some professions and jobs are
not attractive to the trained or ‘refined’ people because they are socialised to aspire for
certain jobs. The socialization, values, and attitudes of the people act as reasons behind
the pursuit of different professions and jobs. The people belonging to various classes
and groups of people come forward to join different professions and jobs.
4. Social Stratification provides motivation to acquire a position:
Different social positions offer different opportunities and emolument. Those positions
which are higher also offer better conditions and positions. People always try to get
higher position in society. In the absence of stratification, individuals cannot be
expected to get motivated for occupying certain positions.
5. Social Stratification is natural and justified:
Social stratification is also justified on the ground that all positions do not involve same
responsibilities. Those positions which have higher and more responsibilities should be
given higher statuses and only then they can attract suitable individuals to occupy them.
6. Recognises merit and ability:
Different positions require different talents, abilities and capabilities from the persons
who occupy them. It would be unjustified to introduce equality among these statuses
because a person with more ability or intelligence has to be given higher status to an
individual who has a lesser ability.
7. All Positions are not equal and hence need stratification:
All positions cannot be regarded as equal since some of these require more
qualifications, experience and training. On the other hand certain positions do not
require any training at all. Therefore, we cannot give equal status to an engineer and a
manual labourer.
If we do so, nobody would like to bother to undergo expensive and lengthy engineering
degree and training. In case society wants individuals to undergo such qualifications
and trainings, it has to offer certain awards and incentives in the form of higher statuses.
8. Source of much needed incentives in society:
Social stratification provides a system of earning some incentives which individuals can
earn by performing some roles. If we give higher status to an individual, we can expect
him to perform his role with more devotion and sincerity.
9. Social Stratification introduces competition in society:
Competition is a functional necessity of society because a society without competition
cannot progress. Absence of competition always makes people lethargic and stagnant.
The element of competition puts life among them and makes them work hard for
achieving higher and higher statuses. Social stratification creates a situation of
competition and encourages the people for improvement and progress.
10. Ensures circulation among Elites:
Social Stratification means the emergence/birth of various social classes and groups of
people. Some groups get the status of being elite groups. People try to get entry into
elite groups which means higher positions in society.
To some extent there is in existence the process of circulation of elites. This
encourages the emergence of social competition. In the process more and more hard
working and efficient persons come forward in society and they are able to rise to the
top positions in due course of time.
11. Social Stratification acts as a source of integration of the people of all social
classes:
Pearson rightly points out that Social stratification is functional because it serves to
integrate various groups of the society. Members of each class recognize the roles and
necessity of members of other classes.
12. Less rigid stratification ensures both social integration and differentiation:
Less rigid stratification always helps in improving the status of people by providing
opportunities for entry into higher classes. It influences all classes of people to realize
their collective importance in society and at same time encourages them to work for
securing entries into higher and higher classes. It acts as a source of social
differentiation as well as integration.

3. Theories of Social Stratification

 Functionalism - In sociology, the functionalist perspective examines how
society’s parts operate. According to functionalism, different aspects of society
exist because they serve a needed purpose. What is the function of social
stratification?
In 1945, sociologists Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore published the Davis-
Moore thesis, which argued that the greater the functional importance of a social
role, the greater must be the reward. The theory posits that social stratification
represents the inherently unequal value of different work. Certain tasks in society
are more valuable than others. Qualified people who fill those positions must be
rewarded more than others.
 Conflict Theory - Conflict theorists are deeply critical of social stratification,
asserting that it benefits only some people, not all of society. For instance, to a
conflict theorist, it seems wrong that a basketball player is paid millions for an
annual contract while a public school teacher earns $35,000 a year. Stratification,
conflict theorists believe, perpetuates inequality. Conflict theorists try to bring
awareness to inequalities, such as how a rich society can have so many poor
members.
 Symbolic Interactionism - Symbolic interactionism is a theory that uses
everyday interactions of individuals to explain society as a whole. Symbolic
interactionism examines stratification from a micro-level perspective. This
analysis strives to explain how people’s social standing affects their everyday
interactions.
4. Forms of Social Stratification
1. SLAVERY SYSTEM - In the earliest stages of civilization classes did not exists as
the savage were not in position to place his superiority over the others because then the
life was very tough and they had a hand to mouth existence. The two sexes enjoyed
almost equal rights according to Hob house. In other words, equality of ranks prevailed
among the ancient tribes.
2. ESTATES SYSTEM - Estates is a type of stratification that existed in Europe during
middle ages. This system has a long history. They were part of many traditional
civilization. This system consisted of three main divisions namely the clergy, the nobility,
and the commoners.
3. CASTE SYSTEM - Caste is associated with the cultures of the Indian subcontinent
and the Hindu belief in rebirth. The Indian caste system is unique among systems of
social stratification. Caste is related with economic differences which is reflected by the
effective caste groups or four varnas of Brahmins, Kshatriya, Vaishyas and Sudras.
4. CLASS - A Social class system is radically different from other systems of
stratification. Social classes are de facto groups. They are relatively open and closed.
Classes are more economic groups. Classes features the industrial societies which
develop since 17th century. Class differs in many respects from slavery, estates and
castes. We can define a class as a large-scale grouping of people who share common
economics resources and this typically influences their life-styles.

