Introduction The world has depended on some form of measurements system since the beginning of civilization. Presently there are two major systems of measurement used in the world. The inch system, often called the English system of measurement, is still widely used in the United States and the Metric system, The SI unit of measurements most widely used by European and some Asiatic countries. Basic measurement can be termed as those measurements taken by use of a rule or any other non-precision measuring tool, whether it can be in inch or metric standard. Linear measurements on flat surfaces are perhaps the most common measurements made in general practice in the machine shop. The tool used varies with the size of the dimension, the nature of work, and the degree of accuracy required. Accuracy: The student in the machine work should begin at once to understand accuracy in its relative terms. He should appreciate from the start the value of various measuring tools in obtaining the degree of accuracy the given operation demands. Inch System The unit of length in this system is the inch, which may be divided into fractional or decimal fraction divisions. The fractional system is based on the binary system having base 2. The decimal-fraction system has a base 10 whereby may be written as a product of ten and/or a fraction of ten. VALUE FRACTION DECIMAL One-tenth 1/10 0.1 One-hundredth 1/100 0.01 One-thousandth 1/1000 0.001 One ten-thousandth 1/10000 0.0001 Metric System Linear metric dimensions are expressed in multiples and submultiples of the meter. In the machine shop trade, the millimeter is used for the expression of most metric dimensions. Fractions of the millimeter are expressed in decimals. Note : In the machine shop measurements, most dimensions will be given in millimeters (mm). Very large dimensions would be given in meters (m) and millimeters (mm). Here is a list of some common prefixes, and symbols which you are likely to encounter in your work in the machine shop. FREFIX MEANING MULTIPLIER SYMBOL mega one million 1,000,000 M kilo one thousand 1,000 k hecto one hundred 100 h deka ten 10 da deci one-tenth 0.1 d centi one-hundredth 0.01 c milli one-thousandth 0.001 m micro one-millionth 0.000001 A brief comparison of common inch and metric equivalents are:
1 inch = 25.4 mm 1 yd = 36 inches 1m = 39.37 inches 1000 m = 1 km 1 km = 0.621 mi 1 mi = 1.609 km MEASURING INSTRUMENTS Measuring instruments have an important role in a mechanical workshop. The quality of work is based on the accuracy and precision of the instruments used for inspection. There are different types of measuring instruments are used in a workshop; some of them are given below.
1. Steel rule 5. Vernier height gauge
2. Calipers 6. Dial test indicator 3. Vernier caliper 7. Screw thread pitch gauge 4. Micrometer 8. Screw cutting gauge Non-Precision Measuring Instruments Non-precision measuring tools are those measuring instruments that does not require high degree of accuracy or they can be read using bare eyes without using a magnifying device.
1. Steel rule Steel rule is a measuring instrument having a long, thin stainless steel strip with a marked scale of unit division such as in centimetres or inches, used for drawing lines, measuring distances between two points, etc. These are available in different sizes, such as in 15cm, 30cm, 60cm, 1m, 1.5m, 2m, 3m, 4m, 5m & 6m. Generally, least count of a steel rule is 0.5mm. Among the most useful tool in the machine shop. Although these are actually rules or rulers, most machinist call them scales. They are made in a variety of kinds such as spring tempered, flexible, narrow and hooked. Flexible Steel Rule
Narrow Steel Rule
Hooked Steel Rule
Metric Steel Rules – usually graduated in millimeter and half-millimeter, are used for making linear metric measurements which do not require great accuracy. A wide variety of metric rules are available in lengths from 15 cm to 1m. English Steel Rules – the common binary fractions found on inch steel rules are 1/64, 1/32, 1/16, and 1/8 of an inch. Several varieties of inch steel rules may be used in machine shop work, such as spring tempered, flexible, narrow, and hook. Lengths range from 1 to 72 inches. Again, these rules are used for measurements which do not require great accuracy. 2. Calipers - A caliper is a tool used for measuring diameters. It is always used with a steel scale and, at times, with a micrometer. The caliper itself cannot be read directly as a steel scale and therefore, when the measurement is taken with a caliper, the opening is measured on the steel scale or micrometer.
