HAMMER ™

USER ’S GUIDE

HYDRAULIC TRANSIENT MODELING SOFTWARE

DAA035820-1/0001
Copyright © 2005 Bentley Systems, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

This documentation is published by Bentley Systems, Inc. (“Bentley”), and is intended solely for
use in conjunction with Bentley’s software. This documentation is available to all current
Licensees in print and electronic format. No one may copy, photocopy, reproduce, translate, or
convert to any electronic or machine-readable form, in whole or in part, the printed documentation
without the prior written approval of Bentley. Licensee may download the electronic
documentation from Bentley’s web site and make that documentation available solely on
licensee’s intranet. Licensee may print the electronic documentation, in part or in whole, for
personal use. No one may translate, alter, sell, or make available the electronic documentation on
the Internet, transfer the documentation by FTP, or display any of the documentation on any web
site without the prior written approval of Bentley.

Trademarks

Bentley, ProjectWise, ClientCare, CulvertMaster, Cybernet, Darwin, FlowMaster, Graphical HEC-

1, Haestad Methods, PondPack, PumpMaster, SewerCAD, SewerGEMS, StormCAD, WaterCAD,
and WaterGEMS, CivilStorm, HEC-Pack, HAMMER, and GISConnect are registered or
unregistered trademarks of Bentley Systems, Inc. or one its direct or indirect wholly-owned
subsidiaries. All other brands, company and product names, or trademarks are the property of their
respective holders.

AutoCAD is a registered trademark of Autodesk, Inc. ESRI is a registered trademark of

Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc. Microsoft, Windows, Windows NT, Visual Studio,
Word, and Excel, are registered trademarks of Microsoft Corporation. All other brands, company
or product names, or trademarks belong to their respective holders.

Portions of this document include intellectual property of ESRI and its licensor(s) and are used
herein under license. Copyright © 1999-2002 ESRI and its licensor(s). All rights reserved.

HAMMER is based on technology originally created by Environmental Hydraulics Group, Inc.

http://www.ehg-inc.com

Bentley Systems, Incorporated

Haestad Methods Solution Center
Suite 200W
27 Siemon Company Drive
Watertown, CT 06795
Phone: +1-203-755-1666
Fax: +1-203-597-1488
E-mail: [email protected]
Internet: http://www.haestad.com
 Contents

Chapter 1: Orientation and Installation 1

Release Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-2
What is HAMMER? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-2
About EHG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-3
Capabilities of HAMMER. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-3
What’s New in this Release? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-4
Welcome to HAMMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-5
Installing HAMMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-5
Installation Overview - Installing from the Product CD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-6
Installation Overview - Downloading and Installing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-7
Installing on a Single Computer (Node-Locked Version). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-8
Setting Up a Shared Use Version (Bentley SELECTserver Network Version) 1-10
INSTALL THE LICENSE FILE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-12
Setting Up a Shared-Use Version (SentinelLM Network Version). . . . . . . . . .1-12
INSTALL THE LICENSE FILE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-14
Deploy HAMMER for Installation on Multiple Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-17
Install HAMMER on a Client Workstation from the Network Deployment . . . .1-18
Uninstalling from a Single Computer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-18
Uninstalling the Network Deployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-19
Registering and Activating the Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-20
Deactivating the Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-20
Checking Your Current Registration Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-20
Program Maintenance Dialog Box. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-21
Software Updates via the Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-21
Troubleshooting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-22
UPDATING YOUR SENTINELLM LICENSES IF YOU MOVE YOUR LICENSE SERVER 1-
22
UPDATING YOUR BENTLEY SELECTSERVER LICENSES IF YOU MOVE YOUR LI-
CENSE SERVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-23

Learning HAMMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-23

Frequently Asked Questions—How Do I?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-23
Tutorials and Sample Projects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-24
Bentley Systems Workshops. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-24
Contacting Bentley Systems About Haestad Methods Products . . . . . . . . . .1-25
Sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-25
Technical Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-26
Engineering Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-27

HAMMER User's Guide Contents-i

 Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-27
Your Suggestions Count. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-28

Chapter 2: HAMMER Main Window 29

Main Window Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-29
Main Window: HAMMER Modeler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30
Output Windows: HAMMER Viewer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32
HAMMER Menus and Shortcut Menus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-35
File Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36
Edit Menu. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-38
View Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-39
Tools Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-40
Help Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42
Format Graph Shortcut Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-43
Format Display Shortcut Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-45
Using the Online Help, Online Book, and Help Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-47
Online Book (pdf). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-47
Online Help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-48
ONLINE HELP INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-48
ONLINE HELP SEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-49
ONLINE HELP FAVORITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-49
ONLINE HELP TOPICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-50
NAVIGATION ARROWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-50
Hammer Dialog Boxes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-50
Project Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-51
SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-51
REPORT POINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-52
REPORT TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-53
REPORT PATHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-54
PREFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-55
REPORT OPTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-57
DISPLAY OPTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-57
Run Dialog Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-58
Expanded Run Dialog Box. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-59
WaterCAD/WaterGEMS Import Dialog Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-60
Import EPANET File Dialog Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-63
Import Surge 2000 File Dialog Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-64
SURGE TO HAMMER FIELD-TO-FIELD CONVERSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-65
Bladder Surge Tank (Surge) to Gas Vessel (HAMMER) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-65
Closed Surge Tank (Surge) to Gas Vessel (HAMMER) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-67
One-Way Open-Surge Tank (Surge) to Simple-Surge Tank (HAMMER) . . . . 2-68
Open-Surge Tank (Surge) to Simple Surge Tank (HAMMER) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-69
Pressure Valve (Surge) to SAV/SRV (HAMMER). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-70
Rupture Disk (Surge) to Rupture Disk (HAMMER) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-72
Single-Stage Air-Vacuum Valve (Surge) to Air Valve (HAMMER) . . . . . . . . . 2-73
Surge-Anticipation Valve (Surge) to SAV/SRV (HAMMER) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-74
Two-Stage Air-Vacuum Valve (Surge) to Air Valve (HAMMER) . . . . . . . . . . . 2-76