Social Mobility
1. Definition
Social mobility, movement of individuals, families, or groups through a system of social
hierarchy or stratification. In modern societies, social mobility is typically measured by
career and generational changes in the socioeconomic levels of occupations.

2. Types of Social Mobility

1. Horizontal mobility
This occurs when a person changes their occupation but their overall social standing
remains unchanged. For example, if a doctor goes from practicing medicine to teaching
in a medical school, the occupation’s changed but their prestige and social standing
likely remain the same. Sorokin describes horizontal mobility as a change in religious,
territorial, political, or other horizontal shifts with no change in the vertical position.
2. Vertical mobility
This refers to a change in the occupational, political, or religious status of a person that
causes a change in their societal position. An individual moves from one social stratum
to another. Vertical mobility can be ascending or descending.
3. Upward mobility
This is when a person moves from a lower position in society to a higher one. It can also
include people occupying higher positions in the same societal group. However, upward
mobility, while seen as a good thing, can also come at a cost for individuals.
4. Downward mobility
Downward mobility takes place when a person moves from a higher position in society
to a lower one. It can occur when someone is caught performing a wrongful act that can
result in the loss of the position they currently hold.
5. Inter-generational mobility
Inter-generational mobility happens when the social position changes from one
generation to another. The change can be upward or downward. For example, a father
worked in a factory while his son received an education that allowed him to become a
lawyer or a doctor.
6. Intra-generational mobility
The intra-generational change in societal position occurs during the lifespan of a single
generation. It can also refer to a change in position between siblings. One way is when
a person climbs up the corporate ladder in their career. For example, an individual starts
their career as a clerk and through their life moves on to a senior position such as a
director. One sibling may also achieve a higher position in society than their brother or
sister.

Social Change
1. Definition
Social change is way human interactions and relationships transform cultural and social
institutions over time, having a profound impact of society. ... Sociologists define social
change as changes in human interactions and relationships that transform cultural and
social institutions.

2. Characteristics of Social Change

 Social change is universal or it is an essential law.
 Change with diff. in speed & form simple society.
  Change is unpredictable in general Revol is a process of social change.
 Social change is change in community.
 Social change generally changes in direction.

3. Theories of Social Change

 Evolutionary - The evolutionary theory of social change gained prominence in
the 19th century. Sociologists latched on to Darwin’s theory of evolution, applying
it to society. Auguste Comte, known as the “father of sociology,” believed in the
evolutionary model. According to this theory, society always evolves into “higher
levels.”
 Functionalist theory - The functionalist theory of social change teaches that
society is like a human body. Each part is like an organ. Individual parts can’t
survive on their own. Emile Durkheim, a major leader in the social sciences,
believed that all parts of a society must be harmonious.
 Conflict theory - The conflict theory states that society is by nature unequal and
competitive. Karl Marx spearheaded this theory. While he did believe in the
evolutionary model to a point, Marx didn’t think each phase resulted in something
better than before. More often than not, the rich and powerful control the rest of
society by exploiting vulnerable groups. This sows conflict, provoking people to
action. Social change occurs as a result. The conflict model evolved over the
years. It’s found in other theories such as feminist theory, queer theory, and
critical race theory.

UNIT VI – RESPONSIBLE PARENTHOOD

AND NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS

Marriage
1. Definition
A commonly accepted and encompassing definition of marriage is the following: a
formal union and social and legal contract between two individuals that unites their lives
legally, economically, and emotionally. Being married also gives legitimacy to sexual
relations within the marriage

2. Why People Marry?

The decision to get married or to move in with a partner is a personal one, but for most
married and cohabiting adults, love and companionship trump other considerations,
such as the desire to have children someday, convenience or finances.

3. Forms of Marriage
 Types of marriages.
 Cohabitation.
 Concubinage.
 Common-law marriage.
 Civil union.
 Domestic partnership.

Courtship
1. Definition
A courtship is a period in a romantic couple's relationship when they are dating. Most
partners go through a courtship before deciding to get married. Courtship is an old-
fashioned word, assuming that two people who love each other will eventually get
married.

2. Primary Needs of Children

 Food.
 Water.
 Shelter.
 Education.
 Consistency.
 Structure.
 Guidance.

