INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS

1.1 Thermodynamics
It is defined as the study of energy in its various forms and transformations and the interaction of
energy with matter. Thermodynamics is a subject concerned with interactions between the
influence of the system on its surroundings and vice versa.

Applied thermodynamics

This is defined as the science of the relationship between heat, work, and the properties of a
system. It provides the means by which heat energy from various sources is converted into
mechanical work.

1.2 System

A system is simply the collection of matter between prescribed and identifiable boundaries. A
system in thermodynamics refers to a definite quantity of matter bounded by some closed
surfaces. The closed surface is what is referred as the system boundary and anything outside of it
is referred to as the surrounding. This boundary may be real as in case of a tank enclosing a
fluid or it may be imaginary as in the case of a pipe where there is fluid flow.

1.2.1 Closed system

This is the one that doesn’t allow for mass flow across the system boundary.

1.2.2 Open system

This is the one that allows for mass flow across the system boundary. For the case of open
systems, the boundary is referred to as a control surface and the contents within the control
surface are referred to as the control volume.

1.3 Property

A property is any macroscopic observable characteristic of a system. The thermodynamics state

of a system is described by the specification of thermodynamic properties of the system. For any
given state of a substance, each of the thermodynamic properties has only one value.

1.3.1 Intensive properties

These are properties that are independent of the mass and are definable at a point in a substance.
If the substance under consideration is uniform and homogeneous, the value of the intensive
property will be the same for each point in the substance. Examples include; temperature,
density, pressure etc.

1.3.2 Extensive properties

These are properties of a system whose value for the entire system equals the sum of the values
for the component parts of the system or are properties that depend on the total mass of
substance under consideration. The ratio of the extensive property of the system to the total
mass of the substance is referred to as the specific property. Examples of extensive properties
include enthalpy, internal energy, volume etc.

1.4 Homogeneous substance

A system is said to be homogeneous if the specific values of its properties are the same at
all points in the system.

1.5 Heat

Heat is a form of energy which can be transferred from one body to another of lower temperature
by virtue of the temperature difference between the bodies. It is a transient energy whose rate
of transfer is proportional to the temperature gradient and the constant of proportionality is
called the thermal conductivity.

1.5.1 Sensible heat

Sensible heat refers to that heat that causes a temperature change within a system. Sensible
heat is often given as;
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) or 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

Where Cp and Cv are heat capacities at constant pressure and constant volume respectively.

1.6 Work

Work is said to be done when the point of application of a force moves through a distance in
the direction of the force.

1.7 Process
Is a change in the state of a system or change in properties of a system. The word “iso”
is normally used to identify the property constant during a certain process. For example:

Isothermal – constant temperature

Isobaric – constant pressure

Iso-volumetric – constant volume

Isentropic – constant entropy

Adiabatic – no heat exchange with surroundings

1.7.1 A cyclic process

This is a process that takes place in such a way that its initial and final states are the same.

1.7.2 Quasi – static process

If a process is carried out in such a way that at every instant the system departs, only
infinitesimally from an equilibrium state, the process is called quasi – static or quasi – equilibrium

1.8 Thermal equilibrium

A system is said to be in thermal equilibrium if there is no temperature imbalance either

within the system or between the system and its surroundings.
1.9 Chemical equilibrium

This is a state attained by a system in which all possible chemical reactions have ceased.

1.10 Mechanical equilibrium

This is means there are no unbalanced forces present either internal to the system or between
the system and its surroundings.

A system which is in mechanical, chemical and thermodynamic equilibrium is said to be in a

state of thermodynamic equilibrium. Thermodynamic equilibrium defines a state of the system
when all possible properties of the system are unchanging.

1.10.1 Steady flow

This is when the mass entering the system per unit time is equal to mass leaving the system per
unit time.

1.10.2 Zeroth law

When two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with the third body, then the two bodies are also
in thermal equilibrium with each other. This law forms the basis for the measurement of
temperature.

1.11 Temperature and its measurement

Temperature is a property by which we are able to tell how cold or hot the body is. The zeroth
law forms the basis for the measurement of temperature. In order to detect temperature,
the change of certain properties with temperature is used for example specific volume (for fluids
and liquids), resistance of metals, color of glowing filament etc.

