Input: Getting Data from the User to the Computer

Some input data can go directly to the computer for processing. Input in this category
includes bar codes, speech that enters the computer through a microphone, and data entered by
means of a device that converts motions to on-screen action. Some input data, however, goes
through a good deal of intermediate handling, such as when it is copied from a source document
and translated to a medium that a machine can read, such as a magnetic disk. In either case the
task is to gather data to be processed by the computer ‹sometimes called raw data and convert it
into some form the computer can understand.

Keyboard
A keyboard is usually part of a personal computer or part of a terminal that is connected to a
computer somewhere else. Not all keyboards are traditional, however. A fast-food franchise like
McDonald's, for example, uses keyboards whose keys represent items such as large fries or a Big
Mac. Even less traditional in the United States are keyboards that are used to enter Chinese
characters.

Mouse
A mouse is an input device with a ball on its underside that is rolled on a flat surface, usually the
desk on which the computer sits. The rolling movement causes a corresponding movement on
the screen. Moving the mouse allows you to reposition the pointer, or cursor, an indicator on the
screen that shows where the next interaction with the computer can take place. The cursor can
also be moved by pressing various keyboard keys. You can communicate commands to the
computer by pressing a button on top of the mouse. In particular, a mouse button is often used to
click on an icon, a pictorial symbol on a screen; the icon represents a computer activity-a
command to the computer-so clicking the icon invokes the command.

Trackball
A variation on the mouse is the trackball. You may have used a trackball to play a video game.
The trackball is like an upside-down mouse-you roll the ball directly with your hand. The
popularity of the trackball surged with the advent of laptop computers, when traveling users
found them- selves without a flat surface on which to roll the traditional mouse.

Source Data Automation: Collecting Data Where It Starts

Efficient data input means reducing the number of intermediate steps required between the
origination of data and its processing. This is best accomplished by source data automation ‹the
use of special equipment to collect data at the source, as a by-product of the activity that
generates the data, and send it directly to the computer. Recall, for example, the supermarket bar
code, which can be used to send data about the product directly to the computer. Source data
automation eliminates keying, thereby reducing costs and opportunities for human-introduced
mistakes. Since data about a transaction is collected when and where the transaction takes place,
source data automation also improves the speed of the input operation.

For convenience, we will divide this discussion into the primary areas related to source data
automation: magnetic-ink character recognition, optical recognition, data collection devices, and
even directly by your own voice, finger, or eye. Let us consider each of these in turn.
Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition
Abbreviated MICR, magnetic-ink character recognition is a method of machine-reading
characters made of magnetized particles. The most common example of magnetic characters is
the array of numbers across the bottom of your personal check.

Most magnetic-ink characters are preprinted on your check. If you compare a check you wrote
that has been cashed and cleared by the bank with those that are still unused in your checkbook,
you will note that the amount of the cashed check has been reproduced in magnetic characters in
the lower-right corner. These characters were added by a person at the bank by using a MICR
inscriber.

Scanner
An inexpensive way to get entire documents, pictures, and
anything on a flat Surface into a computer is by using a
scanner. Scanners use optical recognition systems that have a
light beam to scan input data to convert it into electrical signals,
which are sent to the computer for processing. Optical
recognition is by far the most common type of source input,
Figure 1: Flatbed Scanner appearing in a variety of ways: optical marks, optical characters,
bar codes, handwritten characters, and images. Scanners use
Optical Character Recognition software, described below, to
translate text on scanned documents into text that is suitable for word processors and other
computer applications.

Optical Mark Recognition

Abbreviated OMR, optical mark recognition is sometimes called mark sensing, because a
machine senses marks on a piece of paper. As a student, you may immediately recognize this
approach as the technique used to score certain tests. Using a pencil, you make a mark in a
specified box or space that corresponds to what you think is the answer. The answer sheet is then
graded by a device that uses a light beam to recognize the marks and convert them to computer-
recognizable electrical signals.

