COMPUTER

THE SLOAN TECHNOLOGY SERIES

COMPUTER
A History of the
Information Machine

T HIR D E D IT ION

Martin Campbell-Kelly
William Aspray
Nathan Ensmenger
Jeffrey R.Yost

New York London

First published 2014 by Westview Press

Published 2018 by Routledge

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2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Copyright © 2014 by Martin Campbell-Kelly and William Aspray

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in
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Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Campbell-Kelly, Martin.
Computer : a history of the information machine / Martin Campbell-Kelly,
William Aspray, Nathan Ensmenger, and Jeffrey R. Yost. — Third edition.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8133-4590-1 (pbk. alk.) — ISBN 978-0-8133-4591-8 (ebook)
1. Computers—History. 2. Electronic data processing—History. I. Aspray,
William. II. Ensmenger, Nathan, 1972– III. Yost, Jeffrey R. IV. Aspray, William.
V. Title.
QA76.17.C36 2013
004—dc23
2013008040
ISBN 13: 978-0-8133-4590-1 (pbk)
CONTENTS

Acknowledgments vii
Preface to the Third Edition ix
Introduction xi

Part One: BEFORE THE COMPUTER

1 When Computers Were People 3
2 The Mechanical Office 21
3 Babbage’s Dream Comes True 41

Part Two: CREATING THE COMPUTER

4 Inventing the Computer 65
PHOTOS: From Babbage’s Difference Engine to System/360 87
5 The Computer Becomes a Business Machine 97
6 The Maturing of the Mainframe: The Rise of IBM 119

Part Three: INNOVATION AND EXPANSION

7 Real Time: Reaping the Whirlwind 143
8 Software 167
PHOTOS: From SAGE to the Internet 189
9 New Modes of Computing 203

Part Four: GETTING PERSONAL

10 The Shaping of the Personal Computer 229
11 Broadening the Appeal 253
12 The Internet 275

Notes 307
Bibliography 327
Index 343
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

THIS BOOK has its origins in the vision of the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation that it
is important for the public to understand the technology that has so profoundly re-
shaped Western society during the past century. In the fall of 1991 Arthur Singer
of the Sloan Foundation invited us (Aspray and Campbell-Kelly) to write a popular
history of the computer. It was a daunting, yet irresistible, opportunity. Without
the invitation, encouragement, generous financial support, and respectful treat-
ment we received from the Sloan Foundation, this book would never have been
written.
It is a pleasure to thank many academic colleagues who, over three editions of
Computer, have given us advice or checked sections of our manuscript; among
them: Jon Agar, Kenneth Beauchamp, Jonathan Bowen, I. Bernard Cohen, John
Fauvel, Jack Howlett, Thomas Misa, Arthur Norberg, Judy O’Neill, Emerson
Pugh, and Steve Russ. Our thanks go to numerous archivists who helped us to lo-
cate suitable illustrations and other historical materials; among them: Bruce
Bruemmer and Kevin Corbett (formerly at the Charles Babbage Institute), Arvid
Nelsen (Charles Babbage Institute), Debbie Douglas (MIT Museum), Paul
Lasewicz (IBM Corporate Archives), Henry Lowood (Stanford University), Erik
Rau (Hagley Library), Dag Spicer (Computer History Museum), and Erica Mosner
(Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton). For the first edition of this book Susan
Rabiner of Basic Books took us by the hand and coached us on how to write for a
general readership. Our successive editors at Westview Press have been a source of
wisdom and encouragement: Holly Hodder, Lisa Teman, Priscilla McGeehon,
Carolyn Sobczak, and Christine Arden. Notwithstanding these many contribu-
tions, we take full responsibility for the contents.

