HYDROSTATIC

UNIT PRESSURE PRESSURE AND

FORCES
 • FLUID STATICS
• UNIT PRESSURE
• PASCAL’S LAW
• ATMOSPHERIC, ABSOLUTE AND GAGE
PRESSURE
TOPIC • INSTRUMENTS
OUTLINE • PRESSURE VARIATIONS
• PRESSURE HEAD
• PIEZOMETER
• MANOMETER
• SAMPLE PROBLEMS
 FLUID STATICS

• Study of pressures throughout a fluid at rest and the pressure

forces on finite surfaces.
• Pressure at any point P on a plane surface
• The limiting value of the ratio of normal force to surface area as
the area approaches zero size
• Newtons per square meter (pascals, Pa) or in bars (1 bar = 105
N/m2 or 105 Pa)
 UNIT PRESSURE OR PRESSURE, P

Pressure is the force per unit area exerted by a liquid or gas on a

body or surface, with the force acting at right angles to the surface
uniformity in all directions.
The intensity of pressure (known also as unit pressure or simply called
pressure) is the amount of force exerted by a fluid distributed
uniformly over a unit area.
 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴
UNIT
where, p = pressure in Pascal (Pa) PRESSURE
OR
F = force in Newton (N)
PRESSURE,
A = area in square meter ( m2 ) P
If the unit pressure is not uniform over the
unit area, it can be expressed as the sum of
differential pressure. UNIT
PRESSURE
𝑏
𝑑𝐹
OR
𝑝=න PRESSURE,
𝑎 𝑑𝐴
P
 UNIT PRESSURE OR PRESSURE, P

• Since fluid at rest cannot resist shearing stress, pressure is always at right angle to
the area where it is acting. It is also worthy to note that the total hydrostatic
force F = pA, which can be found by cross multiplication.

Units:
pounds per square inch (psi) English system
Kg/cm2 or atmosphere (atm) International usage
N/m2 (Pascal, Pa) Metric system
 PASCAL’S LAW

• Developed by French mathematician, Blaise Pascal

• Pascal's law states that the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is
the same in all directions.
• This means it is independent of the orientation of the surface
around the point.
 PASCAL’S LAW

• Consider a small triangular

prism of unit length surrounding
the point in a fluid at rest
 PASCAL’S LAW

Since the body is in static equilibrium, we

can write
(i) 𝑝1 𝐴𝐵×𝑙−𝑝3𝐵𝐶×𝑙cos𝜃=0
(ii) 𝑝2 𝐴𝐵×𝑙−𝑝3(𝐵𝐶×𝑙)sin𝜃−𝑊=0
From Equation (i) 𝑝1=𝑝3 since
cos𝜃=𝐴𝐵𝐵𝐶, and Equation (ii) gives 𝑝2=𝑝3,
since sin𝜃=𝐴𝐶𝐵𝐶,and 𝑊=0as the prism
shrinks to a point.
⇒𝑝1⇒𝑝2⇒𝑝3
 PASCAL’S LAW

Consider an elementary cylindrical volume of

fluid (of length L and cross-sectional area dA)
within the static fluid mass (Figures 2.2), p being
the pressure at an elevation of y and dp being the
pressure variation corresponding to an elevation
variation of dy.
For equilibrium of the elementary volume,
𝑝𝑑𝐴 − 𝜌𝑔 𝑑𝐴 𝐿 sin𝜃 − (𝑝 + 𝑑𝑝) 𝑑𝐴 = 0
Or
𝑑𝑝 = −𝜌𝑔𝑑𝑦(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 sin 𝜃 = 𝑑𝑦/𝐿)
 PASCAL’S LAW

The laws of fluid mechanics are

observable in many everyday situations.
For example, the pressure exerted by
water at the bottom of a pond will be
the same as the pressure exerted by
water at the bottom of a much narrower
pipe provided depth remains constant.
ATMOSPHERIC, GAGE, AND
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Atmospheric pressure (patm) is the weight of all gases

above the surface in which it comes in contact.
 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Under normal conditions at sea level

1 atm = 1.03323 kg/cm2
= 14.696 psi
= 760 mm Hg
= 29.921 in Hg
=101,325.024 Pa
= 760 Torr
= 1.01325 bar
 GAGE PRESSURE
(RELATIVE PRESSURE)

• Gage Pressure are pressures above or below the atmosphere and

can be measured by pressure gauges or manometers.
• Negative gauge pressure indicates a vacuum which cannot go below
–101.325 kPa.
• Positive gauge pressure indicates that the pressure is above
atmospheric.
 ABSOLUTE PRESSURE

Absolute pressure (pabs) is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure.