Optical Character Recognition

Abbreviated OCR, optical character recognition devices also use a light source to read special
characters and convert them into electrical signals to be sent to the central processing unit. The
characters-letters, numbers, and special symbols-can be read by both humans and machines.
They are often found on sales tags on store merchandise. A standard typeface for optical
characters, called OCR-A, has been established by the American National Standards Institute.

The handheld wand reader is a popular input device for reading OCR-A. There is an increasing
use of wands in libraries, hospitals, and factories, as well as in retail stores. In retail stores the
wand reader is connected to a point-of-sale (POS) terminal. This terminal is somewhat like a
cash register, but it performs many more functions. When a clerk passes the wand reader over the
price tag, the computer uses the input merchandise number to retrieve a description (and possibly
the price, if not on the tag) of the item. A small printer produces a customer receipt that shows
the item description and price. The computer calculates the subtotal, the sales tax (if any), and
the total. This information is displayed on the screen and printed on the receipt; notice that both
screen and printer are output, so the POS terminal is a complex machine that performs both input
and output functions. Finally, some POS terminals include a device that will accept a credit card,
inputting account data from the magnetic strip on a customer's charge card.

The raw purchase data becomes valuable information when it is summarized by the computer
system. This information can be used by the accounting department to keep track of how much
money is taken in each day, by buyers to determine what merchandise should be reordered, and
by the marketing department to analyze the effectiveness of their ad campaigns.

Bar Codes
Each product on the store shelf has its own unique number, which is part of the Universal
Product Code (UPC). This code number is represented on the product label by a pattern of
vertical marks, or bars, called bar codes. (UPC, by the way, is an agreed-upon standard within
the supermarket industry; other kinds of bar codes exist. You need only look as far as the back
cover of this book to see an example of another kind of bar code.) These zebra stripes can be
sensed and read by a bar code reader, a photo- electric device that reads the code by means of
reflected light. As with the wand reader in a retail store, the bar code reader in a bookstore or
grocery store is part of a point-of-sale terminal. When you buy, say, a can of corn at the
supermarket, the checker moves it past the bar code reader. The bar code merely identifies the
product to the store's computer; the code does not contain the price, which may vary. The price is
stored in a file that can be accessed by the computer. (Obviously, it is easier to change the price
once in the computer than to have to repeatedly restamp the price on each can of corn. ) The
computer automatically tells the point- of-sale terminal what the price is; a printer prints the item
description and price on a paper tape for the customer. Some supermarkets are moving to self-
scanning, putting the bar code reader-as well as the bagging-in the customer's hands.

Although bar codes were once found primarily in supermarkets, there are a variety of other
interesting applications. Bar coding has been described as an inexpensive and remarkably
reliable way to get data into a computer. It is no wonder that virtually every industry has found a
niche for bar codes. In Brisbane, Australia, bar codes help the Red Cross manage their blood
bank inventory. Also consider the case of Federal Express. The management attributes a large
part of the corporation's success to the bar-coding system it uses to track packages. Each package
is uniquely identified by a ten-digit bar code, which is input to the computer at each point as the
package travels through the system. An employee can use a computer terminal to query the
location of a given shipment at any time; the sender can request a status report on a package and
receive a response within 30 minutes. The figures are impressive: In regard to controlling
packages, the company has an accuracy rate of better than 99 percent.
Handwritten Characters
Machines that can read handwritten characters are yet another means of reducing the number of
intermediate steps between capturing data and processing it. In many instances it is preferable to
write the data and immediately have it usable for processing rather than having data entry
operators key it in later. However, not just any kind of handwritten scrawl will do; the rules as to
the size, completeness, and legibility of the handwriting are fairly rigid.

Imaging
In a process called imaging, a scanner converts a drawing, a picture, or any document into
computer-recognizable form by shining a light on the image and sensing the intensity of the
reflection at each point of the image. Scanners come in both handheld and desktop models. The
electronic version of the image can then be stored, probably on disk, and reproduced on screen
when needed. Businesses find imaging particularly useful for documents, since they can view an
exact replica of the original document at any time. If a text image is run through an optical
character recognition (OCR) program, then all words and numbers can be manipulated by word
processing and other software. The Internal Revenue Service, using imaging and also OCR
software that can recognize characters from the image, is now scanning 17,000 tax returns per
hour, a significant improvement over hand processing.

