Unit -2: Paragraph Writing

2.1. Definition
A paragraph is a group of sentences that form a distinct unit developing one major idea. In other words, it is a
collection/set of related sentences dealing with a single topic. A good paragraph is well organized, properly
linked & fully developed.
2.2. Elements of a Paragraph
1. Topic Sentence
Topic Sentence states the main idea of the paragraph. It is usually placed at the beginning of a paragraph. It
gives readers an overview of what they are about to read.
2. Supporting Sentences
They provide specific or detailed information; it provides logical explanations & evidences to support our idea.
Read the following paragraph carefully & identify the topic, topic sentence, & the supporting sentences.
Parag-1
Rome is almost as lovely at night as during the day. From a window seat in a restaurant on the corner of the
square, we could see street musicians strolling about as young boys picked a soccer ball & couples strolled arm
in arm. After dinner, we strolled around, delighting in the contrast of old ladies sweeping out dark door−ways as
the sounds of modern jazz poured into the street from music shops.
a. What could be the possible title/topic of the above paragraph?
_________________________________________________________________
b. What is the Topic Sentence of the paragraph?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Parag-2
We had a terrible storm last night. The winds blow up to 50 miles an hour & it rained very hard. Eucalyptus
trees by the river below over & one tree hit a power line & blacked out the area for 5 hours. Downtown, the
main street was flooded, & cars were left stranded in bumper-deep water. Before morning, the river flooded its
banks, & people living nearby were forced to flee their homes with whatever belongings they could gather. It
was the worst storm, in the country since 1958.
a. What could be the possible title/topic of the above paragraph?
_________________________________________________________________
b. What is the Topic Sentence of the paragraph?
___________________________________________________________________________________
Position of Topic Sentence in a Paragraph

top bottom top & bottom middle

Parag-3
Piranhas rarely feed on large animals; they eat smaller fish and aquatic plants. When confronted with
humans, piranhas’ first instinct is to flee, not attack. Their fear of humans makes sense. Far more piranhas
are eaten by people than people are eaten by piranhas. If the fish are well-fed, they won’t bite humans. Like
sharks, snakes, and spiders, piranhas are widely feared. Although most people consider piranhas to be quite
dangerous, they are, for the most part, harmless.
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a. What could be the possible title/topic of the above paragraph?
_________________________________________________________________
b. What is the Topic Sentence of the paragraph?
___________________________________________________________________________________
Parag-4
Does watching violence on TV make people more prone to violence themselves? Obviously, TV violence
has some negative effects. One study found that heavy TV watchers are more fearful of others. They try to
protect themselves with guns, alarm systems, and security locks on doors. In the same study, it was found
that heavy TV watchers are less upset about real-life violence than are non-TV watchers. All of the
violence they see on TV makes them less sensitive to the real thing. A recent study also found that TV
violence increases aggressive behavior in kids and makes them more likely to select toy guns rather than
other kinds of toys.
Answer these questions:
1. The best topic for the previous paragraph is_____.
A. Kids B. TV Watching C. TV Violence D. Real-life Violence
2. What is the Topic Sentence of the paragraph?
________________________________________________________________________________
Exercise: identify the sentence that is not clearly related to the given Topic sentence
1. Topic Sentence: There are many ways to study for a test.
a. You can review a few hours the night before the test.
b. You can study an hour a night during the week of the test.
c. You can study with friends & help each other.
d. You can get up early in the morning of the test day & study.
e. You can improve your grades by attending classes regularly.
2. Topic Sentence: The town is a pleasant place to live.
a. There are three movie theatres in the town. c. There is a bad smell coming from the town dump.
b. The people are friendly. d. There is very little crime rate. e. There are many places to shop for clothes.
3. Topic Sentence: The quarrel between Abreha & Getachew is stupid (none sense).
a. They don’t remember what started it. d. they see each other every day.
b. They have always been best friends. e. They have been next door neighbors for ten years.
c. They live in Addis Ababa.
4. Topic Sentence: The baby isn’t hungry this morning.
a. She keeps spitting out her food. c. She turns her head when I try to feed her.
b. She loves rice pudding for lunch. d. She keeps playing with her food. e. her stomach looks stuffed.
5. Topic Sentence: The price of a new car is too high.
a. Most people would have to save for years just to buy a new car.
b. Nowadays, Ethiopia is expanding car-assembling industries.
c. A car costs as much as a house used to cost.
d. Most people can never afford to buy a new car.
e. The price of a new car is very high because the government imposes high tax rate.
6. Topic Sentence: Water exists in three forms, which can vary with temperature.
a. At high temperature, water becomes steam; it exists in its gaseous state.
b. At normal temperature, it exists in its liquid state.
c. Drinking water often contains mineral traces.

