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Chapter 2
Circuit Laws

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Topics Covered in Chapter 2

• Definition of node, branch, path, loop, and mesh
• Resistor
• Ohm’s law
• Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)
• Equivalent resistance of series connection of resistors
• Equivalent resistance of parallel connection of resistors
• Solving circuit problems using KCL, KVL, and equivalent resistances
• Voltage divider rule
• Current divider rule
• Wye (Y) to delta (D) conversion and delta (D) to wye (Y) conversion

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Introduction
• Nodes, branches, loops, and meshes are defined in this chapter.
• The equation of resistance of a conductor is expressed as a function of conductivity (or
resistivity), and the dimension of the conductor.
• Ohm’s law is introduced.
• Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) are presented in this chapter.
• Finding the equivalent resistance of series and parallel connection of resistors are discussed.
• The voltage divider rule and the current divider rule are introduced.
• If a circuit contains resistors in wye (Y) shape, it can be changed to delta (D) shape. On the
other hand, if a circuit contains resistors in delta (D) shape, it can be changed to wye (Y)
shape. The transformation from wye-to-delta and delta-to-wye may make it easier to simplify
the circuit.

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Definition of Circuit, Node, Loop, and Mesh

• A circuit is an interconnection of elements, which can be voltage sources, current sources,
resistors, capacitors, inductors, coupled coils, transformers, op amps, etc.
• A node is a point in a circuit where two or more elements are joined.
• A simple node is a node that connects two elements.
• An essential node is a node that connects three or more elements.
• A path in a circuit is a series of connected elements from a node to another node that does
not go to the same node more than once.
• A branch is a path in a circuit consisting of a single element.
• A loop of a circuit is a closed path starting from a node and returning to the same node.
• A mesh is a loop that does not contain another loop inside it.
• The ground node where the voltage is at ground level is usually taken to be the reference
node.
• The voltage of a node measured with respect to a reference node is called node voltage.
• The current through a mesh is called mesh current.

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EXAMPLE 2.1
• Find all the nodes, loops, and meshes for the circuit shown in Figure 2.1.
• There are three nodes (labeled as 0, 1, 2).
Node 1 is a simple node and nodes 2
and 0 are essential nodes.
• There are three loops in the circuit shown in
Figure 2.1. The three loops are
0-B-1-A-2-D-0
0-B-1-A-2-C-0
0-C-2-D-0
• There are two meshes in the circuit shown in Figure 2.1. The two meshes are
0-B-1-A-2-C-0
0-C-2-D-0
• The loop 0-B-1-A-2-D-0 contains two meshes 0-B-1-A-2-C-0 and 0-C-2-D-0.
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Resistor
• A resistor is a circuit component that regulates the flow of current.
• The resistance of a resistor measures its ability to limit the current. When the resistance
value is large, the amount of current flow through the resistor is small. On the other hand, if
the resistance value is small, the amount of current flow through the resistor is large. The
resistance value of a resistor is determined by the conductivity (or resistivity) of the material
used to make it, as well as its dimensions.
• Low-power resistors can be made from carbon composition material made of fine
granulated graphite mixed with clay. For high power, wire-wound resistors can be used. The
wire-wound resistors are constructed by twisting a wire made of
nichrome or similar material around a ceramic core.
• The circuit symbol for a resistor is shown in Figure 2.3.

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Resistance
• The current density is defined as the amount of current through the unit area. If A is the
cross-sectional area of a wire that carries a constant current I, the current density is given by
J = I/A
• It can be shown that the current density is proportional to the electric field intensity:
J = sE
where s is the conductivity of the material.
• Let l be the length of the wire and V be the potential difference (voltage) between the ends of
the wire. The potential difference generates a constant electric field E inside the conductor.
The potential difference V is related to the electric field through
V = El
• Substituting E = V/l and J = I/A into J = sE, we obtain I/A = sV//l. Thus, V = [l/(sA)]I. The
resistance is defined as
!
R=
sA
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Resistance (Continued)
• The resistance is proportional to the length of the wire and inversely proportional to the cross-
sectional area of the wire and conductivity of the material.
• The resistivity r of the material is the inverse of the conductivity:
r = 1/s
• In terms of the resistivity, the resistance is given by
r!
R=
A
• The resistance is proportional to the length of the wire and resistivity, and inversely proportional
to the cross-sectional area of the wire.
• The unit for resistance is ohm (W).
• In terms of resistance R, Equation V = [l/(sA)]I becomes
V = RI (Ohm’s law)
• Find the resistance of a wire with radius 1 mm, length 10 m, conductivity 5 ´ 104 S/m.
R = 10/(p ´ 0.0012 ´ 5 ´ 104) = 63.662 W.