Another way to keep photos computer accessible is to have film that was shot with a
conventional camera processed onto optical disk instead of prints or slides. Professional photo
agencies keep thousands of images on file, ready to be leased for a fee. Typically, a couple of
dozen thumbnail-size images can be displayed on the screen at one time; a particular image can
be enlarged to full-screen size with a click of a mouse button.

Data Collection Devices

Another source of direct data entry is a data collection device, which may be located in a
warehouse or factory or wherever the activity that is generating the data is located. As we noted
earlier in the chapter, for example, factory employees can use a plastic card to punch job data
directly into a computerized time clock. This process eliminates intermediate steps and ensures
that the data will be more accurate.

Data collection devices must be sturdy, trouble-free, and easy to use because they are often
located in dusty, humid, or hot or cold locations. They are used by people such as warehouse
workers, packers, forklift operators, and others whose primary work is not clerical. Examples of
remote data collection devices are machines for taking inventory, reading shipping labels, and
recording job costs.

Voice Input
Does your computer have ears? Speaking to a computer, known as voice input or speech
recognition is another form of source input. Speech recognition devices accept the spoken word
through a microphone and convert it into binary code (0s and 1s) that can be understood by the
computer. Originally, typical users were those with "busy hands," or hands too dirty for the
keyboard, or with no access to a keyboard. Such uses are changing radio frequencies in airplane
cockpits, controlling inventory in an auto junkyard, reporting analysis of pathology slides viewed
under a microscope, asking for stock-market quotations over the phone, inspecting items moving
along an assembly line, and allowing physically disabled users to issue commands.

Most speech recognition systems are speaker-dependent; that is, they must be separately trained
for each individual user. The speech recognition system "learns" the voice of the user, who
speaks isolated words repeatedly. The voiced words the system "knows" are then recognizable in
the future.

Speech recognition systems that are limited to isolated words are called discrete word systems,
and users must pause between words. Experts have tagged speech recognition as one of the most
difficult things for a computer to do. Eventually, continuous word systems will be able to
interpret sustained speech, so users can speak normally; so far, such systems are limited by
vocabulary to a single subject, such as insurance or the weather. A key advantage of delivering
input to a computer in a normal speaking pattern is ease of use. Such systems may also be
propelled by the explosion of hand and wrist ailments associated with extensive computer
keying. Today, software is available to let computers take dictation from people who are willing
to pause . . . briefly . . . between . . . words; the best systems are quite accurate and equivalent to
typing 70 words per minute.

Touch Screens
One way of getting input directly from the source is to have a human simply point to a selection.
The edges of the monitor of a touch screen emit horizontal and vertical beams of light that criss-
cross the screen. When a finger touches the screen, the interrupted light beams can pinpoint the
location selected on the screen. Kiosks in public places such as malls offer a variety of services
via touch screens. An insurance company kiosk will let you select a policy or a government
kiosk will let you order a copy of your birth certificate. Kiosks are also found in private stores.
Wal-Mart, for example, uses a kiosk to let customers find needed auto parts. Many delicatessens
let you point to salami on rye, among the other selections.

Looking
Delivering input to a computer by simply looking at the computer would seem to be the ultimate
in capturing data at the source. The principles are reminiscent of making a screen selection by
touching the screen with the finger. Electrodes attached to the skin around the eyes respond to
movement of the eye muscles, which produce tiny electric signals when they contract. The
signals are read by the computer system, which determines the location on the screen where the
user is looking.

Such a system is not yet the mainstream. The first people to benefit would likely be those who,
due to disabilities or busyness, cannot use their hands or voices for input.
 Output: Information for the User
As we have seen, computer output takes the form of screen or printer output. Other forms of
output include voice, microfilm, and various forms of graphics output.

