TORRES, Anne Beatrice E.

Argumentation and Debate

LM – 5A

M3: Activity 3 (Midterms)

1. What is reasoning? What are the types of reasoning?
Reasoning is the process of inferring conclusions from premises. The premises may be in
the form of any of the various types of evidence; they may be stated as propositions; or
they may be statements of conclusions reached through prior reasoning. Thus advocates
use the premises they have previously established or asserted, and by a process of
reasoning, they try to establish something – new a conclusion they want their audience to
accept. If the audience perceives the premises as well grounded and the reasoning as
rhetorically sound, it will be likely to accept the conclusion. To put it another way,
Reasoning is the ability to think logically to formulate fair judgements and justify a position.
In other words, it is about identifying, analysing and evaluating arguments.

Types of Reasoning
 Reasoning by Example – The process of reasoning by example consists of
inferring conclusions from specific cases. This process may be represented as
follows:

Sometimes a single case may be used to establish the conclusion or

generalization. More often a number of cases will be offered as the basis for the
conclusion. Reasoning by example is a form of inductive reasoning and involves
either cause or sign reasoning, because the advocate is trying to show that the
examples or cases are a cause or a sign of the conclusion presented. Advocates
make frequent use of reasoning by example. In debating the proposition
“Resolved: That the United States should discontinue direct economic aid to
foreign countries,” some affirmative teams tried to establish the argument that
recipient nations resented direct economic aid. They offered as examples a series
of statements by various foreign leaders, maintained that these statements
expressed resentment toward direct economic aid, and from these cases drew the
 conclusion that resentment against such aid was widespread. Other affirmative
teams debating this proposition maintained that direct economic aid was wasteful.
They offered examples of expenditures of direct economic aid monies, maintained
that these expenditures were unwise, and from these cases drew the conclusion
that direct economic aid was wasteful.
 Reasoning by Analogy – The process of reasoning by analogy consists of making
a comparison between two similar cases and inferring that what is true in one case
is true in the other. Reasoning by analogy is a form of inductive reasoning, in which
the advocate seeks to show that the factors in his or her analogy are either a cause
of a sign of the conclusion presented. This process may be represented as follows:

In this diagram A might represent Megalopolis, Bb might represent the type of city
income tax in effect in Megalopolis, C might represent Gotham, and Bx might
represent the type of city income tax proposed for Gotham. An advocate using
reasoning by analogy might argue that, because a certain type of city income tax
was desirable in Megalopolis, a similar city income tax would be desirable in
Gotham. Similarly, in debating the proposition “Resolved: That the federal
government should grant annually a specific percentage of its income tax revenue
to the state governments,” some negative teams tried to show that, because state
income taxes were effective revenue producers for some states, other states could
also use these taxes effectively. Analogies may be literal or figurative. The analogy
is literal when the cases compared are in the same classification, as are
Megalopolis and Gotham (if we accept these as metropolitan cities for the
purposes of our illustration) or the various state governments. The analogy is
figurative when the cases compared are in different classifications—as in the
statement “This car is a lemon!” A book reviewer made clever use of a figurative
analogy when he noted, “Writing about the business of baseball is like writing about
the music in topless bars.” However fascinating the thrust and parry of
 management and labor, however clever the stratagems and costly the
miscalculations of the opposing sides, they are not why people go to baseball
games.
 Causal Reasoning – In the process of causal reasoning, one infers that a certain
factor (a cause) is a force that produces something else (an effect). This process
can be represented as follows:

The same process can be used in reverse. That is, if an effect is known to exist, it
may be reasoned that it was produced by a causee. This process may be
represented as follows:

Casual reasoning, whether cause-to-effect or effect-to-cause, usually involves

generalization. In using casual reasoning the advocate tries to show why the
proposition is valid. The National Weather Service, for example, regularly reports
the existence of low-pressure areas and other phenomena (causes) and predicts
that we will have rain (an effect) tomorrow. The fact that the weather service is not
always right emphasizes the point considered earlier: We often deal with matters
in the realm of probability because we cannot establish certainty. Recall that in
debates on the discontinuance of direct economic aid, some affirmative teams tried
to show that this aid caused resentment among recipient countries. Continuing this
argument, those advocates reasoned that if direct economic aid (the cause) were
discontinued, then criticism (the effect) would also be eliminated. Conversely the
proponents of such aid argued that it was producing desirable effects.
Advocates must, of course, recognize that many causes are at work in any problem
under consideration; at the same time they should try to discern the practical,
effective cause or causes in the matter at issue. Many debates on human affairs
revolve around causal matters. The supporters of a national program of public work
for the unemployed, for example, saw such a program as a cause that would
 produce many desirable effects, whereas opponents saw it as a cause that would
produce many undesirable effects. Causal reasoning influences our thinking on
personal matters as well. Students may go to college because they see a college
education as a cause that they hope will produce desirable effects in later life.
 Reasoning by Sign – The process of reasoning by sign consists of inferring
relationships or correlations between two variables. Here one argues that two
variables are so closely related that the presence or absence of one may be taken
as an indication of the presence or absence of the other.
Reasoning by sign involves reasoning by analogy, by example, or from effect to
effect as the advocate seeks to show that a proposition is valid. (In causal
reasoning, you will remember, the advocate seeks to show why a proposition is
valid.) We use reasoning by sign when we note that the leaves are falling from the
trees and take this as a sign that winter is coming. The attribute is a part or a
characteristic of the substance or totality with which we are concerned. In
reasoning by sign the advocate may reason either from the attribute to the
substance or from the substance to the attribute.
If one variable may be taken as a sign of another, the relationship between the
variables is reciprocal. The relationship between the variables is nonreciprocal
when one variable may be taken as a sign of the other but the second variable is
not a reliable sign of the first. For instance, if a person is president of the United
States, we may take this as a sign that he or she is at least 35 years old. Obviously,
we cannot take the fact that a person is 35 years old as a sign that he or she is
president of the United States.
In debating the proposition “Resolved: That the United States should extend
diplomatic recognition to Cuba,” some negative advocates argued that we should
not adopt the proposition because diplomatic recognition was a sign of approval of
the government in question.