Outside Calipers - Outside
calipers are tool used to measure the outside surface of either round or flat work. They are measured in several styles such as spring joint and firm joint calipers. Caution: Never attempt to measure work while it is moving or revolving. Not only it is dangerous practice which could result in an accident, but also any measurements taken will not be accurate. Inside Calipers - Inside calipers are used to measure the diameters of holes or the width of keyways and slots. Precision Measuring Instruments Introduction Precision measuring instruments measure the actual size of the part. The machinist must use some form of precision measuring instrument to obtain this desired size. Precision measuring tools may be divided into five categories, namely, tools used for outside measurement, inside measurement, depth measurement, thread measurement, and height measurement. Common Precision Measuring Tools 1. The Vernier caliper - In 1631, a Frenchman named Pierre Vernier invented the first Vernier caliper. It is a precision instrument used for measuring internal and external distances between two points extremely accurately. It has two versions, manual and digital. The manual version has both an imperial and metric scale. The digital version requires a small battery whereas the manual version does not need any power source. Vernier callipers are available in the range of 0-100mm, 0-150mm, 0-200mm, 0-300mm, 0-600mm and 0-1000mm. Accuracy of metric scale vernier caliper is 0.02mm and imperial scale vernier caliper is 0.002”. Manual Vernier Caliper
Manual Dial Vernier Caliper
Digital Vernier Caliper
Parts of the Vernier Caliper The vernier caliper, regardless of the standard measurement used, consist of an L- shaped frame and a movable jaw. The L-shaped frame consist of a bar, which shows the main scale graduations, and a fixed jaw. The movable, which slides along the bar, contains the vernier scale. Adjustments for size are made by means of an adjusting nut. Reading may be locked in place by means of a clamp screws or thumb locks. Most bars are graduated on both sides or on both edges, one for outside measurements and the other set for inside measurements. The outer tips of the jaws are cut away to form nibs which permit inside measurements to be taken. 1. Outside jaws: Used to measure external diameter or width of an object 2. Inside jaws: Used to measure internal diameter of an object 3. Depth probe: Used to measure depths of an object or a hole 4. Main scale: Scale marked every mm (metric scale) 5. Main scale: Scale marked in inches and fractions (imperial scale) 6. Vernier scale: gives interpolated measurements to 0.1 mm or better 7. Vernier scale: gives interpolated measurements in fractions of an inch 8. Retainer: used to block movable part to allow the easy transferring of a measurement 9. Locking screw: Used to lock movable jaw with main scale. How to read a Metric Vernier Caliper Steps : 1. Read the last graduation of the main scale before the zero mark “0” of the Vernier scale. The reading represent the number of millimeters and let it be Main Scale Reading (MSR). 2. Find the line on the Vernier scale which coincides with the line on the Main cale and call this as the Vernier Scale Reading (VSR). 3. Add the Main Scale Reading (MSR) and the Formula: Vernier Scale Reading (VSR) and have the MSR = 23.00 mm Vernier Caliper Reading (VCR) as the result. + VSR = 0.40 mm VCR = 23.40 mm How to read an English Vernier Caliper Steps: 1. Read the last graduation of the main scale before the zero mark “0” of the Vernier Scale. The reading represent the number of sixteenths on the English scale and let it be as the Main Scale Reading (MSR). 2. Find the line on the Vernier Scale which coincides with the line on the main scale and call this as the Vernier Scale Reading (VSR). 3. Add the Main Scale Reading (MSR) and the Vernier Formula: Scale Reading (VSR) and have the Vernier Caliper MSR = 11/16 in. Reading (VCR) as the result. +VSR = 3/64 in. VCR = 47/64 in. 2. Micrometer Caliper The Micrometer Caliper, usually called the micrometer, is the most commonly used measuring instrument when accuracy is required. It was invented by Jean Palmer, a Frenchman, in 1848. The regular micrometer, usually referred to in the shop as a mike, is used for measuring outside dimensions. It is available in many sizes. There are several other types of micrometers, but all follow Manual Micrometer
the same fundamental principle.