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 d. At cold temperature, ice is water in its solid state.
Recognizing a Main Idea
 Also called controlling idea, central thought, or gist
 Called a thesis when referring to a passage or long selection
 May be stated or unstated (implied)
 When stated in (a) sentence (s) by the author, the main idea is expressed in the topic sentence(s).
Stated Main Ideas—Tips for Finding Topic Sentences
 The most common place to find the stated main idea (topic sentence) in non-fiction material is in the
first sentence of a paragraph.
 The second most common place for a stated main idea is in the last sentence of a non-fiction paragraph.
 A topic sentence is a general or summary statement.
 A brief statement that ends in a plural noun may be used as a topic sentence.
Keep these suggestions in mind:
 The topic sentence must include the topic within it.
 A topic sentence must NOT include details; it is a general sentence.
 A topic sentence must NOT contain transitions (terms like “for instance,” “second,” “in addition”)
which suggest examples.
 A topic sentence MAY end in a plural noun or contain a plural noun that is a general term for the
supporting details.
 A sentence that is followed by a statement with a contrast term is NOT the topic sentence.

Q. Which of the following could be good topic sentences? (Click on each of your choices.)
A. Students go to college for many reasons.
B. Twenty-five students reported having their books stolen last semester.
C. For smokers and their families, smoking has many negative health effects.
D. You can protect your home from burglary by taking several precautions.
E. The second way to improve your grades is to take extensive lecture notes.
F. There are several steps you should take before putting your home on the market.
3. Unity
It is oneness of ideas. A paragraph has unity when all of the supporting ideas in the paragraph work
together to develop the Topic sentence. The paragraph must focus solely on a single idea, point, or
argument that is being discussed. Therefore, the paragraph should not begin to stray and develop new ideas.
All of the sentences in a single paragraph should be related to a single controlling idea (often expressed in
the topic sentence of the paragraph).To have unity, all of the supporting sentences should relate to the main
thought. Here is an example:
Parag-5
Your sister is an attractive woman. Her large, dark eyes are beautiful. Her complexion flawless & she has a
lovely big smile. Her long black hair is full & shiny. She is tall & slender, & her every movement is graceful.
She also dresses stylishly, & her shirt looks great in her.
a. What could be the possible title/topic of the above paragraph?
_________________________________________________________________
b. What is the Topic Sentence of the paragraph?

4. Coherence

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 Coherence refers to the smooth flow of ideas. When a paragraph flows, the reader will be able to
understand the main idea that you have presented easily. Sentences in a paragraph are logically organized &
tied together with words that show their relationship to one another.
Coherence can be achieved in different ways:
A. Paragraph Organization
 Order:
 Time (Chronological ) order for story telling
 Space (Spatial Order)/direction/ for descriptive writing-Example my classroom
 By the order of specification (general to Specific or specific to general)
 By alternating (compare/contrast)
 By the order of climax/Emphatic (most important information last)
 Category/classification E.g. animals (wild & tame/domestic)
B. Transitional Words (Transitions)
To show addition:
again, and, also, besides, equally important, first (second, etc.), further, furthermore, in addition, in the
first place, moreover, next, too, etc.
To give examples:
for example, for instance, in fact, specifically, that is, to illustrate, etc.
To compare:
also, in the same manner, likewise, similarly, etc.
To contrast:
although, and yet, at the same time, but, despite, even though, however, in contrast, in spite of,
nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, though, yet, etc.
To summarize or conclude:
all in all, in conclusion, in other words, in short, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to sum up,
etc.
To show time:
after, afterward, as, as long as, as soon as, at last, before, during, earlier, finally, formerly, immediately,
later, meanwhile, next, since, shortly, subsequently, then, thereafter, until, when, while, etc.
To show place or direction:
above, below, beyond, close, elsewhere, farther on, here, nearby, opposite, to the left (north), etc.
To indicate logical relationship:
accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this reason, hence, if, otherwise, since, so, then,
therefore, thus, etc.
C. Other Connecting Words
 Using repeated key words/phrases (E.g. HIV/AIDS…., Democracy…..)
 Using pronouns (E.g. the students…they, the environment…it, etc.)
 Using Synonyms (E.g. methods, techniques, procedures, ways, etc.)
 By creating parallel structures (by avoiding faulty parallelism)
 Using consistent in point of view, verb tense, and number.