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Ohm’s Law (V = RI, I = V/R, R = V/I)

• The voltage-current relation of a resistor with resistance R is given by
V = RI
where V is the voltage across the resistor, and I is the current through the resistor.
• The voltage across a resistor is proportional to the current through the resistor. The
proportionality constant in this linear relation is the resistance R. For the given current I, the
voltage across the resistor increases as R increases.
• I = V/R (I-V characteristic of a resistor)
The current through the resistor is proportional to the voltage
across the resistor. The proportionality constant in this linear
relation is the conductance defined by G = 1/R. For the given
voltage V, the current through the resistor decreases as R
increases. The slope of the I-V characteristic is the
conductance. For Figure 2.5, G = 1 mA/1 V = 0.001 S. The unit for conductance is siemens.
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Ohm’s Law (R=V/I) and Power absorbed by Resistor

• The resistance R of a resistor is given by
R = V/I
The resistance of a resistor is the ratio of voltage to current.
• Power absorbed by a resistor is given by
P = IV = VI (W)
The power absorbed by a resistor is the product of the current through the resistor and the
voltage across the resistor.
• Substituting V = IR into P = IV, we get
P = I2R (W)
The power absorbed by a resistor is the product of the square of the current through the resistor
and the resistance value.
• Substituting I = V/R into P = IV, we get
P = V2/R (W)
The power absorbed by a resistor is the ratio of the square of the voltage across the resistor to
the resistance value.

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Circuit with Two Resistors and a Voltage Source

• Given I = 2 mA, find V1, V2, and powers.
• V1 = R1 ´ I = 2000 ´ 0.002 = 4 V (Ohm’s law)
• V2 = R2 ´ I = 3000 ´ 0.002 = 6 V (Ohm’s law)
• PR1 = I ´ V1 = 0.002 ´ 4 = 0.008 W = 8 mW
• PR2 = I ´ V2 = 0.002 ´ 6 = 0.012 W = 12 mW
• PVs = – I ´ Vs = -0.002 ´ 10 = – 0.02 W = -20 mW
• Power absorbed by R1 and R2 = 20 mW
• Power released by Vs = 20 mW
• Power absorbed = Power released

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EXAMPLE 2.2
• Given V2 = 9 V, find I2, I3, V1, I1, and powers in the circuit shown in Figure 2.7.
• I2 = V2/R2 = 9 V/3 kW = 3 mA (Ohm’s law), I3 = V2/R3 = 9 V/4.5 kW = 2 mA (Ohm’s law)
• V1 = Vs – V2 = 15 V – 9 V = 6 V, I1 = V1/R1 = 6 V/1.2 kW = 5 mA
• PR1 = I1V1 = 30 mW, PR2 = I2V2 = 27 mW, PR3 = I3V2 = 18 mW, PVs = – I1Vs = – 75 mW
• PR1 + PR2 + PR3 + PVs = 0

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Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

• The sum of currents entering a node equals the sum of currents leaving the same
node.
All currents are positive. A node is a point in a circuit where two or more elements are
connected. It is part of wires that interconnect elements. A node cannot store or destroy
electric charges. What comes into a node must leave the same node. The number of
charges entering a node per second must equal the number of changes leaving the same
node per second.
• The sum of currents leaving a node is zero.
At least one of the currents leaving the node must be negative (meaning that the current
actually enters the node).
• The sum of currents entering a node is zero.
At least one of the currents entering the node must be negative (meaning that the current
actually leaves the node).

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Circuit with Three Resistors and a Voltage Source

• I2 = Vs/R1 = 12 V/3 kW = 4 mA, I3 = Vs/R2 = 12 V/4 kW = 3 mA, I4 = Vs/R3 = 12 V/6 kW = 2 mA
• I1 = I2 + I3 + I4 = 4 mA + 3 mA + 2 mA = 9 mA
• Sum of currents entering node 1 = I1 = 9 mA
Sum of currents leaving node 1 = I2 + I3 + I4 = 9 mA
• Sum of all currents leaving node 1 = – I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 = – 9 mA + 4 mA + 3 mA + 2 mA = 0
• Sum of all currents entering node 1 = I1 – I2 – I3 – I4 = 9 mA – 4 mA – 3 mA – 2 mA = 0

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EXAMPLE 2.3
• Given I3 = 3 mA, find V3, I4, I2, V2, I1, and V1 in the circuit shown in Figure 2.11.
• V3 = R3I3 = 2000 ´ 0.003 = 6 V, I4 = V3/R4 = 6/3000 = 2 ´ 10–3 A = 2 mA
• I2 = I3 + I4 = 3 mA + 2 mA = 5 mA
• V2 = R2I2 = 1000 ´ 0.005 = 5 V
• I1 = Is – I2 = 7 mA – 5 mA = 2 mA
• V1 = R1I1 = 5500 ´ 0.002 = 11 V