3. Family Planning Methods

  long-acting reversible contraception - the implant or intra uterine device (IUD).
LARCs are the most effective types of contraception. They are more than 99%
effective at preventing pregnancy.
 hormonal contraception - the pill or the Depo Provera injection. These
contraceptives use hormones to prevent pregnancy. Hormonal contraceptives include
the Pill and the Depo Provera injection
 barrier methods - condoms. Barrier methods stop sperm from entering the
vagina. 
 emergency contraception - There are two options for emergency contraception:
the emergency contraceptive pill (ECP) or a copper IUD. ECP can be taken up to
three days after unprotected sex. If you are an average weight, the ECP is 98%
effective. If you weigh more than 70kg, the ECP is less effective and a copper
IUD is recommended. If you weigh more than 70kg and you choose to take ECP,
you should ask if taking a double dose is the right option for you.
 fertility awareness - Fertility awareness is learning the signs of fertility in your
menstrual cycle to help you plan or avoid a pregnancy. 
 permanent contraception - vasectomy and tubal ligation - Permanent
contraception, sometimes called sterilisation, prevents all future pregnancies. It is
very difficult or impossible to reverse. Permanent contraception is either
a vasectomy or a tubal ligation. 

4. Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)

A sexually transmitted infection (STI) is caused by an organism (bacteria, virus, or
parasite) that can be passed from one person to another during sex or intimate contact.
Most STIs are passed (or transmitted) between sexual partners through unprotected
oral, vaginal (frontal) or anal sex.

Drugs
1. Definition
a medicine or other substance which has a physiological effect when ingested or
otherwise introduced into the body.

2. Types of Drugs
 depressants — slow down the function of the central nervous system
  hallucinogens — affect your senses and change the way you see, hear, taste,
smell or feel things
 stimulants — speed up the function of the central nervous system

3. Prohibited Drugs and its Consequences

Prohibited Drugs
 Stimulants.
 Anabolic agents.
 Alcohol and beta blockers (banned for rifle only).
 Diuretics and masking agents.
 Narcotics.
 Cannabinoids.
 Peptide hormones, growth factors, related substances and mimetic.
 Hormone and metabolic modulators.
Its Consequences
Mental health
Studies show that drug use increases your risk of mental health issues such as anxiety,
depression and psychosis. People with mental health issues also have a higher rate of
drug use problems.
Financial issues
Some drugs can be very expensive — the street price of illicit drugs depends on
availability and demand. If you have become dependent on a drug, you could end up in
financial trouble.
Illicit drug use causes a significant burden to the Australian economy. For example, the
estimated total social costs for methamphetamine alone are around $5 billion annually
— through crime, loss of productivity and increased health care costs.
Relationships
Because drugs can change your behaviour, they can affect your relationships with
family and friends. There is an increased risk of injury and/or assault to both yourself
and other people.
Legal issues
Many drugs are illegal and you can be fined, or sent to prison, for having them. If
convicted of a drug offence, you could end up with a criminal record — this can make it
harder to get a job, apply for a loan, or travel overseas.
Drugs in sport
Sports people and professional athletes who use illegal substances risk damaging not
only their physical health, but also their reputation and the integrity of their sport.
Drugs and driving
Alcohol and other drugs can seriously affect your driving skills. You are more likely to
have an accident, injuring yourself and/or others. The crash could be fatal.

Gender and Education

1. Theories on Gender Development
 Biological - According to biological theories, psychological and behavioural
gender differences are due to the biological differences between males and
females.
 Socialization - Socialization theories of gender development view gender
differences as a by-product of the differential treatment girls and boys receive
from the people in their lives and the pervasive gender stereotyped messages
that children are exposed to in their environment.
 Cognitive - Cognitive theories of gender development view children as active
constructors of knowledge who seek, interpret, and act on information in an effort
to match their behaviour to their understanding of gender.

2. Sources of Gender Stereotyping in Society

Gender stereotypes are primarily developed in family in early ages and then
strengthened by gender socialization, differential parental.

3. Gender Equality and Inequality

Gender Equality - Gender equality is an aspiration that benefits all of society, including
girls and women. Gender equality is fundamental to the achievement of human rights.
Prevention & Detection. Navigating New Realities. Fight On A Global Scale. Build A
Diverse Community.
Gender Inequality - Gender inequality is discrimination on the basis of sex or gender
causing one sex or gender to be routinely privileged or prioritized over another.

Peace Education
1. What is Peace Education?
Peace education promotes the knowledge, skills and attitudes to help people prevent
conflict occurring, resolve conflicts peacefully, or create conditions for peace. Core
values of nonviolence and social justice are central to peace education.

2. Major Reasons for Peace Education

Peace education prevents the emergence of conflicts and creates conditions for peace
in the world. That is why peace education is very important in the world. Peace
education activities promote conflict resolution that promotes peace and values such as
respect for human rights, freedom and confidence.