Some of the common instruments for measuring temperature are liquid in glass thermometers,
constant volume gas thermometer, thermocouples, resistance thermometers, etc.

For a liquid in glass thermometer, with increase in temperature, the volume of the fluid increases
more rapidly than that of the glass container and thus the liquid level rises. To give the
thermometer a scale, two reference points are selected and arbitrary values of temperature are
assigned to them. The lower reference point is usually taken as the ice point and the upper one
is as the steam point of water with both taken at atmospheric pressure, the choice of the values
of the temperature at the two reference points will determine the magnitude of each division.
For the case of water, the ice point is taken as 00C and the steam point 1000C.

Since the zero point when using different substances is not the same, the values obtained are
gauge temperatures and will depend on the reference substances.

In order to obtained temperatures having the same absolute reference points, we make use
of what is referred to as constant volume gas thermometer. The reference point for the constant
volume gas thermometer is independent of the gas being used within the thermometer. This
thermometer is made of a constant volume vessel equipped with a gauge for measuring pressure.
When the vessel is subjected to varying external temperatures, the pressure within the vessel will
increase accordingly.
𝑃 𝑇
The absolute temperature scale is defined such that: 𝑃2 = 𝑇2
1 1

2. REVERSIBLE PROCESSES

A reversible process is one that can be reversed without leaving any resultant change in either the
system or the surroundings. Thus, it is always possible to change the direction of the process
and restore both the system and surrounding to their original state.

A reversible process is an idealization and all actual processes are irreversible and approach the
reversible process only in special cases. The main features of an irreversible process are the
dissipative effects which are not directly useful. These all tend to increase disorder within the
system. Among the dissipative effects include friction and/or viscosity.

2.1 Criteria of reversibility

1. The process must be frictionless

2. Difference in pressure between the fluid and its surroundings during the process must
be infinitely small
3. Difference in temperature between the fluid and its surroundings during the process
must be infinitely small.

Note: All reversible processes are quasi – static but the reverse is not true.
2.2 Equations of state
The equation of state of a perfect gas can be written as; 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇 or 𝑃𝑣 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇, where P and T
are pressure and absolute temperature respectively. This equation can also be written as;
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅̅ 𝑇

where n is the number of moles of the gas and 𝑅̅ is the universal gas constant, where 𝑅̅ =
8.314 𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑘
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚
Note: 𝑛 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑀

2.3 Determination of work during a volume change

Figure2.1 Work due to volumetric expansion

Consider a gas contained in a cylinder, during a given process the piston moves from point 1 to
point 2 resulting in the volume change from V1 to V2.
If the distance moved is dl, and the force causing this expansion is F, then the small element
of work done dW is given as; 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑙

If the cross-section area of the piston is A, from the definition of pressure, P, then 𝑃 = 𝐹 ⁄𝐴

The elemental work done is therefore given as; 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐴𝑃𝑑𝑙

Integrating on both sides of (1) and noting that 𝐴𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑣, gives;
𝑣2
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑣
𝑣1

2.3.1 Constant Volume process (Iso - volumetric)

 Figure 2.1 Iso - volumetric
process

From 𝑊 = ∫𝑣2 𝑃𝑑𝑣 , but dv= 0 hence W = 0

𝑣 1

2.3.2 Constant pressure process

Figure5.3 Isobaric process

𝑣2
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑣 = 𝑃(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 )
𝑣1

Therefore; 𝑊 = 𝑃(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 )

2.3.3 A process with a hyperbolic equation

𝑃𝑉 = 𝐾
Therefore;
𝑣2
𝐾 𝑣2
𝑊=∫ 𝑑𝑣 = 𝐾𝑙𝑛( )
𝑣1 𝑉 𝑣1

2.3.4 Polytropic processes

These obey the equation,

𝑃𝑉 𝑛 = 𝐾
 𝐾
𝑃=
𝑉𝑛
𝑣 𝑣 𝐾
Therefore; 𝑊 = ∫𝑣 2 𝑃𝑑𝑣 = ∫𝑣 2 𝑉𝑛 𝑑𝑣
1 1

Since; 𝐾 = 𝑃1 𝑉1𝑛 = 𝑃2 𝑉2𝑛

Then,
1
𝑤= (𝑃 𝑉 − 𝑃1 𝑉1 )
1−𝑛 2 2

Note:

With the use of the gas equation of state, 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 , the following respective expressions (a)
and (b) for the relationships between pressure and temperature and volume and temperature
for a polytropic process can be obtained:

𝑃1−𝑛 𝑇 𝑛 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡................................................................................................................ (a)

𝑇𝑉 𝑛−1 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡…………….…………………………………………………….. (b)

For an adiabatic process, 𝑛 = 𝛾, where γ is the ratio of the specific heat capacity at constant
pressure to that at constant volume. Thus, an adiabatic process has a general equation, 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 =
𝐾. Using the gas equation of state gives the expressions similar to (a) and (b) with 𝑛 = 𝛾 for
the
relationships between P and T and V and T respectively for an adiabatic process.
Therefore, for an adiabatic process,
1
𝑤= (𝑃 𝑉 − 𝑃1 𝑉1 )
1−𝛾 2 2
 2.4 Specific heat capacities
Specific heat capacity at constant volume, Cv is the change in internal energy per degree
temperature change for a constant volume process.

2.5 Internal energy

his is the energy associated with the molecular motion of the substance. Internal energy differs
from heat and work in that heat and work are transient energies whereas internal energy is a
property of a system. Although a system or a substance has kinetic energy and potential energy
associated with the motion of the system as a whole, systems also possess internal energy which
is due to the energies of the molecules that comprise the system. Even in cases where the vessel
containing the substance is stationary, the substance consists of a large number of molecules
moving constantly in random fashion throughout the vessel. These molecules have kinetic
energy due to their translation, rotational and vibratory motions and potential energy due to
the intermolecular forces of attraction.
The sum of these energies for all the molecules comprising the system is what is referred to as
internal energy, U, for the system.
2.6 Enthalpy, H
Enthalpy is a property of the system defined by the equation; 𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉. It is designated as H
and specific enthalpy as, h.
Specific enthalpy is defined by the equation ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑝𝑣, where u is specific internal energy and
v is the specific volume of the system.
From the definition of specific heat capacity 𝑐𝑣 then;
v ௩
𝜕ℎ
𝑐𝑣 = |
𝜕𝑇 𝑣

The values of Cv depend on temperature of the control volume. It is a specific property and
therefore its value on a mass basis is given as;
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣

Specific heat capacity at constant pressure, Cp is defined as the change in enthalpy per degree
௛
temperature change at constant pressure. Hence,
𝜕ℎ
𝑐𝑝 = 𝜕𝑇 | and 𝐶𝑝 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 where; Cp and Cv for an ideal gas are functions of only temperature and
𝑝
because of this;
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑐𝑣 𝑑𝑇 and 𝑑ℎ = 𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑇. For a real gas, Cp and Cv vary with temperature but for most
practical purposes, a suitable average may be used.
A perfect gas is an ideal gas whose values of Cp and Cv are constant for all pressures and
temperatures.

For a perfect gas,

𝑑𝑈 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑑𝑇 Therefore, 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 = 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑑ℎ = 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 hence, ℎ2 − ℎ1 = 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

2.7 Relationship between Cp and Cv

From ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣
𝑑ℎ = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑑(𝑃𝑣) and by use of the gas equation,
𝑑ℎ = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑅𝑑𝑇 hence
𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑑𝑇 + 𝑅𝑑𝑇

𝐶𝑝 = 𝐶𝑣 + 𝑅
𝐶𝑝 𝑅
Putting 𝛾 = therefore, 𝛾 = 1 + 𝐶
𝐶𝑣 𝑣
 3. FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The first law of thermodynamics can be stated mathematically as; ∆Q = ∆U+ ∆W where ∆Q is
the heat supplied to the system, ∆U is the resultant change in internal energy and ∆W
the boundary work done by the system.

3.1 Applied to cyclic processes

When a system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle, the net heat supplied to the system from its
surroundings is equal to net work done by the system on its surroundings. Work done by the
system on the surroundings is positive and work done by the surroundings on the system is
negative.