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EXAMPLE 2.4
• Find V1, I1, I2, and I3 in the circuit shown in Figure 2.13.
• KCL: Is = I1 + I2 + I3 = V1/R1 + V1/R2 + V1/R3 = V1(1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3)
Is 0.012 3000 ´ 0.012 36
V1 = = = = = 6V
1 1 1 1 1 1 3000 3000 3000 6
+ + + + + +
R1 R2 R3 3000 1500 1000 3000 1500 1000
• I1 = V1/R1 = 2 mA, I2 = V1/R2 = 4 mA, I3 = V1/R3 = 6 mA

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EXAMPLE 2.5
• Given I1 = 3 A, I3 = 10 A, and I6 = – 8 A, find I2, I4, and I5 in the circuit shown in Figure 2.15.
• KCL at node 1: I2 + I3 = I1
I2 = I1 – I3 = 3 A – 10 A = – 7 A
• KCL at node 3: I1 + I5 + I6 = 0
I5 = – I1 – I6 = – 3 A – (– 8 A) = 5 A
• KCL at node 2: I4 = I2 + I5
I4 = I2 + I5 = – 7 A + 5 A = – 2 A

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EXAMPLE 2.6
• Find I1, I2, I3, I4, I5, and I6 in the circuit shown in Figure 2.18.
• Ohm’s law: I1 = (Vs2 – Vs1)/R1 = 6 V/3 W = 2 A, I2 = (Vs2 – Vs1)/R2 = 6 V/6 W = 1 A,
I3 = Vs1/R3 = 4 V/1 W = 4 A, I4 = Vs2/R4 = 10 V/5 W = 2 A
• KCL at node 1: I5 = – I1 – I2 + I3 = – 2 A – 1 A + 4 A = 1 A
• KCL at node 2: I6 = I1 + I2 + I4 = 2 A + 1 A + 2 A = 5 A

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Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

• The sum of voltage drops around a loop equals the sum of voltage rises of the same
loop.
The voltage of a node must be unique, and the voltage for any node cannot have two
different values.
• The sum of voltage drops around a loop is zero.
At least one of the voltage drops around the loop must be negative (meaning that the voltage
actually rises on the branch).
• The sum of voltage rises around a loop is zero.
at least one of the voltage rises around the loop must be negative (meaning that the voltage
actually drops on the branch) for this statement to be true.
• Since a mesh is also a loop, the KVL applies to mesh as well.

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Circuit with Three Resistors and a Voltage Source

• Ohm’s law: V1 = R1I, V2 = R2I, V3 = R3I
• According to KVL, the sum of voltage drops
around the mesh in the clockwise direction
is zero:
– Vs + R1I + R2I + R3I = 0
Vs 9
I= = A = 0.5 mA
R1 + R2 + R3 4000 + 6000 + 8000
• Ohm’s law: V1 = R1I = 4000 ´ 0.0005 V = 2 V
V2 = R2I = 6000 ´ 0.0005 V = 3 V
V3 = R3I = 8000 ´ 0.0005 V = 4 V

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EXAMPLE 2.7
• Given V2 = 6 V, find I2, I3, I4, V4, I1, V1, Vs in the circuit shown in Figure 2.21.
• Ohm’s law: I2 = V2/R2 = 6/3000 A = 2 mA
I3 = V2/R3 = 6/4000 A = 1.5 mA
• KCL: I1 = I4 = I2 + I3 = 2 mA + 1.5 mA = 3.5 mA
• Ohm’s law: V4 = R4I4= 1000 ´ 0.0035 V = 3.5 V
V1 = R1I1= 600 ´ 0.0035 V = 2.1 V
• KVL: – Vs + V1 + V2 + V4 = 0
Vs = V1 + V2 + V4 = 2.1 V + 6 V + 3.5 V = 11.6 V

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EXAMPLE 2.8
• Given V1 = 6 V, V5 = 5 V, V6 = 3 V, and V7 = 7 V, find V2, V3, V4, and V8 in the circuit shown in
Figure 2.23.
• KVL around the mesh in the lower left:
– V6 + V4 + V7 = 0, V4 = V6 – V7 = 3 V – 7 V = – 4 V
• KVL around the mesh in the lower right:
– V7 – V5 + V8 = 0,
V8 = V5 + V7 = 5 V + 7 V = 12 V
• KVL around the mesh in the upper left:
– V1 + V3 – V4 = 0, V3 = V1 + V4 = 6 V – 4 V = 2 V
• KVL around the mesh in the upper right:
– V3 + V2 + V5 = 0
V2 = V3 – V5 = 2 V – 5 V = – 3 V