A computer system often is designed to produce several kinds of output. An example is a travel
agency that uses a computer system. If a customer asks about airline connections to Toronto,
Calgary, and Vancouver, say, the travel agent will probably make a few queries to the system to
receive on-screen output indicating availability on the various flights. After the reservations have
been confirmed, the agent can ask for printed output that includes the tickets, the traveler's
itinerary, and the invoice. The agency may also keep the customer records on microfilm. In
addition, agency management may periodically receive printed reports and charts, such as
monthly summaries of sales figures or pie charts of regional costs. We begin with the most
common form of output, computer screens.

Computer Screen Technology

A user's first interaction with a computer screen may be the screen response to the user's input.
When data is entered, it appears on the screen. Furthermore, the computer response to that data-
the output-also appears on the screen. Computer screens come in many varieties, but the most
common kind is the cathode ray tube (CRT). Most CRT screens use a technology called raster-
scan technology. The backing of the screen display has a phosphorous coating, which will glow
whenever it is hit by a beam of electrons. But the light does not stay lit very long, so the image
must be refreshed often. If the screen is not refreshed often enough, the fading screen image
appears to flicker. A scan rate-the number of times the screen is refreshed-of 60 times per second
is usually adequate to retain a clear screen image. As the user, you tell the computer what image
you want on the screen, by typing, say, the letter M, and the computer sends the appropriate
image to be beamed on the screen. This is essentially the same process used to produce television
images.

A computer display screen that can be used for graphics is divided into dots that are called
addressable, because they can be addressed individually by the graphics software. Each dot can
be illuminated individually on the screen. Each dot is potentially a picture element, or pixel. The
resolution of the screen, its clarity, is directly related to the number of pixels on the screen: The
more pixels, the higher the resolution. Some computers come with built-in graphics capability.
Others need a device, called a graphics card or graphics adapter board that has to be added.

There have been several color screen standards, relating particularly to resolution. The first color
display was CGA (color graphics adapter), which had low resolution by today's standards
(320x200 pixels). This was followed by the sharper EGA (enhanced graphics adapter), featuring
640x350 pixels. Today, VGA and SVGA are common standards. VGA (video graphics array)
has 640x480 pixels. SVGA (super VGA) offers 800x600 pixels or 1024x768 pixels, by far the
superior clarity.
Is bigger really better? Screen sizes are measured diagonally. Many personal computers come
with a 15 inch screen. A 15 inch screen is fine for most single applications, but for applications
with large graphics, or for having multiple windows open, it is sometimes inadequate. For a few
hundred dollars more, 17 inch can be better. There are even bigger screens that cost substantially
more. Bigger is usually better, but more expensive.

Types of Screens
Cathode ray tube monitors that display text and graphics are in common use today. Although
most CRTs are color, some screens are monochrome, meaning only one color, usually green,
appears on a dark background. Another type of screen technology is the liquid crystal display
(LCD), a flat display often seen on watches and calculators. LCD screens are used on laptop
computers. Some LCDs are monochrome, but color screens are popular. Some laptop screens are
nearing CRTs in resolution quality.

Terminals
A screen may be the monitor of a self-contained personal computer, or it may be part of a
terminal that is one of many terminals attached to a large computer. A terminal consists of an
input device, an output device, and a communications link to the main computer. Most
commonly, a terminal has a keyboard for an input device and a screen for an output device,
although there are many variations on this theme.

Printers
A printer is a device that produces printed paper output, known in the computer industry as hard
copy because it is tangible and permanent (unlike soft copy, which is displayed on a screen).
Some printers produce only letters and numbers, whereas others can also produce graphics.

Letters and numbers are formed by a printer either as solid characters or as dot-matrix characters.
Dot-matrix printers create characters in the same way that individual lights in a pattern spell out
words on a basketball scoreboard. Dot-matrix printers construct a character by activating a
matrix of pins that produce the shape of the character. A traditional matrix is 5x7-that is, five
dots wide and seven dots high. These printers are sometimes called 9-pin printers, because they
have two extra vertical dots for descenders on the lowercase letters g, j, p, and y. The 24-pin dot-
matrix printer, which uses a series of overlapping dots, dominates the dot-matrix market. The
more dots, the better the quality of the character produced. Some dot-matrix printers can produce
color images.