3.2 As applied to change of state processes for closed systems

For a closed system undergoing a thermodynamic process, there is a system property called
energy such that a change in its value is equal to the difference between heat supplied to the
system and work done by the system. The first law of thermodynamics as applied to closed
systems is mathematically written as:
𝑄 − 𝑊 = 𝛥𝐸 … … … … … … (𝑖)
But 𝛥𝐸 = 𝛥𝐾𝐸 + 𝛥𝑃𝐸 + 𝛥𝑈 … … … … … … … (𝑖𝑖)

For closed systems, changes in kinetic and potential energies are negligible since they are usually
very small as compared to changes in internal energy. Therefore, they are usually neglected in
the first law expressions, i.e.
𝑄 − 𝑊 = 𝛥𝑈 … … … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)

For a cyclic process, 𝛥𝑈 = 0, therefore, 𝑄 = 𝑊 or ∑ Q = ∑ W

3.2.1 Analysis of some closed system processes using the first law of thermodynamics

In the following analysis, the processes are assumed to be reversible

1. Constant volume process

 𝑣2
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑣
𝑣1

From 𝑄 − 𝑊 = 𝛥𝑈 and with 𝑉2 = 𝑉1 ; 𝑊 = 0

Which implies 𝑄 = 𝛥𝑈 = 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

2. Constant temperature process

Since 𝛥𝑈 = 0; then 𝑄 = 𝑊

3. Constant pressure process

𝑄 − 𝑊 = 𝛥𝑈 but 𝑊 = 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
So; 𝑄 − 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) = 𝛥𝑈
𝑄 − 𝑃𝑉2 + 𝑃𝑉1 = 𝛥𝑈
Rearranging gives;
𝑄 = (𝑃𝑉2 + 𝑈2 ) − (𝑃𝑉1 − 𝑈1 ) =𝐻2 − 𝐻1
= 𝑚𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) = 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
4. An adiabatic process
For an adiabatic process, 𝑄 = 0
𝑊 = −𝛥𝑈 = −(𝑈2 − 𝑈1 )
𝑤 = 𝑈1 − 𝑈2
Examples 3.1

1. A reciprocating compressor delivers 0.10kg/s of air at a pressure of 12 bar, the air enters
the compressor at 1 bar and 150C. Calculate the delivering temperature of the air and the
work transfer rate in the compression process, for:
(i) A reversible polytropic process, 𝑃𝑉 1.2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (436K, -21050W)
(ii) A reversible adiabatic process
(iii)A reversible isothermal process. (288 K, -20550.2 W)
−1 −1
(Assume air is a perfect gas with 𝐶𝑝 = 1.005𝑘𝑗𝑘𝑔 𝐾 and γ=1.4)

2. A mass of gas occupying 0.008m3 at 6kN/m2 and 800C is expanded reversibly in a non
flow process according to the equation, 𝑃𝑉 1.2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 . The pressure at the end of
the expansion is 0.7kN/m2. The gas is then heated at constant pressure back to the
original temperature, taking Cp and Cv as 1.005 and 0.74 kJ/kgK respectively; determine
(i) the work transfer in the expansion process (722.3 J)
 (ii) The heat transfer in the expansion process (352.5 J)
(iii)The volume at the end of the heating process (0.668 m3)
(iv)The change in internal energy during the heating process. (369.63 J)

3.3 First law of thermodynamics as applied to open systems

3.3.1 The working fluid

A working fluid is the matter contained within the boundaries of a system. It can either be a
liquid, a vapor or a gas. Although all substances can exist in either one of these phases, we
usually identify a substance with the phase in which it is in equilibrium at atmospheric pressure
and temperature. Only the above three phases shall be considered since the solid phase is of little
importance in engineering thermodynamics. Most of the working fluids in engineering
thermodynamics are pure substances.

A pure substance is one that has a homogeneous and invariable composition e.g. water,
ammonia, etc.
 Figure3.1 Change of state of the working fluid as a result of
heating

In the study of pure substances, water will be used as an example and the sequence of events
which occur when a unit mass of water is heated at constant pressure will be used to describe
the behavior of pure substances.

When one kilogram of water is heated at constant pressure, in a closed vessel as shown in
Figure3.1 above, its temperature rises with a decrease in specific volume until 40C. After this, the
volume begins to increase steadily. Water is said to have its highest density at 40C. The
temperature continues to rise until point C, and further addition of heat at this point will not bring
about further increase in temperature. At point C, water is said to be saturated and the
temperature at that point is called the saturation temperature. At atmospheric pressure, this
is
1000C.