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EXAMPLE 2.9
• Find i, V1, V2, I2, I3, I4, I5, I6 in the circuit shown in Figure 2.25.
• KVL around the mesh in the lower left: – Vs + R1i + 2500i = 0 or – 7 + 1000i + 2500i = 0
i = 7/3500 A = 1/500 A = 2 mA, V1 = 2500i = 2500 ´ 0.002 V = 5 V
• KVL around the outside loop:
– Vs + 2000i + V2 = 0
V2 = Vs – 2000i = 7 – 2000 ´ 0.002 = 3 V
• Ohm’s law:
I4 = (V1 – V2)/R2 = 2 V/2000 W = 1 mA
I5 = V2/R3 = 3 V/1500 W = 2 mA
• KCL at node 1: I3 = i – I4 = 1 mA
• KCL at node 2: I1 = I5 – I4 = 1 mA
• KCL at node 3: I2 = I1 + i = 3 mA

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Equivalent Resistance of Series Connection of Resistors

• Two resistors with resistances R1 and R2 are connected in series in Fig.2.27(a).
• I = current through R1 and R2, V1 = voltage across R1, V2 = voltage across R2
• Ohm’s law: V1 = R1I, V2 = R2I
• KVL: – V + V1 + V2 = 0
V = V1 + V2 = R1I + R2I = (R1 + R2)I = ReqI
where Req is the equivalent resistance of the series connection of R1 and R2.
• The circuit shown in Fig.2.27(a) can be replaced by the circuit shown in
Fig.2.27(b).
• If n resistors with resistances R1, R2, …, Rn are connected in series, the
equivalent resistance is given by
Req = R1 + R2 + … + Rn

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Circuit with Series Connection of Resistors

• The equivalent resistance of the series connection of R1 and R2 in Fig.2.29 is given by
Req = R1 + R2 = 25 kW
• When R1 and R2 are replaced
by Req, we obtain the circuit
shown in Figure 2.30.
• Ohm’s law:
I = Vs/Req = 5 V/25 kW = 0.2 mA
• Ohm’s law:
V1 = R1I = 10 kW ´ 0.2 mA = 2 V
V2 = R2I = 15 kW ´ 0.2 mA = 3 V

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EXAMPLE 2.10
• Given I3 = 750 µA, find Va, I2, I4, I1, Vs in the circuit shown in Figure 2.31.
• Ra = R2 + R3 + R4 = 50 kW, Rb = R5 + R6 = 20 kW, Rc = R7 + R8 + R9 + R10 = 75 kW
• Va = RbI3 = 15 V, I2 = Va/Ra = 0.3 mA, I4 = Va/Rc = 0.2 mA, I1 = I2 + I3 + I4 = 1.25 mA

V1 = R1I1 = 5 V, Vs = V1 + Va = 20 V
Figure 2.32 shows simplified circuit.

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Equivalent Resistance of Parallel Connection of Two Resistors

• Two resistors R1 and R2 are connected in parallel as shown in Figure 2.34(a).
• I1 = current through R1, I2 = current through R2, V = voltage across R1 and R2
• KCL:
V V æ1 1 ö 1
I = I1 + I 2 = + = ç + ÷V Þ V = I = Req I
R1 R2 è R1 R2 ø 1 1
+
R1 R2
• The equivalent resistance Req is given by
1 RR
Req = R1 || R2 = = 1 2
1 1 R1 + R2
+
R1 R2

• The circuit shown in Figure 2.34(a) can be replaced by the equivalent circuit shown in Figure
2.34(b).
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Properties of Req = R1 || R2
1 R1 R2
R eq = R1 || R2 = =
1 1 R1 + R2
+
R1 R2

• Req < R1, Req < R2

The equivalent resistance is smaller than the smaller of the two.
• R1 || 0 = 0, R1 || ¥ = R1.
• If R1 << R2, R1 || R2 » R1.
• If R1 = R2 = R, R1 || R2 = R || R = R/2.

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Equivalent Resistance of Parallel Connection of n Resistors

• n resistors R1, R2, …, Rn are connected in parallel as shown in Figure 2.35(a).
• I1 = current through R1, I2 = current through R2, …, In = current through Rn
• V = voltage across R1, R2, …, Rn, equivalent circuit in Figure 2.35(b).
• KCL
V V V æ1 1 1 ö
I = I1 + I 2 + ... + I n = + + ... + = ç + + ... + ÷V
R1 R2 Rn è R1 R2 Rn ø
1
V= I = Req I
1 1 1
+ + ... +
R1 R2 Rn
1
Req =
1 1 1
+ + ... +
R1 R2 Rn

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Circuit with Parallel Connection of Resistors

• Find I1, V1, V2, I2, I3, V3, I4, I5, and I6 in the circuit shown in Figure 2.36.
R2 ´ R3 21k W ´ 28k W 588
Ra = R2 || R3 = = = k W = 12k W
R2 + R3 21k W + 28k W 49
1 1
Rb = R4 || R5 || R6 = kW = k W = 15k W
1 1 1 0.06667
+ +
33 40 88
• The circuit reduces to the one shown
in Figure 2.37. The current I1 is
Vs 15 V
I1 = = = 0.5 mA
R1 + Ra + Rb 30 k W