2. Why is reasoning important?

The ability to reason has a fundamental impact on one’s ability to learn from new
information and experiences because reasoning skills determine how people
comprehend, evaluate, and accept claims and arguments. Reasoning skills are also
crucial for being able to generate and maintain viewpoints or beliefs that are coherent with,
and justified by, relevant knowledge. In addition, reasoning skills helps us to see things
 from different perspectives. This develops human skills like empathy and understanding.
They bolster creativity, supporting children in making connections and approaching
problems holistically.

In argument, the function of reasoning would be to find and evaluate reasons in dialogic
contexts – more plainly, to argue with others. The speaker gives a reason to accept a
given conclusion and the listener can then evaluate this reason to decide whether she
should accept the conclusion.

3. How can you improve your reasoning skills?

There are a variety of ways to improve your logical thinking skills. Here are 5 top
suggestions for improving your logical reasoning skills:
 Participating in Activities that Require Abstract Thinking or Critical Thinking
The ability to think appropriately and understand the logical connection between
ideas is referred to as critical thinking. When you think critically, you need to
question ideas and assumptions, rather than merely accepting them at once.
Critical thinking, thus, requires to use your ability to reason. So, engage yourself
in activities that require critical thinking in order to enhance your logical skills. You
should take part in activities such as Sudoku, Crossword Puzzles, Word
search, Brain teasers, riddles, etc. which will stimulate your brain to think,
remember and make a decision.
 Debate
Debate is an effective tool to boost your brain power as it stimulates your mind to
think and analyse. Participating in a debate will drive your brain to search for
causes and consequences that are transformed into firm arguments. You will be
able to discover the key fact that can combat the argument made by the
opponent. Debating, thus, requires logical thinking and good decision-making
skills. Hence, participating in debates can sharpen your mind and enhance your
mental ability.
 Go Creative
To be creative means to think ‘out-of-the-box’ to carry out new tasks. Creative
people have the skill to formulate new ideas through deep thinking, and find out
ways to solve problems and meet challenges. This requires lateral thinking, or the
ability to perceive patterns that are not so easily noticeable. So, if you wish to
 enhance your logical reasoning then participate in activities that require creative
skills.
 Keep your Mind and Body fit
Logical skills require good memory and thinking power. Scientific studies have
revealed that exercise has a surprising benefit in achieving greater memory and
thinking. A 20 minutes daily exercise such as running or walking can stimulate the
release of growth factors that affect the health of brain cells, growth of new blood
vessels and even the growth of new cells in the brain. All these factors help in
boosting memory and concentration. So, make it a habit of spending at least 10-
15 minutes daily for exercise.
 Reading Mystery Novels
You can also read some mysterious novels. Reading them creates inquisitiveness
in your mind and you try to predict the subsequent events and co-relate with what
the author has to say. This can improve your analytical skills.

4. What is the correlation between reasoning and critical thinking?

Critical thinking is a decision-making process. Critical thinking means carefully
considering a problem, claim, question or situation in order to determine the best solution.
That is, when you think critically, you take the time to consider all sides of an issue,
evaluate evidence, and imagine different scenarios and possible outcomes. It sounds like
a lot of work, but the same basic critical thinking skills can be applied to all types of
situations. Reasoning skills, on the other hand, deal more with the process of getting
from a point. A, the problem, to point B, the solution. You can get there haphazardly or
you can get there by reason. A reason is a motive or cause for something— a justification
for thoughts, actions, or opinions. In other words, it’s why you do, say, or think what you
do. But your reasons for doing things aren’t always reasonable— as you know if you’ve
ever done or said something in the heat of the moment. Reasoning skills ask you to use
good sense and base your reasons on facts, evidence, or logical conclusions rather than
just on your emotions. In short, when you decide on the best way to handle a situation or
determine the best solution to a problem, you should have logical (rather than purely
emotional) reasons for coming to that conclusion.
In conclusion, critical thinking is the act of carefully considering a problem, claim, question
or situation in order to determine the best solution. Reasoning skills, which go hand-in-
hand with critical thinking, ask you to base your decisions on facts, evidence, and/or logical
conclusions. Critical thinking and reasoning skills are implemented simultaneously to help
you make smart decisions and solve problems effectively. They also help you make
stronger arguments and better evaluate the arguments of others.

REFERENCES:
Argumentation and Debate: Critical Thinking for Reasoned Decision Making by Austin J.
Freeley and David L. Steinberg (Twelfth Edition)

Top 5 Suggestions for Improving your Logical Reasoning Skills. (n.d). Retrieved from
https://blog.pcmbtoday.com/5-must-know-tips-to-sharpen-your-logical-reasoning-skills/

Reasoning Skills. (n.d). Retrieved from https://www.twinkl.com.ph/teaching-

wiki/reasoning-skills

Critical Thinking and Reasoning Skills (pdf) Link:

http://thinkery.weebly.com/uploads/1/6/5/7/16570206/lesson_2.pdf