Between C and D, water boils at a constant temperature until all the water has been turned into
vapor at D. C to D is referred to as the mixed region and the substance at that point is a wet
vapor. D is called the saturation vapor point.
After the evaporation process, further heating results into rise in temperature and the vapor is
referred to as superheated. The difference between the saturation temperature and the
temperature of the superheated vapor is called the degree of superheat.

The relation between T and V can also be obtained for various values of pressure, P and the
relationship between P and V can be shown on a property diagram. As the pressure increases,
saturation temperature rises and the transition region between liquid and vapor becomes
progressively shorter. Consider Figure 3.2 below, with pressures 𝑃3 > 𝑃2 > 𝑃1

Figure3.2 Temperature - volume relations for 3 different pressures

A line connecting various saturated liquid points is called the saturated liquid line and is always
given a suffix, f. The line connecting saturated vapor points is called the saturated vapor line and
is usually given a suffix, g. Between states, f and, g pressure and temperature are constant but
the water is partially vaporized and the properties are defined by what is known as the dryness
fraction, x.

The dryness fraction is the ratio of mass of dry saturated vapor to the total mass of vapor and
liquid i.e. a mixture in between the saturated vapor line and saturated liquid line has x parts
of dry vapor and (1 – x) parts of saturated liquid.

If the value of some property of the saturated liquid e.g. specific enthalpy is Pf and its value for
the saturated vapor is Pg for the same pressure and saturation temperature, the value of the
property, P of a mixture with dryness fraction, x at the same pressure is then given as;
𝑃 = (1 − 𝑓)𝑃𝑓 + 𝑥𝑃𝑔

The above equation can be further written as; 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑓 + 𝑥(𝑃𝑔 − 𝑃𝑓 )

The difference 𝑃𝑔 − 𝑃𝑓 is always quoted as 𝑃𝑔𝑓 for most properties in thermodynamic tables.
Specific enthalpy, specific internal energy, and specific volume can therefore, be determined
using the following respective equations, with the usual notations for the properties:
 ℎ = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥ℎ𝑓𝑔

𝑢 = 𝑢𝑓 + 𝑥𝑢𝑓𝑔

and,

𝑣 = 𝑣 + 𝑥𝑣𝑓𝑔

Examples 3.2

1. Find the dryness fraction, specific volume and specific internal energy of steam at 7 bar
and with specific enthalpy of 2600 kJkg-1.

2. What is the degree of superheat for steam at a pressure of 10 bar and with
specific enthalpy of 3000 kJ/kg?

3.3.2 Steady - flow systems

These include devices such as turbines, compressors and nozzles which operate for a long period
of time under the same conditions once the transient start – up period is completed and steady
operation reached.

3.3.3 Steady – flow process

This is a process during which a fluid flows through a control volume steadily i.e. properties can
change from point to point within a control volume but at any point they remain constant for
the entire process.

During a steady flow process, no intensive or extensive properties within the control volume
change with time. Therefore, the boundary work is zero during such processes. The fluid
properties at the exit and entrance remain constant during the process.

3.3.4 Mass balance for a steady flow process

̇ = 𝑀𝑜𝑢𝑡
Since there is no mass accumulation within the control volume, then; 𝑀𝑖𝑛 ̇ kg/s)
̇
̇ = ∑𝑀𝑜𝑢𝑡
For multiple inlets and exits; ∑𝑀𝑖𝑛

For single exit – single entrance devices like nozzles, diffusers, compressors and pumps;

𝑀̇1 = 𝑀̇ 2 →𝜌1 𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝜌2 𝑉2 𝐴2
 3.3.5 Energy balance for steady – flow systems

During a steady flow process, the energy content of the control volume remains constant,
hence the change in the total energy of the control volume is zero.

