Manufacturing Processes

(ME361) Lecture 15
Instructor: Shantanu Bhattacharya
 Kinematics and Dynamics of ECM

•The figure above shows a set of electrodes with plane and parallel surfaces.

•The work (the upper electrode) is being fed with a constant velocity ‘f’ in the
direction –y (normal to the electrode surface). The problem is considered to be 1-
dimensional and the instantaneous distance of the work surface from the tool surface
is taken to be ‘y’.

•Considering the workpiece to be pure metal, the removal rate of the workpiece metal
is given by Q = AI/ ρZF.

•If the overvoltage is ΔV, the density of the current flow through the electrolyte is
given by:
Kinematics and Dynamics of ECM
 Kinematics and Dynamics of ECM

This is the basic equation representing the dynamics of an ECM process. Let us now
investigate some specific cases.
Kinematics and Dynamics of ECM
Kinematics and Dynamics of ECM
Kinematics and Dynamics of ECM
Kinematics and Dynamics of ECM
Kinematics and dynamics of ECM
Kinematics and Dynamics of ECM
Kinematics and Dynamics of ECM

•The figure on the left shows the

various values of ỹ and Ť.

•It is seen that the gap always

approaches the equilibrium value
irrespective of the initial
condition.
 Kinematics and Dynamics of ECM
Feed motion to inclined surface
• When the feed velocity vector is inclined to
the surface, the component of feed normal to
the surface is f cosθ.

•In this case the equilibrium gap is given by λ / f

cosθ.

Machining uneven surface

• When an uneven work surface is subjected to

ECM, the metal is removed from all portions of
the surface.
•The portions projecting outwards (the hills) is
nearer the tool surface and gets machined more
quickly than that projecting inwards (the
cavities).
•Thus the ECM process has the effect of
smoothening out the unevenness.
 Kinematics and Dynamics of ECM
• The deviations from this desired surface are the defects characterized by non
dimensional depth or height (δ)

•Theoretically it would take an infinite

time to remove the defect completely.
• In practice however, as soon as
goes below a pre-assigned
allowable value, the process is finished.
Kinematics and Dynamics or ECM

The figure above shows how the hills and valleys are smoothened out.
 Numerical Problem
In an ECM operation with the flat surfaces, a 10-V DC supply is used. The conductivity of
the electrolyte is 0.2 Ω-1cm-1 and a feed rate of 1mm/ min. is used. The work-piece is of
pure iron. Calculate the equilibrium gap. Consider the total overvoltage to be 1.5 V.

Theoretically, the equilibrium gap can have any value

but in practice, the tool and the work surfaces are never
perfectly flat.
So, if the equilibrium gap is too small, the surface This may cause a short circuit.
irregularities of the electrodes may touch each other.
Numerical Problem
The surface irregularities of the
electrodes (with flat surfaces) are 5
microns ad 8 microns. These are the
heights of the peaks of the asperities. If
the work is of pure iron and a DC voltage
of 12V is employed, estimate the largest
possible feed rate that can be used.
Assume the conductivity and the over
voltage to be same as before.
 Temperature and pressure rise
during ECM
•So far as the machining forces are concerned, it may appear at the first glance that the
forces acting on the tool and the work-piece are negligible since material removal takes
place in the atomic level.
•But since the electrolyte has to be provided with an adequate rate of flow, normally the
pressure is large.
•The hydrostatic forces acting on the tool and the work-piece are quite considerable in
magnitude.
•The flow of electrolyte is necessary for the following reasons:

•To avoid the ion concentration.

•To avoid the deposition on the tool.
•To remove the precipitation.
•To avoid the overheating of the
electrolyte.
The last one is very important and an
estimate of the required flow rate of the
electrolyte can be worked out on the basis
of this.
Temperature and pressure during
ECM process
Temperature and Pressure rise
during ECM
Temperature and Pressure rise
during ECM
Temperature and Pressure rise
during ECM
 Temperature and Pressure rise
during ECM

The pressure acting on the tool face however is given by the first term.

Numerical Problem
During an ECM operation on an iron workpiece with a square face copper tool (using brine
as the electrolyte), both having a flat surface, a feed rate of 2mm/ min. is used. The DC
voltage used is 10 V and the total over voltage is 1.5V. The dimension of the tool face is
25.4mm X 25.4 mm. The boiling temperature of the electrolyte is 95 deg. C. Find out the
total force acting on the tool.