• V1 = R1I1 = 1.5 V, V2 = RaI1 = 6 V,

V3 = RbI1 = 7.5 V, I2 = V2/R2 = 0.2857 mA,
I3 = V2/R3 = 0.2143 mA, I4= V3/R4= 0.2273mA,
I5 = V3/R5 = 0.1875 mA, I6 = V3/R6 = 0.08523 mA
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EXAMPLE 2.11
• Find the equivalent resistance between terminals a and b for the circuit shown in Figure 2.38.
50 ´ 75
R6 = R4 || R5 = k W = 30 k W
50 + 75
• R7 = R3 + R6 = 60 kW
1 1
Req = = k W = 20 k W
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + +
R1 R2 R7 45 90 60
• MATLAB function P.m can be used to find the equivalent resistance.

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EXAMPLE 2.12
• Find the equivalent resistance seen from the voltage source. Also find I, I1, I2, V1, V2, V3, and
power absorbed by resistors and power released by the voltage source.
• Ra = R3 || R4 = R3 ´ R4/(R3+R4) = 100/25 kW = 4 kW, Req = R1 + R2 + Ra = 9 kW
• I = Vs/Req = 9/9000 A = 1 mA
• V1 = R1I = 2 V, V2 = R2I = 3 V, V3 = RaI = 4 V
• I1 = V3/R3 = 0.8 mA, I2 = V3/R4 = 0.2 mA
• PR1 = IV1 = 2 mW, PR2 = IV2 = 3 mW, PR3 = I1V3 = 3.2 mW, PR4 = I2V3 = 0.8 mW
• PVs = – IVs = – 9 mW
• Power absorbed by resistors = 9 mW
• Power released by voltage source = 9 mW

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EXAMPLE 2.13
• Find Req seen from the voltage source in the circuit shown in Fig.2.43. Also find I1, I2, I3, I4, I5,
V1, V2, V3, and power absorbed by resistors and power released by the voltage source.
• Ra = R4 || R5 = R4´R5/(R4+R5) = 24/10 kW = 2.4 kW, Rb = R3 + Ra = 4 kW
• Rc = R2 || Rb = R2´Rb/(R2+Rb) = 64/20 kW = 3.2 kW, Req = R1 + Rc = 5 kW
• I1 = Vs/Req = 10/5000 A = 2 mA, V1 = Vs – R1I1 = 6.4 V, I2 = V1/R2 = 6.4/16000 A = 0.4 mA
• I3 = I1 – I2 = 1.6 mA, V2 = V1 – R3I3 = 3.84 V, I4 = V2/R4 = 3.84/4000 A = 0.96 mA, VR5 = V3
• I5 = V2/R5 = 3.84/6000 A = 0.64 mA, VR1 = R1I1 = 3.6 V, VR3 = R3I3 = 2.56 V, VR2 = V1, VR4 = V3
• PR1 = I1VR1 = 7.2 mW, PR3 = I3VR3 = 4.096 mW, PR2 = I2VR2 = 2.56 mW
• PR4 = I4VR4 = 3.6864 mW
• PR5 = I5VR5 = 2.4576 mW
• PVs = – I1Vs = – 20 mW, Power released = 20 mW
• Power absorbed by five resistors = 20 mW
• Refer to text for MATLAB script.
© 2018 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 33

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EXAMPLE 2.14
• Find the equivalent resistance seen from the current source. Also find Ia, I1, I2, I3, I4, I5, I6, I7,
V1, V2, V3 for the circuit shown in Figure 2.46.
• R8 = R1 || R2 = R1´R2/(R1+R2) = 1200/80 kW = 15 kW, R9 = R3 + R8 = 20 kW
• Ra = R4 || R9 = R4´R9/(R4+R9) = 600/50 kW = 12 kW
• R10 = R6 || R7 = R6´R7/(R6+R7) = 960/64 kW = 15 kW, Rb = R5 + R10 = 36 kW
• Req = Ra || Rb = Ra´Rb/(Ra+Rb) = 432/48 kW = 9 kW
• V1 = ReqIs = 9000´0.002 = 18 V, Ia = V1/Ra = 18/12000 A = 1.5 mA, I5 = Is – Ia = 0.5 mA
• I4 = V1/R4 = 18/30000 A = 0.6 mA, I3 = Ia – I4 = 0.9 mA, V2 = V1 – R3I3 = 13.5 V
• I1 = V2/R1 = 0.675 mA
• I2 = V2/R2 = 0.225 mA
• V3 = V1 – R5I5 = 7.5 V
• I6 = V3/R6 = 0.3125 mA
• I7 = V3/R7 = 0.1875 mA
© 2018 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 34

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Voltage Divider Rule for Two Resistors

• A voltage source is connected to a series connection of resistors R1 and R2 as shown in
Figure 2.49.
Vs
• The current through the resistors is given by I =
R1 + R2
• The voltage across R1 is given by
Vs R1
V1 = I ´ R1 = ´ R1 = Vs ´
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
• The voltage across R2 is given by
Vs R2
V2 = I ´ R2 = ´ R2 = Vs ´
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
• The voltage from the voltage source is divided between R1 and R2
in proportion to the resistance values.

