Manufacturing Technology

(ME 361)- Lecture 4

Instructor: Shantanu Bhattacharya

 Review of Previous Lecture
• Crystal Imperfections.
• Classification of Crystal Imperfections.
1. Point Defects 2. Line Defects 3. Surface defects
• Elastic and plastic deformation (an atomistic
viewpoint).
• Model for understanding shear yield stress.
• Hardness, ductility and Toughness.
• Tensile testing characteristics for mild steel and
other metals.
 Idealized Stress Strain Curves of
Materials
• The stress strain curves of a material is too complicated to be represented by a
simple mathematical relationship amenable to analysis.

•As such, for the purposes of analysis, the curve is idealized in various ways,
keeping only those basic features that are important.
• Let us now see what happens if a
material is loaded beyond the yield
point, is unloaded completely and
reloaded.
•If the material is unloaded from the
point B, the unloaded curve BC is
then parallel to the initial elastic
curve given by the line OA.
•The permanent strain is represented by OC, whereas the amount of strain
recovered is given by CB’.
•Thus the total strain at B is thought of as consisting of two parts, viz., the elastic
part CB’ and the plastic part OC.
•The reloading curve follows the line CB and BD.
 Friction and Wear
• It is well known that whenever a solid surface slides over another , a resistance force,
commonly referred to as friction force, develops.
•The friction phenomena was studied for the first time by Amonton and Coulomb.
•Let us consider two surfaces A and B in contact as in the figure below.

• Though a surface may appear smooth and

plain, in reality no solid surface is perfectly
smooth.

•Asperities are always present in a solid

surface, and when two bodies are brought in
contact, the real contact takes place on
certain high points.

• At the beginning of the contact the real contact area is zero and very large localized
stresses develop, causing plastic deformation of contact regions.
•Thus the real area of contact continues to increase till it is large enough so that the
corresponding stresses do not cause any further plastic deformation.
Friction and Wear
Friction and Wear
 Friction and Wear
• This model is valid only when the real area of contact is much smaller than the apparent
area of contact.
•If the normal load N is gradually increased, A real increases and approaches the apparent
area of contact A.
•Once Areal reaches a value equal to A, the shear force does not increase any further even
if N is increased.
•Under such a situation mechanisms other than welding of asperity junctions become
active making the friction phenomena quite complex.
•One such phenomena is the locking of asperities. The coefficient of friction in this case
may vary and would tend to increase with increasing load.
 Wear and Mechanisms of Wear
•When a solid surface slides over another, both surfaces are subjected to a gradual loss of
material.

• A fraction of material lost from one surface may be transferred to the other body,
whereas the rest gets removed in form of small (wear) particles.

•This process of gradual loss or transfer of material from a body (in contact with another)
is known as wear.

Mechanisms of Wear:
(1) Abrasion: If one of the surface contains very hard particles, then dislodge the material
from the surface in contact during sliding by ploughing action. This is called Abrasion.
(2) Adhesion: When bodies in contact are of similar nature, the asperities on the
contacting surfaces tend to get welded and sliding in such a situation would cause
fracture of these welded junctions and material is lost from both surfaces.
(3) Diffusion: Atoms in metallic crystal lattice always move from a region of high
concentration to that of low concentration. This process is known as diffusion. When
two dissimilar bodies slide over each other the atoms of various constituent elements
diffuse across the junction, leading to wear.
 Metals and alloys
• The various materials used in engineering
include metals, alloys, ceramics and polymers.
• Metals are rarely used in pure form, and the
desired properties are normally obtained by
suitably alloying different metals.
• Alloys unlike pure metals do not have a fixed
melting point.
• Also, alloys can only be formulated if certain
conditions are satisfied.
 Solid Solutions
• An alloy can be defined as a mixture of two or more materials, of which at-
least one must be a metal.
• The material having the largest % composition is known as the solvent and
the remaining are solutes and such a mixture is called a solid solution.
• In the solid state the solute atoms can be present in the solvent in two
different ways.
• When the size of the solute atoms is small enough so that they can occupy
the interstitial spaces of the solvent matrix, the solid solution is of
interstitial type.
•For normal metals, the only useful material which
can be accommodated in the interstitial spaces is
carbon.
•The other types of solid solution is formed when
the solute atoms occupy the regular matrix position
by replacing some solvent atoms. Such a solution is
normally termed as a substitutional solid solution.
 Equilibrium Phase Diagram
• The important metallurgical changes that take place when a mixture of different metals
or materials is gradually cooled from a liquid state are best described with the help of
equilibrium phase diagrams.