Martin Campbell-Kelly
William Aspray
Nathan Ensmenger
Jeffrey R. Yost

vii
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

SINCE THE appearance of the second edition in 2004, computing has continued
to evolve rapidly. Most obviously, the Internet has grown to maturity such that it is
now an integral part of most people’s lives in the developed world. Although com-
puting was widely diffused by the end of the twentieth century, it has become truly
ubiquitous only in the present century—a transition brought about by Internet
commerce, consumer computing in the form of smartphones and tablet computers,
and social networking.
The study of the history of computing has also matured as an academic enter-
prise. When the first edition of this book appeared in 1996, the history of comput-
ing had only recently begun to attract the attention of the academy, and research
on this topic tended to be quite technically oriented. Since that time many new
scholars with different perspectives have joined the field, and it is rare to find a sci-
ence, technology, or business history conference that does not discuss develop-
ments in, and impacts of, computing technology. In short, the user experience and
business applications of computing have become central to much of the historical
discourse. To harness these new perspectives in our narrative we have been joined
by two additional authors, Nathan Ensmenger and Jeffrey Yost—both scholars
from the rising generation.
As always in a new edition, we have sparingly revised the text to reflect changing
perspectives and updated the bibliography to incorporate the growing literature of
the history of computing. We have also introduced some substantial new material.
In Chapter 3, which focuses on the precomputer era, we have added a section on
Alan Turing. The year 2012 saw the centenary of the birth of Turing, whom many
consider both a gay icon and the true inventor of the computer. Turing was indeed
a key influence in the development of theoretical computer science, but we believe
his influence on the invention of the computer has been overstated and have tried
to give a measured assessment. In Chapter 6, on the maturing of the mainframe
computer, we have condensed material on the computer industry in order to make
space for a discussion of the diffusion of computing in government and business or-
ganizations and the development of the computer professions. In Chapter 7, on
real-time computing, we have taken advantage of a new strand of literature to dis-
cuss the development of online consumer banking. In Chapters 8, 9, 10, and 11 we

ix
x Preface to the Third Edition

have made substantial additions to exploit the growing literature on the software
professions, the semiconductor industry, pre-Internet networking, and the manu-
facture of computers.
Unsurprisingly, Chapter 12, on the development of the Internet, is the most
changed. The chapter has been extended and divided into two parts: the creation of
the Internet, and the World Wide Web and its consequences. The latter part in-
cludes new material on e-commerce, mobile and consumer computing, social net-
working, and the politics of the Internet. It is extraordinary to think that when we
were writing the first edition of this book in the early 1990s, the web had only just
been conceived and its current ubiquity was beyond our imagining.
With these changes we hope that, for the next several years, the third edition of
Computer will continue to serve as an authoritative, semi-popular history of
computing.
INTRODUCTION

IN JANUARY 1983 , Time magazine selected the personal computer as its Man of
the Year, and public fascination with the computer has continued to grow ever
since. That year was not, however, the beginning of the computer age. Nor was it
even the first time that Time had featured a computer on its cover. Thirty-three
years earlier, in January 1950, the cover had sported an anthropomorphized image
of a computer wearing a navy captain’s hat to draw readers’ attention to the feature
story, about a calculator built at Harvard University for the US Navy. Sixty years
before that, in August 1890, another popular American magazine, Scientific Ameri-
can, devoted its cover to a montage of the equipment constituting the new
punched-card tabulating system for processing the US Census. As these magazine
covers indicate, the computer has a long and rich history, and we aim to tell it in
this book.
In the 1970s, when scholars began to investigate the history of computing,
they were attracted to the large one-of-a-kind computers built a quarter-century
earlier, sometimes now referred to as the “dinosaurs.” These were the first ma-
chines to resemble in any way what we now recognize as computers: they were
the first calculating systems to be readily programmed and the first to work with
the lightning speed of electronics. Most of them were devoted to scientific and
military applications, which meant that they were bred for their sheer number-
crunching power. Searching for the prehistory of these machines, historians
mapped out a line of desktop calculating machines originating in models built by
the philosophers Blaise Pascal and Gottfried Leibniz in the seventeenth century
and culminating in the formation of a desk calculator industry in the late nine-
teenth century. According to these histories, the desk calculators were followed in
the period between the world wars by analog computers and electromechanical
calculators for special scientific and engineering applications; the drive to im-
prove the speed of calculating machines during World War II led directly to the
modern computer.
Although correct in the main, this account is not complete. Today, research sci-
entists and atomic weapons designers still use computers extensively, but the vast
majority of computers in organizations are employed for other purposes, such as
word processing and keeping business records. How did this come to pass? To