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 Exercise: Read the following jumbled sentences about the use of pens & pencils carefully and rearrange
them to make a coherent paragraph.

A. There is one disadvantage; however, you can’t erase an ink mark.

B. Why do some students prefer pencils to pens for certain tasks? Let’s see how these two writing tools
compare, staring with pens.
C. The first and most important feature of pens is that they use ink.
D. This is not a problem with pencils because they use lead, and lead marks are easily erased.
E. Ink is what allows pens to make marks that are clear, neat, and easy to read.
F. But they are not as clear and neat as ink marks.
G. That’s why I think pencils are the best tools to write or revise drafts, while pens are better to write clean
copies.

Answers: 1st ______ 2nd ______ 3rd ______ 4th ______ 5th ______ 6th ______ 7th ______

Parag-6

The high cost of college causes many problems for students today. For one thing, it keeps some students from
attending college in the first place. Also, high tuitions affect the amount of time available for study. Because
loans and scholarships are not easy to get, many students have to put in numerous hours at work in order to
afford an education. Finally, those who do manage to get loans know they must begin their careers with large
debts.

a. What could be the possible title/topic of the above paragraph?

_________________________________________________________________
b. What is the Topic Sentence of the paragraph?
___________________________________________________________________________________
Parag-7
Cocaine is considered today to be both a major social and medical problem. Just a century ago; however,
cocaine was treated as a harmless stimulant and cure-all. Scientists, such as Sigmund Freud, freely used
cocaine. Coca Cola’s original formula actually included three parts coca leaves (the source of cocaine) to one
part cola nut. Coca Cola was originally advertised as a delicious drink as well as a medicine to “cure all nervous
afflictions.” It was often prescribed for headaches, depression, and many other ills.
a. What could be the possible title/topic of the above paragraph?
_________________________________________________________________
b. What is the Topic Sentence of the paragraph?
____________________________________________________________________________________
Parag-8
Practicing Implied Main Ideas
Read to discover the implied main idea in this paragraph:

College students must attend classes for several hours each day. When in class, they must listen carefully to
their professors and take notes carefully. In addition, students must spend many hours reading difficult
textbooks that deal with many varied subjects. Furthermore, college students must take a few hours daily to
complete homework assignments and to prepare for regular exams. Besides, they must frequently do research
papers and write essays.

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Q. The best statement of the implied main idea for the previous paragraph is:
1. Taking notes is a difficult task for many students.
2. College students have to do a lot of homework.
3. Tests and research are very important requirements for college students.
4. College students must spend much time doing everything that is required of them.
The main idea you choose should:
1) be a complete sentence,
2) include the topic of the paragraph, and
3) avoid specific details.

Paragraph Structure

Most paragraphs in an essay have a three-part structure — introduction, body, and conclusion. You can see
this structure in paragraphs whether they are narrating, describing, comparing, contrasting, or analyzing
information. Each part of the paragraph plays an important role in communicating your meaning to your reader.

 Topic Sentence: it is the main idea. Usually the first sentence of an academic paragraph. More
importantly, it is the most general sentence. It gives the background information or provides
a transition.

 Body: follows the introduction; discusses the controlling idea, using facts, arguments, analysis,
examples, and other information.
 Conclusion: the final section; summarizes the connections between the information discussed in
the body of the paragraph and the paragraph’s controlling idea.