•Phases are characterized by boundaries across which there exists some discontinuities
in physical properties.

•Even a pure metal can be in different phases namely solid, liquid or vapor.

•Even within a single phase there can be different phases each characterized by a
different crystal structure.

•When cooling is sufficiently slow, we can assume that all the phases involved in a
transformation process at a given temperature are in equilibrium with each other.

•Though, in general, the transformation of phases is governed by temperature,

composition and pressure, the latter plays an insignificant role in the processes that we
shall consider.
 Equilibrium Phase Diagrams
• A convenient way of describing the phase transformations is a diagram where the
phases at different combinations of temperatures and compositions are indicated.
•Such a diagram is called an equilibrium phase diagram. The word equilibrium is
indicative of the fact that at every temperature sufficient time is provided at every
temperature to complete all diffusion processes.

• The diagram in the left shows a phase

diagram of Ni-Cu alloy which forms a solid
solution without any restriction on %
composition.

•The diagram has been obtained by

study of the cooling curves for various
composition of the alloys.
 Equilibrium Phase Diagrams
• The figure on the right describes the physical
state of the mixture.
•In the region at the top, the entire material is in
liquid state, whereas in the bottom region, the
entire material is in the solid state.
•Further in the intermediate region , the material
is in form of a mixture of solid and liquid.
•The boundary APB is called Liquidus and
indicates the temperature beyond which the
composition will be entirely in the liquid state.
•Similarly, the boundary AQB, indicating the
temperature below which the composition will be
totally solid, is called the Solidus.
•We can determine the relative proportion of liquid and solid by looking at the ratio XZ/ZY.
The composition of the solid portion at the temperature theta is given by the abscissa of
the point Y.
•Similarly, the composition of the liquid portion at this temperature is given by the abscissa
of the point X.
•It may be noted from the above figure that when there is no restriction on the solid
solubility, the solid state of an alloy looks like a pure metal.
•Such an alloy is called a single phase alloy where nothing but the grain boundaries are
distinguishable.
 Equilibrium Phase Diagram
•The situation becomes more complex when two
metals, having no restriction on solubility in the
liquid state, are only partially soluble in the solid
state.
•A solution of common salt and water falls in this
category.[Figure on the left]
•From this diagram it is obvious that at a
particular composition (i.e. 23.5% NaCl), the
mixture, like a pure material, has a specific
freezing point (-22 deg. C).
•This signifies simultaneous solidification of NaCl
and H2O.

• This kind of mechanical mixture of two solids is referred to as eutectic.

•This eutectic composition is seen to have the minimum melting (freezing) temperature, and
hence the name eutectic. (Greek word meaning easy melting)
•The solid portion is seen to be pure ice (H2O) whereas the liquid has a composition given by
the point X.
•On further cooling X shifts towards the eutectic point E.
•At -22 deg. C , the entire solid is ice and the liquid mixture has eutectic composition. As no
mixture can remain liquid below this temperature the entire mixture on cooling solidifies
simultaneously. Thus the solidus becomes the horizontal line through E.
 Equilibrium Phase Diagram
• As is evident from the figure on the right,
due to simultaneous solidification of both the
components, it is difficult to distinguish the
difference in an eutectic composition.
•Below the eutectic composition the solid
mixture consists of eutectic mixture and solid
H2O .
• This mixture is called Hypoeutectic.
•Beyond the eutectic composition, the solid
mixture has the eutectic mixture and solid
NaCl; this region is normally referred to as
hypereutectic.