xi
xii Introduction

answer that question, we must take a broader view of the history of the computer as
the history of the information machine.
This history begins in the early nineteenth century. Because of the increasing
population and urbanization in the West resulting from the Industrial Revolution,
the scale of business and government expanded, and with it grew the scale of infor-
mation collection, processing, and communication needs. Governments began to
have trouble enumerating their populations, telegraph companies could not keep
pace with their message traffic, and insurance agencies had trouble processing poli-
cies for the masses of workers.
Novel and effective systems were developed for handling this increase in infor-
mation. For example, the Prudential Assurance Company of England developed a
highly effective system for processing insurance policies on an industrial scale using
special-purpose buildings, rationalization of process, and division of labor. But by
the last quarter of the century, large organizations had turned increasingly to tech-
nology as the solution to their information-processing needs. On the heels of the
first large American corporations came a business-machine industry to supply them
with typewriters, filing systems, and duplication and accounting equipment.
The desk calculator industry was part of this business-machine movement. For
the previous two hundred years, desk calculators had merely been handmade cu-
riosities for the wealthy. But by the end of the nineteenth century, these machines
were being mass-produced and installed as standard office equipment, first in large
corporations and later in progressively smaller offices and retail establishments.
Similarly, the punched-card tabulating system developed to enable the US govern-
ment to cope with its 1890 census data gained wide commercial use in the first half
of the twentieth century, and was in fact the origin of IBM.
Also beginning in the nineteenth century and reaching maturity in the 1920s
and 1930s was a separate tradition of analog computing. Engineers built simplified
physical models of their problems and measured the values they needed to calcu-
late. Analog computers were used extensively and effectively in the design of elec-
tric power networks, dams, and aircraft.
Although the calculating technologies available through the 1930s served busi-
ness and scientific users well, during World War II they were not up to the de-
mands of the military, which wanted to break codes, prepare firing tables for new
guns, and design atomic weapons. The old technologies had three shortcomings:
they were too slow in doing their calculations, they required human intervention in
the course of a computation, and many of the most advanced calculating systems
were special-purpose rather than general-purpose devices.
Because of the exigencies of the war, the military was willing to pay whatever it
would take to develop the kinds of calculating machines it needed. Millions of dol-
lars were spent, resulting in the production of the first electronic, stored-program
 Introduction xiii

computers—although, ironically, none of them was completed in time for war

work. The military and scientific research value of these computers was nevertheless
appreciated, and by the time of the Korean War a small number had been built and
placed in operation in military facilities, atomic energy laboratories, aerospace man-
ufacturers, and research universities.
Although the computer had been developed for number crunching, several
groups recognized its potential as a data-processing and accounting machine. The
developers of the most important wartime computer, the ENIAC, left their univer-
sity posts to start a business building computers for the scientific and business mar-
kets. Other electrical manufacturers and business-machine companies, including
IBM, also turned to this enterprise. The computer makers found a ready market in
government agencies, insurance companies, and large manufacturers.
The basic functional specifications of the computer were set out in a report writ-
ten by John von Neumann in 1945, and these specifications are still largely fol-
lowed today. However, decades of continuous innovation have followed the
original conception. These innovations are of two types. One is the improvement
in components, leading to faster processing speed, greater information-storage ca-
pacity, improved price/performance, better reliability, less required maintenance,
and the like: today’s computers are literally millions of times better than the first
computers on almost all measures of this kind. These innovations were made pre-
dominantly by the firms that manufactured computers.
The second type of innovation was in the mode of operation, but here the agent
for change was most often the academic sector, backed by government financing.
In most cases, these innovations became a standard part of computing only through
their refinement and incorporation into standard products by the computer manu-
facturers. There are five notable examples of this kind of innovation: high-level pro-
gramming languages, real-time computing, time-sharing, networking, and
graphically oriented human-computer interfaces.
While the basic structure of the computer remained unchanged, these new
components and modes of operation revolutionized our human experiences with
computers. Elements that we take for granted today—such as having a computer
on our own desk, equipped with a mouse, monitor, and disk drive—were not
even conceivable until the 1970s. At that time, most computers cost hundreds of
thousands, or even millions, of dollars and filled a large room. Users would sel-
dom touch or even see the computer itself. Instead, they would bring a stack of
punched cards representing their program to an authorized computer operator
and return hours or days later to pick up a printout of their results. As the main-
frame became more refined, the punched cards were replaced by remote termi-
nals, and response time from the computer became almost immediate—but still
only the privileged few had access to the computer. All of this changed with the
xiv Introduction