There is no such thing as negative absolute pressure. In the absence of all matter
(complete vacuum), the absolute pressure is zero.

𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚

Note:
The term pressure, unless otherwise specified, will be used to denote gage or
relative pressure.
INSTRUMENTS
 GAGE PRESSURE
(RELATIVE PRESSURE)

For a higher pressure differences, a

Bourdon gauge, named after the
French inventor Eugene Bourdon, is
used.
This consists of a hollow metal tube
with an oval cross section, bent in the
shape of a hook. One end of the tube
is closed, the other open and
connected to the measurement
region.
For small pressure differences, a
U-Tube manometer is used. GAGE PRESSURE
It consists of a U-shaped tube
(RELATIVE PRESSURE)
with one end connected to the
container and the other open to
the atmosphere.
Filled with a liquid, such as water,
oil, or mercury, the difference in
the liquid surface levels in the two
manometer legs indicates the
pressure differences from local
atmospheric conditions.
 ABSOLUTE
PRESSURE

Barograph
• a recording
barometer which
provides a
continuous record of
pressure over a
period of time
 ABSOLUTE PRESSURE

• ANEROID BAROMETER
• In an aneroid barometer, a partially evacuated
metal drum expands or contracts in response
to changes in air pressure. A series of levers
and springs translates the up and down
movement of the drum top into the circular
motion of the pointers along the aneroid
barometer’s face.
 ABSOLUTE PRESSURE

MERCURY BAROMETER
A mercury barometer is an accurate and
relatively simple way to measure changes
in atmospheric pressure.
At sea level, the weight of the
atmosphere forces mercury 760mm (29.9
in) up a calibrated glass tube.
Higher elevations yield lower readings
because the atmosphere is less dense
there, and the thinner air exerts less
pressure on the mercury.
VARIATIONS IN PRESSURE This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY
VARIATIONS IN PRESSURE
VARIATIONS IN PRESSURE
 VARIATIONS IN PRESSURE

The difference in pressure between any two points in a

homogenous fluid at rest is equal to the product of the unit
weight of the fluid (𝛾) to the vertical distance (h) between
the points.
VARIATIONS IN PRESSURE
VARIATIONS IN PRESSURE
VARIATIONS IN PRESSURE
 PRESSURE VARIATION WITH
ELEVATION (SUMMARY)

• Note: FFS stands for Free Fluid Surface which refers to fluid surface subject to zero-gauge
pressure.
• The volume of the prism is equal to the length times the base area of the fluid.

• The weight of the fluid prism shown is equal to the product of the unit weight and volume.
 PRESSURE VARIATION WITH
ELEVATION (SUMMARY)

• Sum up all the forces in x-direction

• but L sin θ = h, thus

 PRESSURE VARIATION WITH
ELEVATION (SUMMARY)

• Therefore, in any homogeneous fluid at rest, the difference in pressure

between any two points is equal to the product of the unit weight of the
fluid and the difference in elevation of the points.