Viscosity of the electrolyte = 0.876 X10-3 kg/ m-sec

Density of the electrolyte = 1.088 g/ cm3 Ambient temperature = 35 deg. C

Specific heat of the electrolyte = 0.997, Conductivity of electrolyte = 0.2 Ω-1 cm -1

Solution
Solution
Solution
 Effect of heat and Hydrogen Bubble
generation
•In the whole mathematical analysis so far the different parameters and properties were
assumed to be uniform throughout the face of the electrodes.
•A variation in these properties affects the machining process.
•Also, the electrolyte conductivity changes as the electrolyte passes along the gap owing to
(i) increase in electrolyte temperature (ii) the evolution of hydrogen bubbles, and (iii) the
formation of precipitates (this effect is of very small proportions).
•Because of the flow of electricity, the electrolyte temperature gradually increases and the
conductivity changes, resulting in a non uniformity in the current density along the
direction of electrolyte flow.
•Apart from this, the bubbles are formed as hydrogen is generated during the machining
process itself.
•These bubbles are swept by the electrolyte, and the concentration of such bubbles tend to
increase along the direction of electrolyte flow.
• As a result, the overall conductivity and the current density vary along the same direction.
•The resultant effect of these causes the equilibrium gap between the electrodes to vary.
 Surface Finish
•In general, a very good surface finish is desired in the parts machined by ECM, a study of
the possibilities that may result in a bad finish is important.

•The surface finish is adversely affected by the

(i) selective dissolution
(ii) Sporadic breakdown of the anodic film
(iii) Flow separation and formulation of eddies.
(iv) Evolution of hydrogen gas.
Selective Dissolution:

• In alloys, the different

constituents have varying
electrode potentials. In pure
metals too, the dissolution
potential at the grain
boundaries are different from
those inside the grains. Let us
consider the work surfaces
(with 2 constituents A and B).
 Selective dissolution
•In this figure the voltage
profile across the gap has been
shown.

•Let the dissolution potential of

the constituent B (VdB ) be
greater than that of A (VdA ).

•So, the required potential

difference between a point on
the surface and the adjacent
electrolyte for ECM to start
must be either VdA or VdB.
•Since the whole anode surface
is equipotential and

the electrolyte potential varies across the gap as shown, the surface of a grain of B must project
away from the surface of a constituent surface A (to meet the electrolyte with a lower
potential) so that a larger difference , VdB , is achieved. Thus, in the steady state the work surface
will be uneven and not very smooth.
 Selective dissolution
•When the potential gradient is
higher, the unevenness is less.

•Figure (b) shows two situations

with different potential gradients,
the other parameters remaining
the same.

•It is obvious from this figure that

the height of the projection of a
grain of the constituent B is less
when the potential gradient is
higher.

•An approximate expression of the

projection height can also be
derived as below:
 Sporadic Breakdown of Anodic Film
• The main reason for the sporadic breakdown
of the anodic film is the gradual fall in
potential difference between the work
surface and the electrolyte in the region away
from the machining area.
•The figure on the right shows the variation of
the surface potential of the anode in this
region. Here, till the point P1 the potential is
enough to cause the dissolution of all the
phases.
• At P1, the avialable potential falls below the dissolution potential of one phase, and so the
anode stops dissolving.
•Beyond P1 the anode surface potential continues to drop and an increasing number of
phases stop dissolving, resulting in an uneven surface.
•Ultimately when only a few phases remain active and dissolve, a concentration of the
electric field results since the active phases occupy a portion of the anode surface.
•This field concentration causes these phases to dissolve very rapidly, forming deep pits.
•Beyond the point P2 the anode surface potential falls to such a low a value that no
dissolution takes place.
 Flow separation and formation of
Eddies
• The presence of hills and valleys on the anode surface may cause a
separation of the electrolyte flow and eddy formation.
•In these eddies separated from the main stream, a large
concentration of metal ions may build up, resulting in a high
concentration over-potential in the eddies.
•This introduces a localized variation in the removal rates, and
consequently an uneven finished surface.
•Apart from the presence of hills and valleys, the flow separation
may be caused by an improper design of the tool and the
electrolyte flow path. So, a great care needs to be taken in designing
the tool surface.
 Evolution of Hydrogen Gas
• The flowing electrolyte collects the evolving hydrogen gas generated at the cathode.
•The presence of hydrogen in the electrolyte reduces the specific conductivity of the
solution.
•This effect increases down stream with an increase in the Hydrogen gas concentration
resulting in an overall deterioration of the surface finish.
•Apart from these mechanisms there are some other less prominent mechanisms which
alters /changes surface finish.