© 2018 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 35

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Voltage Divider Rule for n Resistors

• A voltage source is connected to a series connection of n resistors R1, R2, …, Rn.
• The current through the resistors is given by
Vs
I=
R1 + R2 + ... + Rn
• The voltage across Ri is given by

Vs Ri
Vi = I ´ Ri = ´ Ri = Vs ´
R1 + R2 + ... + Rn R1 + R2 + ... + Rn
• The voltage from the voltage source is divided among n resistors in proportion to the
resistance values.

© 2018 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 36

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Circuit Analysis Using Voltage Divider Rule

• We are interested in finding V1, V2, and V3.
• Ra = R1 || R2 = R1´R2/(R1+R2) = 6/5 kW = 1.2 kW
• Rb = R3 || R4 = R3´R4/(R3+R4) = 12/8 kW = 1.5 kW
• Rc = R5 || R6 = R5´R6/(R5+R6) = 23.805/10.35 kW = 2.3 kW

Ra 1.2 1.2
V1 = Vs ´ = 10 ´ V = 10 ´ V = 2.4 V
Ra + Rb + Rc 1.2 + 1.5 + 2.3 5

Rb 1.5 1.5
V2 = Vs ´ = 10 ´ V = 10 ´ V = 3V
Ra + Rb + Rc 1.2 + 1.5 + 2.3 5

Rc 2.3 2.3
V3 = Vs ´ = 10 ´ V = 10 ´ V = 4.6 V
Ra + Rb + Rc 1.2 + 1.5 + 2.3 5

© 2018 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 37

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EXAMPLE 2.15
• Find V1, V2, and V3 in the circuit shown in Figure 2.52.
• Ra = R2 || R3 = R2´R3/(R2+R3) = 24/10 kW = 2.4 kW

R1 1.2 1.2
V1 = Vs ´ = 14 ´ V = 14 ´ V = 2.4 V
R1 + Ra + R4 1.2 + 2.4 + 3.4 7

Ra 2.4 2.4
V2 = Vs ´ = 14 ´ V = 14 ´ V = 4.8 V
R1 + Ra + R4 1.2 + 2.4 + 3.4 7

R4 3.4 3.4
V3 = Vs ´ = 14 ´ V = 14 ´ V = 6.8V
R1 + Ra + R4 1.2 + 2.4 + 3.4 7

© 2018 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 38

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EXAMPLE 2.16
• Find V1, V2, and V3 in the circuit shown in Figure 2.54.
• Ra = R1 || (R2+R3) = 28´52/(28+52) kW = 18.2 kW
• Rb = R4 || (R5+R6) = 38´57/(38+57) kW = 22.8 kW
• Refer to text for the MATLAB script.

Rb 22.8 22.8
V1 = Vs ´ = 20.5 ´ V = 20.5 ´ V = 11.4 V
Ra + Rb 18.2 + 22.8 41

R3 32
V2 = V1 + (Vs - V1 ) ´ = 11.4 V + 9.1´ V = 11.4 V + 5.6 V = 17 V
R2 + R3 20 + 32
R6 30
V3 = V1 ´ = 11.4 ´ V = 6V
R5 + R6 27 + 30
© 2018 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 39

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Wheatstone Bridge
• From the voltage divider rule, voltage at node 1 is
R2
V1 = Vs ´
R1 + R2
• From the voltage divider rule, voltage at node 2 is
R4
V2 = Vs ´
R3 + R4

• The output voltage is given by

æ R2 R4 ö R2 R3 - R1R4
Vo = V1 - V2 = Vs ´ ç - ÷ = Vs ´
è R1 + R2 R3 + R4 ø ( R1 + R2 )( R3 + R4 )
• The bridge is called balanced if Vo = 0. If the bridge is balanced, R2R3 = R1R4. The
Wheatstone bridge can be used to find the unknown resistance value R4. With R1 and R2
fixed at known values, the precision variable resistor R3 is varied until Vo = 0. Then,
R4 = R2R3/R1.