• If h = 0 so that points 1 and 2 are on the same horizontal plane, p2 - p1 = 0

or

• Therefore, in any homogeneous fluid at rest, the pressures at all points

along the same horizontal plane are equal.
 PRESSURE VARIATION WITH
ELEVATION (SUMMARY)

• If point 1 lie on the FFS, the gauge pressure p1 = 0, making p2 - 0 = γh

or simply

• This means that the pressure at any depth h below a continuous free
fluid surface at rest is equal to the product of the unit weight of fluid
and the depth h.
 TRANSMISSION OF PRESSURE

• We can write the equation p2 - p1 = γh into the form

• which means that any change in the pressure at point 1 would cause an
equal change of pressure at point 2. In other words, a pressure applied
at any point in a liquid at rest is transmitted equally and undiminished
to every other point in the liquid.
 PRESSURE BELOW LAYERS OF
DIFFERENT FLUIDS

Example:
A tank contains oil of s.g.=0.80, gasoline of s.g.= 0.90 and seawater of s.g=1.03. If
the depth of the liquids are 0.50m, 0.80m and 1m for the oil, gasoline and seawater
respectively.
a. Find the pressure at a depth of 1.20m. (Ans. 10.10 kPa)
b. Find the pressure at a depth of 1.8m. (Ans. 16.04 kPa)
c. Find the pressure at the bottom of the tank. (Ans. 21.09 kPa)
 PRESSURE HEAD

• The equation p = γh may be written into the form

• where h or its equivalent p/γ is in hydraulics called the pressure head.

Pressure head is the height of column of homogeneous fluid of unit
weight γ that will produce an intensity of pressure p.
 PRESSURE HEAD

• To convert pressure head of liquid A to equivalent pressure

head of liquid B

• To convert pressure head of any liquid to equivalent pressure

head of water

where,
s = specific gravity; γ = unit weight; ρ = density
 MANOMETERS

Manometer is a simple and inexpensive device of

measuring pressure and pressure difference. It is usually bent
to form a U-tube and filled with liquid of known specific
gravity. The surface of the liquid will move in proportion to
changes of pressure.
 MANOMETER

Open Manometer
Open manometer is a tube bent into a
U-shape to contain one or more fluids of
different specific gravities. It is used to
measure pressure. Example of open
manometer is shown below.
 MANOMETER

Differential Manometer
Differential manometer cannot measure
pressure but can measure pressure
difference. Frequently in hydraulic
problems, difference in pressure is more
useful information than the pressure
itself.
 MANOMETER

Steps in Solving Open Manometer Problems

1. Draw a sketch of the manometer system approximately to
scale. Number in order all levels of contact of the different
fluids, starting with level 0 at the free surface.
2. Decide on the fluid of which head are to be expressed. Water
is more desirable. In most cases, we suggest to use head in
water even if there is no water in the system
3. Starting from level 0 (zero gage pressure) at free surface,
proceed from level to level adding or subtracting as the
elevation increases or decreases giving due regard to the
specific gravity of the fluid.
 PIEZOMETER

Piezometer is the simplest form of manometer which is

tapped into the wall of pressure conduit for the purpose of
measuring pressure.
Though effective in many purposes, piezometer is not
practical to use in lighter liquids with large pressure and
cannot be used to measure gas pressure.
 PIEZOMETER

From the figure below, three piezometers

A, B, and C are attached to a pressure
conduit at bottom, top, and side,
respectively.
The column of liquid at A, B, and C will
rise at the same level above M indicating
a positive pressure at M.
Also, the piezometer D measures the
negative pressure at N.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
 PRACTICE PROBLEM

Determine the gage pressure at a point in a body of oil

(s=0.8) 2.5m below the free surface. If the atmospheric on
the free surface is 101 KPa, what is the corresponding
absolute pressure at the point?
Ans. Pabs = 120.62 kPa
 PRACTICE PROBLEM

A pressure of 150 KPa is equivalent to how many meters of

water? Of mercury (sHg = 13.6)? In absolute units, what are
the corresponding pressure heads, assuming standard
conditions?
Ans. hwater = 15.29 m
hHg = 1.12 m
 PRACTICE
PROBLEM

Oil (s = 0.80) is the fluid in the

pipe shown below and mercury (s
= 13.6) is the fluid in the
manometer. If the deflection ∆h is
70 cm and l is 170 cm, what is the
gage pressure at the center of the
pipe?
Ans. p = 80.05 Pa
 REFERENCE

Nalluri& Featherstone's Civil Engineering Hydraulics:

Essential Theory with Worked Examples,Sixth Edition. Martin
Marriott. © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2016 by
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Companion
Website:www.wiley.com/go/Marriott