development of the personal computer and the growth of the Internet. The
mainframe has not died out, as many have predicted, but computing is now
available to the masses.
As computer technology became increasingly less expensive and more portable,
new and previously unanticipated uses for computers were discovered—or in-
vented. Today, for example, the digital devices that many of us carry in our brief-
cases, backpacks, purses, or pockets serve simultaneously as portable computers,
communications tools, entertainment platforms, digital cameras, monitoring de-
vices, and conduits to increasingly omnipresent social networks. The history of the
computer has become inextricably intertwined with the history of communications
and mass media, as our discussion of the personal computer and the Internet clearly
illustrates. But it is important to keep in mind that even in cutting-edge companies
like Facebook and Google, multiple forms and meaning of the computer continue
to coexist, from the massive mainframes and server farms that store and analyze
data to the personal computers used by programmers to develop software to the
mobile devices and applications with which users create and consume content. As
the computer itself continues to evolve and acquire new meanings, so does our un-
derstanding of its relevant history. But it is important to remember that these new
understandings do not refute or supersede these earlier histories but rather extend,
deepen, and make them even more relevant.

WE HAVE ORGANIZED the book in four parts. The first covers the way com-
puting was handled before the arrival of electronic computers. The next two parts
describe the mainframe computer era, roughly from 1945 to 1980, with one part
devoted to the computer’s creation and the other to its evolution. The final part
discusses the origins of personal computing and the Internet.
Part One, on the early history of computing, includes three chapters. Chapter 1
discusses manual information processing and early technologies. People often sup-
pose that information processing is a twentieth-century phenomenon; this is not
so, and the first chapter shows that sophisticated information processing could be
done with or without machines—slower in the latter case, but equally well. Chap-
ter 2 describes the origins of office machinery and the business-machine industry.
To understand the post–World War II computer industry, we need to realize that
its leading firms—including IBM—were established as business-machine manufac-
turers in the last decades of the nineteenth century and were major innovators be-
tween the two world wars. Chapter 3 describes Charles Babbage’s failed attempt to
build a calculating engine in the 1830s and its realization by Harvard University
and IBM a century later. We also briefly discuss the theoretical developments asso-
ciated with Alan Turing.
Part Two of the book describes the development of the electronic computer,
from its invention during World War II up to the establishment of IBM as the
 Introduction xv

dominant mainframe computer manufacturer in the mid-1960s. Chapter 4 covers

the development of the ENIAC at the University of Pennsylvania during the war
and its successor, the EDVAC, which was the blueprint for almost all subsequent
computers up to the present day. Chapter 5 describes the early development of the
computer industry, which transformed the computer from a scientific instrument
for mathematical computation into a machine for business data processing. In
Chapter 6 we examine the development of the mainframe computer industry, fo-
cusing on the IBM System/360 range of computers, which created the first stable
industry standard and established IBM’s dominance.
Part Three presents a selective history of some key computer innovations in the
quarter-century between the invention of the computer at the end of the war and
the development of the first personal computers. Chapter 7 is a study of one of the
key technologies of computing, real time. We examine this subject in the context of
commonly experienced applications, such as airline reservations, banking and
ATMs, and supermarket bar codes. Chapter 8 describes the development of soft-
ware technology, the professionalization of programming, and the emergence of a
software industry. Chapter 9 covers the development of some of the key features of
the computing environment at the end of the 1960s: time-sharing, minicomputers,
and microelectronics. The purpose of the chapter is, in part, to redress the com-
monly held notion that the computer transformed from the mainframe to the per-
sonal computer in one giant leap.
Part Four gives a history of the developments of the last forty years that brought
the computer to most people’s desktops and into their personal lives. Chapter 10
describes the development of the microcomputer from the first hobby computers in
the mid-1970s up to its transformation into the familiar personal computer by the
end of the decade. Chapter 11’s focus is on the personal-computer environment of
the 1980s, when the key innovations were user-friendliness and the delivery of
“content,” by means of CD-ROM storage and consumer networks. This decade
was characterized by the extraordinary rise of Microsoft and the other personal-
computer software companies. The book concludes with a discussion of the Inter-
net. The focus is on the World Wide Web, its precedents in the information
sciences, and its ever-evolving commercial and social applications.
We have included notes at the end of the book. These indicate the exact sources
of our quotations and lead the interested reader to some of the major literature on
the history of computing.
 Part One

BEFORE THE COMPUTER

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