2.3. The Qualities of a Good Paragraph

 Purpose, audience & Clarity are regarded as qualities of a paragraph.

a. Purpose

When we talk about the purpose of a paragraph, we are talking about the reasons that a writer is writing a
particular paragraph. For writers to stay focused on their topic, they must understand the purpose that they
are trying to accomplish. The purpose is the goal the writer is trying to achieve.

 The three most common goals of academic writing are:

• to inform the readers • to persuade the readers • to entertain the readers

b. Audience
This is to keep your audience in mind as you write. The term ‘audience’ refers to the ‘readers’. Good
writers know who their audience is before they start writing. Relating to the audience, the writer considers
these two main elements in relating to your audience:
• viewpoint or person (first, second, or third)
• formal or informal writing

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 c. Clarity
Clarity refers to how easy it is for the reader to understand your writing. Good writers explain their points
clearly. Clear sentences are not vague or indirect; they get the point across to the reader by using specific,
concise language. Here are two ways that you can improve clarity:
• Use descriptive (or precise) words
• Use clear pronoun references
 Original: The soldiers slowly crossed the river.
 More specific: The soldiers slowly crossed the dangerous river.
The soldiers slowly crossed the dangerous river in the dark.
The tired soldiers slowly crossed the dangerous river in the dark.
d. Completeness ( Paragraph Development)
Here are the main qualities of a well-developed paragraph:
a. It provides enough supporting points for the main idea expressed in the topic sentence to be clearly
understood.
b. It provides enough specific details & examples to be interesting & informative.
c. It does not leave the readers with unanswered questions that could be cleared with a little more detail or
an additional example or two.
d. It concludes with a sentence that clearly “wraps -up” the paragraph & relates to the Topic Sentence.
 Every idea discussed in the paragraph should be adequately explained and supported through
evidence and details that work together to explain the paragraph’s controlling idea (Rosen and
Behrens 119).
2.4. Methods of Developing a Paragraph
The modes for developing paragraphs fall into the following four groups:

a. Narration/ Narrative paragraph

 Tells a story

 Explains how something happened

 Uses chronological (time) order

 Has setting (time, place, & condition), point-of-view, theme, plot, conflict, & character(s).
Normally, it uses chronological (though sometimes uses flashbacks) order.
It is a sequential presentation of the events that add up to a story.

• A narrative differs from a mere listing of events. Narration usually contains characters, a setting, a conflict,
and a resolution. Time and place and person are normally established. In this paragraph, the "story"
components are: a protagonist (Hanson), a setting (the park), a goal (to camp), an obstacle (nature), a climax
(his panic), and a resolution (leaving).

• Specific details always help a story, but so does interpretive language. You don't just lay the words on the
page; you point them in the direction of a story.

• This narrative serves as the opening anecdote that illustrates the topic of the story.

b. Description/ Descriptive Paragraph

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  It describes a person, thing, place or situation.
 It is painting something or someone by use of words.

• Readers need to see in order to imagine the scene, person, object, etc.
• It requires you to record a series of detailed observations. Be especially careful to make real observations.
• Use sensory language. Use adjectives and adverbs. Look for ways to describe action. Pay special attention
to the sound and rhythm of words; use these when you can.

It tries to convey a clear impression of what something is like. Effective descriptive writing relies on specific
words and phrases that create a clear picture (vision) in the reader's mind.

c. Persuasion (Argument) /Argumentative Writing

 It tries to persuade the reader to accept your point of view or even to change his or her point of view.

• This paragraph is but a small example of the kind of writing used widely in editorials and columns, and it
uses a direct, exhortatory (urge or earnest advice) approach: Believe Me and Do It!

• This persuasive paragraph also serves as the ending to this little article and brings a sense of closure in the
form of, OK, now get up and act!"

• To persuade people to change their minds or take an action, more is needed than your opinion or sense of
conviction. You need to supply them with the information, analysis, and context they need to form their
own opinions, make their own judgments, and take action. (E.g. Teaching saving culture to children is not
easy unless you give them different contexts they can apply it.)

In persuasive writing, you take a clear position/stand and then present evidence to support your position. If,
for example, you believe that the penalties for drinking and driving are too light, then your basic organization
might look something like this:  

Topic: Penalties for drinking and driving are too light.  