There are two ways of printing an image on paper: the impact method and the non-impact
method. Let us take a closer look at the difference.

Impact Printers
The term impact refers to the fact that impact printers use some sort of physical contact with the
paper to produce an image, physically striking paper, ribbon, and print hammer together. The
impact may be produced by a print hammer character, like that of a typewriter key striking a
ribbon against the paper, or by a print hammer hitting paper and ribbon against a character. A
dot-matrix printer is one example of an impact printer. High- quality impact printers print only
one character at a time.

However, users who are more concerned about high volume than high quality usually use line
printers - impact printers that print an entire line at a time. Organizations that use mainframe and
minicomputers usually have several line printers. Such organizations are likely to print hearty
reports, perhaps relating to payroll or costs, for internal use. The volume of the report and the
fact that it will not be seen by customers makes the speedy-and less expensive line printer
appropriate. One final note about impact printers: An impact printer must be used if printing a
multiple-copy report so that the duplicate copies will receive the imprint.

Non-impact Printers
A non-impact printer places an image on a page without physically touching the page. The major
technologies competing in the non-impact market are laser and ink-jet. Laser printers use a light
beam to help transfer images to paper, producing extremely high-quality results. Laser printers
print a page at a time at impressive speeds. Large organizations use laser printers to produce
high-volume customer-oriented reports. At the personal computer end, low-end black and white
laser printers can now be purchased for a few hundred dollars. However, color laser jet printers
are more expensive.

The rush to laser printers has been influenced by the trend toward desktop publishing-using a
personal computer, a laser printer, and special software to make professional-looking
publications, such as newsletters.

Ink-jet printers, by spraying ink from multiple jet nozzles, can print both black and white and in
several different colors of ink to produce excellent graphics. As good as they are, color printers
are not perfect. The color you see on your computer screen is not necessarily the color you will
see on the printed output. Nor is it likely to be the color you would see on a four-color offset
printing press. Nevertheless, with low-end printers now under $250, they may be a bargain for
users who want their own color output capability.

There are many advantages to non-impact printers over impact ones, but there are two major
reasons for their growing popularity: They are faster and quieter. Other advantages of non-
impact printers over conventional mechanical printers are their ability to change typefaces
automatically and their ability to produce high-quality graphics.

Voice Output
We have already examined voice input in some detail. As you will see in this section, however,
computers are frequently like people in the sense that they find it easier to talk than to listen.
Speech synthesis is the process of enabling machines to talk to people is much easier than speech
recognition. "The key is in the ignition," your car says to you as you open the car door to get out.
Machine voices are not real human voices. They are the product of voice synthesizers (also
called voice-output devices or audio-response units), which convert data in main storage to
vocalized sounds understandable to humans.

There are two basic approaches to getting a computer to talk. The first is synthesis by analysis, in
which the device analyzes the input of an actual human voice speaking words, stores and
processes the spoken sounds, and reproduces them as needed. The process of storing words is
similar to the digitizing process we discussed earlier when considering voice input. In essence,
synthesis by analysis uses the computer as a digital tape recorder.
The second approach to synthesizing speech is synthesis by rule, in which the device applies a
complex set of linguistic rules to create artificial speech. Synthesis based on the human voice has
the advantage of sounding more natural, but it is limited to the number of words stored in the
computer.

Voice output has become common in such places as airline and bus terminals, banks, and
brokerage houses. It is typically used when an inquiry is followed by a short reply (such as a
bank balance or flight time). Many businesses have found other creative uses for voice output as
it applies to the telephone. Automatic telephone voices ("Hello, this is a computer speaking. . . "
) take surveys, inform customers that catalog orders are ready to be picked up, and, perhaps,
remind consumers that they have not paid their bills.