© 2018 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 40

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Current Divider Rule for Two Resistors in Parallel

• Two resistors are connected in parallel to a current source (Fig.2.58).
The equivalent resistance of R1 and R2 is given by R = R1 || R2 = 1
1 1
+
1 R1 R2
The voltage across R1 and R2 is given by V = I s R = I s ´
1 1
+
R1 R2

• The current through R1 and R2 are given respectively by

1 1
V R1 G1 R2 V R2 G2 R1
I1 = = Is ´ = Is ´ = Is ´ , I2 = = Is ´ = Is ´ = Is ´
R1 1 1 G + G R + R R 1 1 G1 + G2 R1 + R2
+ 1 2 1 2 2 +
R1 R2 R1 R2

• The current Is from the current source is divided between R1 and R2 in proportion to the
conductance (inverse of resistance) value. More current flows through smaller resistance.
© 2018 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 41

E lectric C ircuits K ang

Current Divider Rule for n Resistors in Parallel

• n resistors are connected in parallel to a current source with current Is.
• The equivalent resistance is given by
1
R = R1 || R2 || ... || Rn =
1 1 1
+ + ... +
R1 R2 Rn
1
• The voltage across the resistors is given by V = I s R = I s ´ 1 1 1
+ + ... +
R1 R2 Rn
• The current through the ith resistor Ri is
1
V Ri Gi
Ii = = Is ´ = Is ´
Ri 1 1 1 G1 + G2 + ... + Gn
+ + ... +
R1 R2 Rn
• The current Is from the current source is divided between resistors in proportion to the
conductance (inverse of resistance) values.
© 2018 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 42

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Circuit Analysis Using Current Divider Rule

• Find I1, I2, I3 in the circuit shown in Figure 2.59.
• Ra = R3 + (R1 || R2) = 0.8 kW + 1.2 kW = 2 kW
• Rb = R7 + (R5 || R6) = 2.6 kW + 2.4 kW = 5 kW
1 1
Ra 2 5
I1 = I s ´ = 2´ mA = 2 ´ mA = 1.25mA
1 1 1 1 1 1 8
+ + + +
Ra R4 Rb 2 10 5
1 1
R4 10 1
I2 = Is ´ = 2´ mA = 2 ´ mA = 0.25mA
1 1 1 1 1 1 8
+ + + +
Ra R4 Rb 2 10 5
1 1
Rb 5 2
I3 = I s ´ = 2´ mA = 2 ´ mA = 0.5mA
1 1 1 1 1 1 8
+ + + +
Ra R4 Rb 2 10 5
© 2018 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 43

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EXAMPLE 2.17
• In the circuit shown in Fig.2.61, use the current divider rule to find the currents I1, I2, I3, I4, I5.
R2 7 7 R1 4 4
I1 = I s ´ = 22 ´ mA = 22 ´ mA = 14 mA I2 = Is ´ = 22 ´ mA = 22 ´ mA = 8 mA
R1 + R2 4+7 11 R1 + R2 4+7 11
1 1
R3 2 6
I3 = I s ´ = 22 ´ mA = 22 ´ mA = 12 mA
1 1 1 1 1 1 11
+ + + +
R3 R4 R5 2 4 6
1 1
R4 4 3
I4 = Is ´ = 22 ´ mA = 22 ´ mA = 6 mA
1 1 1 1 1 1 11
+ + + +
R3 R4 R5 2 4 6
1 1
R5 6 2
I5 = I s ´ = 22 ´ mA = 22 ´ mA = 4 mA
1 1 1 1 1 1 11
+ + + +
R3 R4 R5 2 4 6
© 2018 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 44

E lectric C ircuits K ang

EXAMPLE 2.18
• Find I1, I2, I3, I4, I5, I6, I7, I8, I9 in the circuit shown in Figure 2.63.
• Ra = R2 + (R3 || R4) = 3 kW
• Rb = (R5 || R6) + (R7 || R8) = 3 kW + 2 kW = 5 kW
• Application of current divider rule on R1, Ra, Rb, we obtain
1 1
R1 7.5 2
I1 = I s ´ = 10 ´ mA = 10 ´ mA = 2 mA
1 1 1 1 1 1 10
+ + + +
R1 Ra Rb 7.5 3 5
1 1
Ra 3 5
I2 = Is ´ = 10 ´ mA = 10 ´ mA = 5mA
1 1 1 1 1 1 10
+ + + +
R1 Ra Rb 7.5 3 5

© 2018 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 45

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EXAMPLE 2.18 (Continued)

1 1
Rb 5 3
I3 = I s ´ = 10 ´ mA = 10 ´ mA = 3mA
1 1 1 1 1 1 10
+ + + +
R1 Ra Rb 7.5 3 5
R4
I4 = I2 ´ = 2.5 mA= I 5
R3 + R4

R6
I6 = I3 ´ = 2.25 mA, I 7 = 0.75 mA
R5 + R6
R8
I8 = I3 ´ = 2 mA, I 9 = 1mA
R7 + R8

• Refer to text for MATLAB script.