A micrometer (also known as screw gauge) is used for measuring dimensions smaller than those measured by the Vernier caliper. A micrometer screw gauge is a small measuring device, which works on the “screw” principle. The accuracy of micrometers are varies between 0.01mm and 0.001 mm depending on the type Digital Micrometer of micrometer. Various ranges of micrometers available Parts of the Micrometer Caliper The five principal parts of the micrometer are the frame, anvil, spindle, sleeve, and thimble. The frame holds and supports the whole components of the Micrometer Caliper and where the hand is placed when taking up measurements. The anvil is the left end side of the Micrometer from where the zero reference of measurements is taken. The spindle has the other side of the measuring face and moves along the axis in line with the anvil when the thimble is turned. The sleeve or also known as the barrel is where graduations is imprinted and located between the spindle and the thimble of the micrometer. The thimble is responsible for the forward and backward movement of the spindle. It also consist some graduations for more accurate readings. To Read A Metric Micrometer Caliper Steps : 1. Note the number of the last main division showing above the line to the left of the thimble. Multiply this by 1mm and let it be your Sleeve Reading (SR). 2. If there is a half-millimeter line showing below the index line, between the whole millimeter and the thimble, then add 0.5mm on your sleeve reading. 3. Check the line on the thimble that coincides with the index line of the sleeve and have this as your Thimble Reading Formula: (TR). SR = 25.5 mm 4. Add the sleeve reading and the thimble reading to + TR = 0.31 mm obtain the Micrometer Caliper Reading (MCR). MCR = 25.81 mm To Read An English Micrometer Caliper Steps : 1. Note the number of the last main division showing above the line to the left of the thimble. Multiply this by 0.100 and let it be your Sleeve Reading (SR). 2. Note the number of small lines visible to the right of the last number shown. Multiply this by 0.025. 3. Check the line on the thimble that coincides with the index line of the sleeve and have this as your Formula: Thimble Reading (TR). SR = 0.425 in. 4. Add the sleeve reading and `8the thimble reading to + TR = 0.020 in. obtain the Micrometer Caliper Reading (MCR). MCR = 0.445 in. 3. Vernier Height Gage Accurate height measurement is very important in layout and inspection work. With the proper attachments, the vernier height gage is very useful and versatile tool for these purpose. The Vernier Height Gage is a precision instrument used in toolrooms and inspection departments on layout, and jig and fixture work to measure the mark off distances accurately. Basically, a vernier height gage is a vernier caliper with a hardened, ground, and lapped base instead of a fixed jaw and is always used with a surface plate or an accurate flat surface. The sliding jaw assembly can be raised or lowered to any position along the beam. Fine adjustments are made by means of an adjusting nut. The vernier height gage is read in the same manner as the vernier caliper. The vernier height gage is very well suited to accurate layout work and may be used for this purpose if a scriber is mounted on the movable jaw. The scriber height may be set either by means of the vernier scale or by setting the scriber to the top of a gage block buildup of the desired length. 4. Dial test indicator Dial test indicator have been used in the machine shop to test alignment and rotation measurement of machine parts. The dial indicator is a very precise instrument that measures distance between two parts and can be used to measure distances between two or more locations. Dial test indicators typically measure ranges from 0.25mm to 300mm (0.015 inch to 12 inch), with graduations of 0.001mm to 0.01mm (metric) or 0.00005 inch to 0.001 inch (imperial). Contact points of test indicators most often come with a standard spherical tip of 1, 2, or 3mm diameter. Many are of steel (alloy tool steel or HSS); higher-end models are of carbides (such as tungsten carbide) for greater wear resistance. Other materials are available for contact points depending on application, such as ruby (high wear resistance) or Teflon or PVC (to avoid scratching the work piece). These are more expensive and are not always available, but they are extremely useful in applications that demand them. Figure gives an idea about the dial test indicator gauges. 5. Screw thread pitch gauge A screw thread pitch gauge is used to check or find the pitch of a thread. It is a series of thin marked blades which have different pitched teeth. Thread pitch gauges also come in the standard thread forms of metric, Whitworth, etc. which allows both the pitch of the thread to be gauged and the form or shape of the thread, to be checked. Each set of screw pitch gauges has the thread form stamped on it. How to measure pitch of the thread with screw pitch gauge? First, measure the approximate pitch of the thread with a steel rule. To do this for metric threads: • Put the steel rule on the thread parallel to the thread axis. • Line up a major division on the rule with the top or crest of the thread. • Count the number of crests to another major division, usually 20 – 30 mm. • Divide the length between the major divisions by the number of crest counted. • The answer is the pitch of the thread. • Then choose the pitch gauge closest to this pitch for the first try. For imperial threads, the method is similar, except that the pitch is given as threads per inch (TPI) and the numbers of crests in one inch are counted (TPI=25.4/P). Example: If the major diameter is 10mm and pitch of the tread (P) is 1.25mm, then the thread is M10x1.25. Available ranges of screw pitch gauges 6. Screw cutting gauge Screw cutting gauge is an important tool used in a machine shop, made from hardened and polished stainless steel. It is also known as Center gauge or Fish tail gauge. It is used for checking tool angles while machining threads in metal turning lathes. Metric, BSW, BSF, BA, American National and Acme thread angles are clearly etched on the plate for easy understanding. The angle on the thread cutting tool is checked on the V slots in the gauge as shown in figure.