Therefore, 𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝛥𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 0

𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 … … … … … … … (1)

Where; 𝐸𝑖𝑛 is rate of net energy transfer by heat, work and mass and;
𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 is the rate of energy transfer out by heat, work and mass.
Equation (1) can be written more explicitly as;

𝑄𝑖𝑛̇ + 𝑊𝑖𝑛
̇ + ∑𝑚𝑖 Ɵ̇ 𝑖 = 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 ̇
̇ + 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 + ∑𝑚 ̇
𝑒 Ɵ𝑒

This can be further written as;

1 ̇ ̇ 1̇
𝑄𝑖𝑛̇ + 𝑊𝑖𝑛
̇ + ∑𝑚𝑖 (ℎ𝑖 + 𝑉2𝑖 + 𝑔𝑧𝑖 ) ̇ + 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 + ∑𝑚𝑒 (ℎ𝑒 + 𝑉2𝑒 + 𝑔𝑧𝑒 )
= 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
2 2

Assuming that heat is transferred to the system at a rate 𝑄̇ and work is produced by the system
at a rate, 𝑊̇ , the above last expression can be written as;
1 1
𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ = ∑𝑚̇ 𝑒 [ℎ𝑒 + 𝑉2𝑒 + 𝑔𝑧𝑒 ] − ∑𝑚̇ 𝑖 [ℎ𝑖 + 𝑉2𝑖 + 𝑔𝑧𝑖 ]
2 2

For single stream devices, we can denote the entrance and exit states as 1 and 2
respectively. The mass flow through the entire control volume is constant, therefore, 𝑚̇ 2 =
𝑚̇ 1 = 𝑚̇

Thus, for single stream steady flow systems, the energy balance becomes;

1
𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ = 𝑚̇ [ℎ2 − ℎ1 + (𝑉22 − 𝑉12 ) + 𝑔(𝑍2 − 𝑍1 )]
2
Dividing by 𝑚̇, gives the energy balance on a unit mass basis;
1
𝑞 − 𝑤 = [ℎ2 − ℎ1 + (𝑉22 − 𝑉12 ) + 𝑔(𝑍2 − 𝑍1 )]
2

If the fluid experiences a negligible change in kinetic energy and potential energy as it flows
through the control volume, then;
𝑞 − 𝑤 = ℎ2 − ℎ1

h is the specific enthalpy of the fluid

𝑄̇ is the rate of heat transfer between the control volume and surroundings. When the
control volume is losing heat, 𝑄̇ is negative. If the control volume is well insulated (adiabatic), 𝑄̇
=0

𝑊̇ is power, for steady – flow devices, the control volume is constant and hence no boundary
work is involved and hence, 𝑊̇ , represents the remaining forms of work done per unit time.
Many steady – flow devices such as turbines, compressors and pumps, transmit power through
a shaft, and 𝑊̇ simply becomes the shaft power.

3.3.6 Some examples of steady – flow Engineering devices

a)Nozzles and diffusers

Nozzles and diffusers are commonly applied in jet engines, rockets, and space craft and
even garden hoses.

A nozzle is a device that increases the velocity of a fluid at the expense of

pressure. A diffuser is a device that increases the pressure of a fluid by slowing it
down.

Note

(i) The rate of heat transfer between the fluid and surrounding is usually very small since
the fluid is so fast and hence, 𝑄 = 0.
(ii) Nozzles and diffusers involve no power ( 𝑊̇ = 0) and any change in potential energy is
negligible (𝛥𝑃𝐸 = 0)
(iii)However, nozzles and diffusers involve high changes in kinetic energy and hence,
𝛥𝐾𝐸 ≠ 0
(iv)( ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) is the change in specific enthalpy of the fluid which can be obtained from
thermodynamic tables or by use of ∆ℎ = 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
Examples

1. Air at 100C and 80 kPa enters a diffuser of a jet engine steadily with a velocity of 300 ms-1.
The inlet area of the diffuser is 0.4 m2. The air leaves the diffuser with a velocity that is very
small compared with the inlet velocity. Determine:
(i) The mass flow rate of the air (Ans: 118.196 kg/s) (ii)
The temperature of the air leaving the diffuser (Ans: 54.80C)

(Take R = 0.287 kJ/kgK and γ = 1.4)

2. Air which may considered as a perfect gas enters an adiabatic nozzle with negligible
velocity. The entry temperature is 760 K. The flow throughout the nozzle is reversible and
the mass flow rate is 2kg/s. Calculate the exit velocity and exit diameter of the nozzle if the
inlet and exit pressures are 6 bar and 1 bar respectively. Take R = 0.287 kJ/kgK and γ = 1.4.
(Ans: 782.14 ms-1, 0.065 m)

b) Turbines and compressors

In steam, gas or hydroelectric power plants, the device that drives the electric generator is
the turbine. As the fluid passes the blades that are attached to the shaft, the shaft rotates
producing work (power). The work done in a turbine is positive since it is done by the fluid.
Compressors, as well as pumps and fans are devices used to increase the pressure of
fluids.
Work is transferred to these devices from an external source through a shaft hence
the devices involve work inputs.