Points to support your argument:

 People should be responsible for their actions when they drink.

 Cars are weapons in the hands of a drunk driver; drunk driving is a form of assault (attack).

 All situations involving drunk drivers have the potential for serious consequences.

 Drunk drivers are responsible for most accidents.

 Victims suffer for a long time.

 Stiff (severe) penalties would reduce drunk driving.

 Other drivers pay through increased insurance costs.

Time to Get Tough with Drunk Drivers

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 It's time for the courts to crack down on drunk drivers. Often even repeat offenders get small fines when
caught driving with alcohol levels above the legal limit. But, drunk driving is a serious crime and should be
treated as such. Drunk drivers cause most serious accidents, but all situations involving drunk drivers have
the potential for serious consequences. Drunk drivers threaten the safety of everyone on the road; cars are
weapons, and drunk driving is a form of assault. People should be responsible for their actions, and if they
choose to drink and drive then they should pay the price. Often the victims of accidents caused by drunk
drivers suffer long after these drivers have "paid their debt to society". The law should be changed so that all
cases of drinking and driving would result in jail time and vehicles would be confiscated*. Then, perhaps
more people would think twice about drinking and driving.  

 Confiscate: take or seize something as legal penalty

d. Exposition/Expository writing
• Exposition is explanatory writing
• Aside from clarity, the key problem with exposition is credibility. What makes your explanation believable?
Normally, writers solve this problem by citing authorities who have good credentials and good reason to be
experts in the subject.

This type of writing comprises several other sub-categories. These include:

1 . Example/Exemplification (Illustration)

 It makes a point about a topic by providing examples to support it.

Read the following illustrative paragraph:

Today, men and women of all ages undergo surgery to achieve the looks they desire. Cosmetic surgery is so
common that to some it is a lifestyle. Some of the most popular procedures are breast implants, liposuction,
facelifts*, and hair transplants. Because many prefer fuller, bigger breasts, a good number of women from all
walks of life undergo the painful and costly procedure of breast implants. Liposuction* is a quick fix for those
who find good diet and exercise ineffective and time consuming. Another popular procedure for both men and
women is the surgical facelift. This process promises men and women a younger and fresher look. For men
who are worried about baldness, there is hair replacement. Thanks to medical advances, men can avoid the
harsh reality of balding by undergoing a long lasting hair transplant procedure. Many value plastic surgery even
though it's costly and can have a number of negative side effects. In spite of the many plastic surgery disasters,
those obsessed with having the perfect face and body will keep the business alive and well.  

 facelift: cosmetic surgery of face- a surgical operation in which the skin of the face is pulled back and
up to tighten it and remove wrinkles

 liposuction፡ fat removal- cosmetic surgery in which fat is removed from under the skin by vacuum
suction

2. Classification

 It is organizing or grouping together subjects with the same qualities or characteristics

 It explains a subject by dividing into types or categories.

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We are constantly classifying things by breaking them into types, groups or categories. By classifying things,
we better understand the distinct qualities/features of different subjects in the same general group. If we are
shopping for a new bicycle, we have probably gone through a process of classification: a road bike, a mountain
bike, or a hybrid bike.

Other examples of classification:

 Types of parenting styles: strict, liberal, and permissive;

 Types of dogs: family pets, show dogs, and working dogs.

 Types of films: action (adventure), romantic, historical, etc.

However, when you break down your topic, you should identify the basis for the classification. The qualities
that distinguish each of your categories should be clear.

3. Definition

 It is giving the equivalent meaning of a term, idea, or concept.

 Defining is an effective way of controlling the scope of terms/ideas/concepts.

Examples:

. AIDS means Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome

. Democracy means a political system where people ensure their participation through their representatives.
. Bimetals are components made up of two separate metallic units, each occupying a distinct position in the
component.

Read the following definition paragraph:

"Park" is difficult to define in Florida, because there are so many kinds of parks. Basically, a park is a place to
go for outdoor recreation − to swim, picnic, hike, camp, walk , play tennis, paddle your canoe, and, in some
places take rides in miniature trains or swish down a waterslide. Florida has a rich variety of parks. To make
things more complicated, not all of them are called "parks," and even the ones called "parks" come in several
varieties.