Tool Design
•There are two major aspects of tool design:
1. Determining the tool shape so that the desired shape of the job is achieved for the
given machining condition.
2. Designing the tool for considerations other than (i) e.g., electrolyte flow, insulation,
strength and fixing arrangements.
 Theoretical determination of tool
shape
• When the desired shape of the machined work-piece surface is known, it is possible to
theoretically determine the required geometry of the tool surface for a given set of
machining conditions.

•Let the applied potential, the overvoltage, and the feed rate be V, ΔV and f respectively.
Theoretical determination of tool
shape
Theoretical determination of tool
shape
Theoretical determination of tool
shape
Theoretical determination of tool
shape
Theoretical determination of tool
shape
Theoretical determination of tool
shape
Theoretical determination of tool
shape
Theoretical determination of tool
shape
 Numerical Problem
The geometry of a work-piece surface with single curvature is given by the equation

y= 10+ 0.3x -0.05 x2 , where x and y are in cm. The process data are

Applied potential = 15V, Overvoltage = 0.67V, Feed velocity = 0.75 mm/ min. (given to the
work in the –y direction), work material = copper, electrolyte conductivity = 0.2 Ω-1 cm -1 .
Determine the equation of the required tool surface geometry.
 Numerical Problem
The geometry of a work-piece surface with single curvature is given by the equation

y= 10+ 0.3x -0.05 x2 , where x and y are in cm. The process data are

Applied potential = 15V, Overvoltage = 0.67V, Feed velocity = 0.75 mm/ min. (given to the
work in the –y direction), work material = copper, electrolyte conductivity = 0.2 Ω-1 cm -1 .
Determine the equation of the required tool surface geometry.
Theoretical determination of tool
shape
 Points to remember
• In this example it should be remembered that the method used to
solve for the y values is applicable for smooth surfaces with gentle
variations, i.e. where current flow lines are by and large parallel to
each other.

•For more complex shapes and for surfaces involving sharp curves and
sudden changes, a solution of electric field is necessary.

•When the closed form expression for the work-piece surface is not
available, the surface can be divided into small, straight or curved
segments of known geometry, and then the method that we have
described can be applied.
 Design for electrolyte flow
•A sufficient electrolyte flow between the tool and the work-piece is necessary to carry
away the heat and the products of machining and to assist the machining process at the
required feed rate, producing a satisfactory surface finish.

•Cavitation, stagnation and vortex formation should be avoided since these lead to a bad
surface finish.

•One basic rule is that there should be no sharp corners in the flow path. All corners in
the flow path should have a radius of at-least 0.7-0.8mm.

• The initial shape of the component generally does not

comply with the tool shape and only a small fraction of the
area is close to the tool surface at the beginning.

•The problem of supplying the electrolyte over such an

area is usually solved by the flow restriction techniques.
 Design for electrolytic flow
•In many situations, when the
initial work shape conforms
to the tool shape, the
machining process itself
causes the formation of boss
or ridge in the workpiece,
which helps in proper
distribution of electrolyte
flow.

•A tool with an electrolyte supply slot is simple to manufacture, but such a slot
leaves small ridges on the work.
•However, the ridges can be made very small by making the slot sufficiently
narrow.
•Of course, the slot width should be enough to provide an adequate flow.
•The flow from a slot takes place in a direction perpendicular to the slot and the
flow at the end is poor.
•Therefore, the slot should be terminated near the corners of the workpiece
surface.
 Design for electrolytic flow
• The distance between the tip of a slot
and the corners should be atleast
1.5mm, whereas a slot with a width 0.7-
0.8mm is recommended.