•In an analogous situation for metals partial solubility means that one component
can form a solid solution with the other only up to a maximum concentration.
This is normally the case with metallic alloys.
 Equilibrium Phase Diagram
•A typical equilibrium diagram is shown in
the figure on the right.
•First of all, let us assume that the maximum
solid solubility of A in B is temperature
independent and has a % composition XA .
•The single phase solution have composition
at A of 0- XA is called the α-phase.
• Similarly, the solid solution of B in A having
the composition of B from 0 to YB is called
the β phase.
• The actual maximum solid solubility's vary
with temperature, as indicated by the dashed
lines.
• Below the eutectic temperature θe, the entire
material is a mixture of two solid solutions , viz., α
and β.
•However, at eutectic composition, it is difficult to
distinguish between the α and the β phase and
this composition is indicated as α β instead of α +
β.
 Equilibrium Phase Diagram
• Pure iron has two different allotropic forms.
•The figure on the right shows the cooling curve of pure
iron.
•Between 1537 deg. C and 1400 deg. C, the solid iron
exists in the form of bcc crystals and is commonly known
as δ iron.
•From 1400 deg. C to 910 deg. C, the crystal structure is
fcc, the corresponding name being ϒ iron.
•Below 910 deg. C, the structure again changes back to
bcc, and this phase is referred to as α-iron.
•There is no basic structural change between δ and α
iron.
• The figure on the right lower corner shows the iron-carbon
equilibrium diagram.
•In this figure the portion involving the δ phase is not of much
interest so far as the normal manufacturing processes are
concerned because the temperature is very high.
•For casting process the liquid –solid transformation at 1125 deg. C
is significant, whereas for heat treatment of steels, the
transformations around 723 deg. C play an important role.
 Equilibrium Phase Diagram
• There are other types of phase transformations similar to the eutectic
transformation we have just described.
• We have observed that during an eutectic transformation, a single phase liquid
changes to a two phase solid.
• A similar transformation from a single phase solid is called an eutectoid
transformation.
•Another transformation taking place at a constant temperature is known as
peritectic.
•Above the peritectic temperature, all the liquid solidifies and the atoms diffuse
into the already existing solid, forming a single phase solid.
•When such a transformation starts from a two phase solid-solid mixture, the
transformation is called peritectoid.

•The manufacturing properties of an alloy depend on the properties, distribution,

size, and shape of the various phases present, and on the nature of phase
interfaces.
•The most commonly used alloy in engineering is that of iron and carbon, popularly
known as steel. So, we will discuss the iron-carbon equilibrium diagram.
•The carbon present in steel is in the form of cementite (Fe3C) containing 6.67% of
C.
For casting
processes
(1125 deg. C)

For heat
treatment of
steels (723
deg. C)
For casting
processes
(1125 deg. C)

For heat
treatment of
steels (723
deg. C)
 Equilibrium Phase Diagram
• At 1125 deg. C, the solubility of cementite in ϒ iron is
limited to 2% as indicated by point A in the figure on the
right.
•This solid solution of ϒ-iron and Fe3C is commonly
termed as austenite.
•In the bcc phases of iron, the solubility of Fe3C is much
smaller. (around 0.33% in α-phase and 0.1% in δ phase
as indicated by points C and B)
•The solid solution of Fe3C in α-iron is called Ferrite. The
eutectoid (E’) composition of ferrite and cementite is
referred to as pearlite which consists of alternate thin
laminates of cementite and ferrite.
• The different structure of various phases of steel are
indicated in the figure in the right lower corner.
•The structure of ferrite is thick and rounded, whereas
that of cementite is thin and needle like.
•Ferrite is soft and cementite is very hard.
•The transformation of austenite into ferrite and
cementite is achieved only when the cooling is slow.
•A rapid cooling rate transforms austenite into a
metastable phase known as Martensite.