4. Process (Process Analysis)

 It tells how something is achieved or came to be; or tells how to do something; explains how to do
something in a series of steps (coffee preparation, baking ‘injera’, etc.)

 It explains how something works (machine).

• In describing how a process happens or how to perform a series of actions, always think of your readers: can
they follow this?

• Analyze the process into a series of steps. Put the steps into sequence.
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• Then, isolate the steps: number them, use bullets, put them in separate paragraphs.

For instance, a process paragraph might tell you how to plan a budget holiday, prepare for final exams, get a
deal on a used car, and write about the steps to improve physical fitness, or tell how something is processed in a
factory or in an industry.

5. Cause and Effect

 It explains the reasons (causes) why something happened.

 It describes the results (effects) of an event, action, or condition.

When we visit a doctor, the doctor usually questions us carefully to determine the cause of our illness. Causes
are the reasons that something happened; the causes of pollution, divorce, heart disease, anorexia (persistent
loss of appetite), etc. can be identified and presented so that the reader gains a better knowledge of how the
causes brought about certain results.

Similarly, when we think of effects, we often think of benefits or advantages such as the benefits of exercise or
the advantages of self-employment. We could also look at the negative effects of a cause such as divorce,
alcoholism, or global warming, etc. 

We often examine causes so that we can learn how to prevent things from happening again. Researchers look at
causes of heart disease so that they can educate people on how to avoid behaviors such as high fat diets and
sedentary (involving a lot of sitting) lifestyles that contribute to heart disease. We may focus on effects to
convince someone that becoming a vegetarian; for example, is a good idea because of the health benefits.

How Drugs Can Destroy People's Lives

Drug addiction is a serious health issue that affects addicts, their families and society. First of all, drug addiction
has severe physical effects on the addict's body. Drug users can experience many physical symptoms including
sickness, fevers, sweats and shakes, loss of appetite, and weight loss. They also face the danger of contracting
serious diseases such as AIDS, hepatitis (inflammation of liver), and other communicable diseases. Families
and friends of drug addicts are inevitably also affected by their addiction. Addiction can lead to serious financial
problems, loss of trust, and eventually family breakup and divorce. Society as well pays a cost: crime rates go
up, and more security and hospital care is needed which are all paid for by taxpayers. Drug addiction is a
destructive way to live. May be more would be done about it if it were looked at not just as a problem that
addicts face alone, but as something that affects society as a whole.  

6. Comparison and Contrast

 It explains how two or more subjects (things) are similar or different.

A comparison and contrast composition is a formal way of organizing our thoughts. It explains the differences
and similarities between two subjects and helps us evaluate subjects to understand their advantages and
disadvantages, or strengths and weaknesses.

In our daily lives, we constantly make comparisons. We compare TV shows, teachers, music, clothes or shoes,
and jobs, etc.

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By making comparisons carefully, we can make better choices or decisions. For example, if we are looking for
a new computer we will probably look at several manufacturers and models and then make our decision. We
may compare on the basis of price, features, brand reputation, and service quality.

To compare & contrast two subjects, you first have to decide what the bases of your comparison are. For
instance, if you want to buy a car & there are many available to choose from, you might look at styling,
dependability record, performance, standard features, and comfort.

Choosing Between the ‘Block Method’ and the ‘Point-by-Point Method’

There are two basic approaches to organizing a comparison and contrast essay: the point-by-point method and
the block method (also called the subject-by-subject method). In the point-by-point method, you look at one
aspect of your comparison at a time and relate it to the two subjects you are comparing. The examples below
show the difference between the point-by-point and block method in a paragraph comparing car ownership and
transit use.

Transportation Choices

a. Block Method Paragraph Organization:  

Cars:

 Cost

 Convenience

 Comfort

 Environmental Impact

Public Transit:

 Cost

 Convenience

 Comfort

 Environmental Impact

b. Point-by-point paragraph organization:

Point-1 Cost Cars are…, but public transit….  

Point -2 Convenience Cars are…, but public transit….  

Point -3 Comfort Cars are…, but public transit….  

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Point -4 Environmental impact Cars are…, but public transit….  

……… End of Unit-2 …………….

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