Distinction between fans, compressors and pumps

A fan increases the pressure of a gas slightly while a compressor is capable of compressing the
gas to very high pressures.

Pumps work very much like compressors except that they handle liquids instead of gases.

Note

(i) Turbines produce power output whereas compressors, pumps and fans require
power input.
(ii) Heat transfer from turbines is negligible. Heat transfer from compressors is also
negligible unless there is intentional cooling.
(iii)The velocity involved in these devices is negligible with exceptions of turbines and
 fans, hence ∆𝐾𝐸 = 0
(iv)The velocities encountered in most turbines are very high and the fluid experiences a
significant change in kinetic energy (𝛥𝐾𝐸 ≠ 0).
(v) Potential energy changes are negligible for all of these devices ∆𝑃𝐸 = 0

Figure 3.3
Turbine
The first law of thermodynamics can be applied to an expansion device e.g. turbine as below;
𝑄 − 𝑊 = 𝑚(∆ℎ + ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸 ) ,
With 𝑄 = ∆𝐾𝐸 = ∆𝑃𝐸 = 0
−𝑊 = 𝑚̇(ℎ2 − ℎ1) ⇒ 𝑊 = 𝑚̇(ℎ1 − ℎ2), where h1, h2 are the entrance and exit specific
enthalpies and 𝑚̇ is the fluid mass flow rate. Hence the amount of work produced by the turbine
is equal to the enthalpy change between the inlet and outlet.
The compressor has a similar analysis only that unlike the turbine, the compressor involves
energy addition to the fluid hence h2 is higher than h1 in its case.

Examples 3.3

1. Steam at a pressure of 60 bar and temperature 5000C, enters an adiabatic turbine with a
velocity of 20 ms-1 and expands to a pressure of 0.5 bar. At exit, the steam has a velocity 200
ms-1 a dryness fraction 0.98. If the turbine is required to produce 1 MW for a spinning plant,
determine the mass flow rate of steam required and the cross-sectional area of flow at the
turbine exit. (Ans: 1.246 kg/s, 0.0198 m2)

2. Air at 100 kPa and 280 K is compressed steadily to 600 kPa and 400 K. The mass flow rate of
the air is 0.02 kg/s, and a heat loss of16 kJ/kg occurs during the process. Assuming the change
in kinetic and potential energies are negligible, determine the necessary power input.
(2.092 kW)

Boilers and condensers (heat exchangers)

Figure3.4 U - tube and Shell and Tube heat exchangers

Heat exchangers are used in condensers and evaporators for mainly refrigeration plants. One
cold fluid stream is heated up by a warm fluid stream.

Boilers are normally used to produce steam in many manufacturing firms e.g. textile firms,
tea production firms etc and steam cogeneration power plants.
 Figure3.5 Boiler

Applying the steady flow energy equation to any of these systems gives;

𝑄 − 𝑊 = 𝑚(∆ℎ + ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸 )

There is no work production and/or consumption in any of these devices hence, 𝑊 = 0

There is also negligible potential and kinetic energy changes; hence ∆𝑃𝐸 = ∆𝐾𝐸 = 0

Then, 𝑄 = 𝑚̇(ℎ2 − ℎ1).

Hence for a boiler or a heat exchanger, the amount of thermal energy added or extracted from
the fluid is equal to the enthalpy change for the fluid between inlet and outlet.

Throttling valve

Figure3.6 Throttling valve

The throttling valve is used to produce an isenthalpic expansion to a fluid in refrigeration

and steam power plants.

Applying the steady flow energy equation between the sections 1 and 2 shown in Figure 3.6;
 𝑄 − 𝑊 = 𝑚(∆ℎ + ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸 )

For this system;

There is no heat extraction and/or addition hence Q =

0. There is no displacement work, hence, W = 0

The entry and exit velocities are similar and the entry and outlet elevation are almost the
same,
hence, ∆𝑃𝐸 = ∆𝐾𝐸 = 0

The equation reduces to; 𝑚̇(ℎ2 − ℎ1) = 0 ⇒ ℎ2 = ℎ1