© 2018 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 46

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Delta-Wye (D-U) and Wye-Delta (U-D) Transformations

R1 R3 R1 R2 R2 R3
Ra = , Rb = , Rc =
R1 + R2 + R3 R1 + R2 + R3 R1 + R2 + R3
Ra Rb + Rb Rc + Ra Rc R R + Rb Rc + Ra Rc R R + Rb Rc + Ra Rc
R1 = , R2 = a b , R3 = a b
Rc Ra Rb

© 2018 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 47

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EXAMPLE 2.19
• Find Vc in the circuit shown in Figure 2.66.
• Y to D transformation:
Ra Rb + Rb Rc + Ra Rc R R + Rb Rc + Ra Rc
R1 = = 7.6 k W, R2 = a b = 19k W,
Rc Ra
Ra Rb + Rb Rc + Ra Rc
R3 = = 9.5k W
Rb

• Voltage divider rule:

R2 || Re 4.56
Vc = Vs ´ = 10 ´ V = 3.9024 V
( R3 || Rd ) + ( R2 || Re ) 7.125 + 4.56

© 2018 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 48

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EXAMPLE 2.20
• Find V1, V2, V3, V4, V5, V6, V7, I, I1, I2, I3, I4, I5 in Figure 2.70.
• D to Y conversion:
R1 R3 R1 R2 R2 R3
Ra = = 1 k W, Rb = = 0.6 k W, Rc = = 1.5 k W
R1 + R2 + R3 R1 + R2 + R3 R1 + R2 + R3
• Req = Ra + (Rb+R4)||(Rc+R5) = 1.9375 kW, I = Vs/Req = 5.16129 mA
• V6 = Vs – Ra´I = 5.16129 V, V7 = Vs – V6 = 4.83871 V
• V4 = V7´R4/(R4+Rb) = 2.903226 V
• V5 = V7´R5/(R5+Rc) = 1.935484 V
• V1 = Vs – V4 = 7.096774 V, V3 = Vs – V5 = 8.064516 V
• V2 = V4 – V5 = 0.967742 V
• I1 = V1/R1 = 3.548387 mA, I2 = V2/R2 = 0.322581 mA
• I3 = V3/R3 = 1.612903 mA, I4 = V4/R4 = 3.225806 mA
• I5 = V5/R5 = 1.935484 mA. Refer to text for MATLAB script.
© 2018 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 49

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Summary
• Resistance
! !r
R= =
sA A

• Ohm’s law

V V
V = RI , I = , R=
R I
• KCL

The sum of currents entering a node equals the sum of currents leaving the same node.
The sum of currents leaving a node is zero.
The sum of currents entering a node is zero.
© 2018 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 50

E lectric C ircuits K ang

Summary (Continued)
• KVL

The sum of voltage drops around a loop or mesh is equal to zero.

• Equivalent resistance of series connection of n resistors

Req = R1 + R2 + … + Rn

• Equivalent resistance of parallel connection of two resistors

1 RR
Req = R1 || R2 = = 1 2
1 1 R1 + R2
+
R1 R2

© 2018 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 51

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Summary (Continued)
• Equivalent resistance of parallel connection of n resistors
1
Req = R1 || R2 || ... || Rn =
1 1 1
+ + ... +
R1 R2 Rn

• Voltage divider rule (two resistors are connected in series to a voltage source)
R1 R2
V1 = Vs ´ , V2 = Vs ´
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
• Voltage divider rule (n resistors are connected in series to a voltage source)
Ri
Vi = Vs ´
R1 + R2 + ... + Rn
© 2018 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 52

E lectric C ircuits K ang

Summary (Continued)
• Current divider rule (two resistors are connected in parallel to a current source)
1 1
R1 R2 R2 R1
I1 = I s ´ = Is ´ , I2 = Is ´ = Is ´
1 1 R + R 1 1 R1 + R2
+ 1 2 +
R1 R2 R1 R2

• Current divider rule (n resistors are connected in parallel to a current source)

1
Ri
Ii = I s ´
1 1 1
+ + ... +
R1 R2 Rn

© 2018 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 53

E lectric C ircuits K ang

Summary (Continued)
• Delta to wye (D-Y) conversion
R1 R3 R1 R2 R2 R3
Ra = , Rb = , Rc =
R1 + R2 + R3 R1 + R2 + R3 R1 + R2 + R3

• Wye to delta (Y-D) conversion

Ra Rb + Rb Rc + Ra Rc R R + Rb Rc + Ra Rc R R + Rb Rc + Ra Rc
R1 = , R2 = a b , R3 = a b
Rc Ra Rb

© 2018 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 54

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