Music Output
Personal computer users have occasionally sent primitive musical messages, feeble tones that
wheezed from the tiny internal speaker. Many users remain at this level, but a significant change
is in progress.

Professional musicians lead the way, using special sound chips that simulate different
instruments. A sound card, installed internally in the computer, and attached speakers complete
the output environment. Now, using appropriate software, the computer can produce the sound of
an orchestra or a rock band. Those of us who simply enjoy music can have a full sight/sound
experience using multimedia, which we will explore in detail in the next chapter.

Computer Graphics

Let us take a moment to glimpse everyone's favorite, computer graphics. Just about everyone has
seen TV commercials or movies that use computer-produced animated graphics. Computer
graphics can also be found in education, computer art, science, sports, and more. But perhaps
their most prevalent use today is in business.

Business Graphics
It might seem wasteful to use color graphics to display what could more inexpensively be shown
to managers as numbers in standard computer printouts. However, colorful graphics, maps, and
charts can help managers compare data more easily, spot trends, and make decisions more
quickly. Also, the use of color helps people get the picture-literally. Finally, although color
graphs and charts have been used in business for years-usually to make presentations to higher
management or outside clients-the computer allows them to be rendered quickly, before
information becomes outdated. One user refers to business graphics as "computer- assisted
insight."

Video Graphics
Video graphics can be as creative as an animated cartoon. Although they operate on the same
principle as a moving picture or cartoon-one frame at a time in quick succession video graphics
are produced by computers. Video graphics have made their biggest splash on television, but
many people do not realize they are watching a computer at work. The next time you watch
television, skip the trip to the kitchen and pay special attention to the commercials. Unless there
is a live human in the advertisement, there is a good chance that the moving objects you see,
such as floating cars and bobbing electric razors, are computer output. Another fertile ground for
video graphics is a television network's logo and theme. Accompanied by music and swooshing
sounds, the network symbol spins and cavorts and turns itself inside out, all with the finesse that
only a computer could supply.

Computer-Aided Design/Computer-Aided Manufacturing

For more than a decade, computer graphics have also been part and parcel of a field known by
the abbreviation CAD/CAM-short for computer- aided design/computer-aided manufacturing. In
this area computers are used to create two- and three-dimensional pictures of everything from
hand tools to tractors. CAD/CAM provides a bridge between design (planning what a product
will be) and manufacturing (actually making the planned product). As a manager at Chrysler
said, "Many companies have design data and manufacturing data, and the two are never the
same. At Chrysler, we have only one set of data that everyone dips into." Keeping data in one
place, of course, makes changes easier and encourages consistency.

Graphics Input Devices

There are many ways to produce and interact with screen graphics. We have already described
the mouse; the following are some other common devices that allow the user to interact with
screen graphics. A digitizing tablet lets you create your own images. This device has a special
stylus that you can use to draw or trace images, which are then converted to digital data that can
be processed by the computer.

For direct interaction with your computer screen, the light pen is ideal. It is versatile enough to
modify screen graphics or make a menu selection-that is, to choose from a list of activity choices
on the screen. A light pen has a light-sensitive cell at one end. When you place the light pen
against the screen, it closes a photoelectric circuit that pinpoints the spot the pen is touching.
This tells the computer where to enter or modify pictures or data on the screen.

Finally, a well-known graphics input device is the joystick, dear to the hearts of video game fans.
This device allows fingertip control of figures on a CRT screen.

Graphics Output Devices

Just as there are many different ways to input graphics to the computer, there are many different
ways to output graphics. Graphics are most commonly output on a screen or printed paper, as
previously discussed. Another popular graphics output device is the plotter, which can draw
hard-copy graphics output in the form of maps, bar charts, engineering drawings, and even two-
or three-dimensional illustrations. Plotters often come with a set of four pens in four different
colors. Most plotters also offer shading features.

New forms of computer input and output are announced regularly, often with promises of
multiple benefits and new ease of use. Part of the excitement of the computer world is that these
promises are usually kept, and users reap the benefits directly. Input and output just keep getting
better.