•When the work-piece corner is

rounded, the slot end should be made
larger.

•The shape and location of the slot should be such that every portion of the surface is
supplied with electrolyte flow and no passive area exists.

•The figure below shows two situations where the passive areas exist as the slot design is
faulty.
• The passive area is not getting the
electrolyte supply because of the
presence of outside space between
the slot and this area in case (a).
•In case (b) the passive area is
created because of a sharp bend in
the slot and the fact that the flow is (a) (b)
normal to the slot.
 Design for electrolytic flow
•The correct design of the slot
is shown in the figure on the
right.
•Sometimes a reverse flow tool
is used to cut accurately and
produce superior surfaces, but
this process is more complex
and expensive and is not
generally recommended.

•The techniques for controlling

the electrolyte flow when the
initial work surface does not
conform to the tool shape are
illustrated on the right side
figure.

• The general rule of putting a flow restrictor can be stated as follows. The flow restrictor
must be adjacent to the area of initial close proximity (between the tool and the workpiece).
•It should not increase the flow path substantially.
•Also, it must be at the entry or exit positions of the electrolytes.
 Design of Insulation
•The areas on a tool where the
electrochemical machining is not
desirable have to be insulated.

•In die sinking also the tool should

be properly insulated to minimize
stray machining. • Figure on the left shows a die sinking
process without and with a proper
•The figure on the right shows the insulation.
ECM process without and with a •The insulation must be tough and
proper insulation. securely bonded to the tool surface.
•It can be provided by securing the
reinforced solid plastic material to the
tool with epoxy resin cement and plastic
screws.
•The insulation can also be done by
applying a synthetic rubber coating on the
artificially oxidized copper tool surface.

The boundaries of the insulation layer should not be exposed to high velocity electrolyte flow
which may tear up the glued layer.
 Electrolytes
Electrolytes in ECM performs three basic functions, viz.,
1. Completing the electrical circuit and allowing the large currents to pass.
2. Sustaining the required electrochemical reactions.
3. Carrying away the heat generated and the waste product.

• The first function required the electrolyte, ideally, to have a large electrical
conductivity.
• The second function of the electrolyte is that it should continuously dissolve
work material at the anode continuously and a discharge of metal ions on the
cathode should not occur.
• Generally the cationic constituents of the electrolyte is hydrogen, ammonia,
or alkali metals.
• The dissolution of the anode should be sustained at a high level of efficiency.
• Also, the electrolyte must have a good chemical stability.
• Apart, from all this the electrolyte should be inexpensive, safe, and as non
corrosive as possible.
Types of Electrolytes
 Electrochemical Machining Plant
Design of EC Machines

•The stiffness and the material of

the components.
•We know that there are large
amount of viscous forces
between the flowing electrolyte
and the electrodes. So, the M/c
must posses enough rigidity to
sustain minimal or negligible
deflection of the tool wrt
workpiece.

•A change of temperature may also cause relative displacement between the tool and the
workpeice and the design should take care of this aspect.
•To avoid corrosion whereever possible non metallic material should be used.
•The workpiece holder is highly prone to anodic attack and therefore it needs to be surface
passivated with Ti. (Stable metal)
•As most of the components are in close proximity to the electrolyte they are exposed to
corrosion. Thus their material should be chosen in a way that they posses identical
electrochemical behavior
 Electrochemical Machining Plant
• Sometimes for corrosion protection a small electrical potential is applied in such a direction
that the whole structure becomes noble electrochemically. This is commonly known as
cathodic protection.

•The pump is the most important unit of an ECM plant. Normally stainless steel made positive
displacement pumps are deployed.

•The tank containing the electrolyte, the pipeline and the vales are normally made of PVC.

Effects of ECM on materials

•In contrast with the conventional machining process the material removal processes during
an ECM operation is smooth and gentle.

•As a result the maximum residual stresses is very low in the workpiece surface. Moreover,
the depth of work hardened surface layer is negligible.

•In conventional Milling or turning this depth is around 1.5mm and 0.5mm resp. whereas in
ECM this is 0.001mm.
•Similarly, the average residual stresses on surfaces in an ECM process is 50 kg/mm2 in
conventional, whereas is 0 in ECM. This lowers the fatigue strength of ECM process by 10-
25%.