Contents-ii HAMMER User's Guide

 Three-Stage Air-Vacuum Valve (Surge) to Air Valve (HAMMER) . . . . . . . . . 2-77
Search Dialog Box. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-78
FlexUnits Dialog Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-79
Merge Pipes Dialog Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-79
Color Mapping Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-80
Color Map Settings Dialog Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-81
Choose Color Dialog Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-83
Global HAMMER Options Dialog Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-84
COLORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-84
TOOLTIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-86
TABS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-86
FILE I/O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-87
OTHER OPTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-88
HAMMER Viewer Dialog Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-89
Animation Control Dialog Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-90
Font Dialog Box. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-91
Copy Paths Dialog Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-91
Image Settings Dialog Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-92
Adding and Resizing Text and Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-93
Format Text Dialog Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-93
Format Graphic Dialog Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-94
HAMMER Toolbars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-94
File Tools (Modeler Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-94
Edit Tools (Modeler Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-95
Run Control (Modeler Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-96
Display Tools (Modeler Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-96
Output Graphics and FlexTables (Modeler Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-97
Help (Modeler Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-98
Hydraulic Elements (Modeler Only). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-98
Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-99
Control Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-100
Protection Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-101
Rotating Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-102
HAMMER Status Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-102

Chapter 3: Quick Start Lessons 105

Lesson 1: Pipeline Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-106
Part 1—Creating or Importing a Steady-State Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-106
CREATING A MODEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-107
IMPORTING A STEADY-STATE MODEL FROM EPANET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-113
Part 2—Selecting the Transient Events to Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-114
Part 3—Configuring the HAMMER Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-115
Part 4—Performing a Transient Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-117
ANALYSIS WITHOUT SURGE PROTECTION EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-118
Reviewing your Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-121
Analysis with Surge-Protection Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-122

HAMMER User's Guide Contents-iii

 Part 5—Animating Transient Results at Points and along Profiles . . . . . . . 3-125
Part 6—Adding Comments to Generate Report-Ready Graphs . . . . . . . . . 3-128
Lesson 2: Working with Data from External Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-130
Part 1—Exporting an Input or Output File to a HAMMER Datastore . . . . . . 3-131
CREATING A HAMMER INPUT DATASTORE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-131
CREATING AN OUTPUT DATASTORE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-133
Part 2—Importing a HAMMER Datastore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-135
Part 3—Importing Haestad Methods Models Using WaterObjects . . . . . . . 3-139
Part 4—Importing from Other Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-140
IMPORTING FROM EPANET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-141
IMPORTING FROM PIPE2000 OR SURGE2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-142
Lesson 3: Network Risk Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-142
Part 1—Importing and Verifying the Initial Steady-States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-143
Part 2—Selecting the Key Transient Events to Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-146
Part 3—Performing a Transient Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-146
ANALYSIS WITHOUT SURGE PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-147
ANALYSIS WITH SURGE-PROTECTION EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-151
Part 4—Color-Coding Maps, Profiles, and Point Histories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-155
Part 5—Adding Comments to Generate Report-Ready Graphs . . . . . . . . . 3-159

Chapter 4: Starting a HAMMER Project 165

File Management and Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-165
HAMMER Input and Output Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-166
HAMMER Datastore and Access Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-166
WaterObjects Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-167
Additional Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-167
Multiple Sessions and Submodels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-168
Considerations for ProjectWise Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-169
General Guidelines for using ProjectWise with HAMMER. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-169
ProjectWise Options Dialog Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-170
Performing ProjectWise Operations from within HAMMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-170
Import and Export Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-173
Importing/Exporting EPANET v.2.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-174
Importing/Exporting to a GIS or Database Using the HAMMER Datastore . 4-174
Importing from WaterGEMS/WaterCAD Using WaterObjects . . . . . . . . . . . 4-175
Importing PIPE2000 or Surge2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-176
Project Management and Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-176
Global HAMMER Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-177
Project Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-178
PROJECT SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-179
Determining Pressure Wave Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-180
Determining the Run Duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-180
UNIT SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-181
LIQUID PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-182
VAPOR PRESSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-182
SELECTING THE FRICTION METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-183

Contents-iv HAMMER User's Guide

 Steady-State Friction Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-184
Quasi-Steady Friction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-185
Transient or Unsteady Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-185
Drawing Setup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-186
FlexUnits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-187
Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-188
Display Precision. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-189
NUMBER OF DIGITS DISPLAYED AFTER DECIMAL POINT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-189
ROUNDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-190
Scientific Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-190
Minimum and Maximum Allowed Value. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-191
Getting Ready to Run HAMMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-191

Chapter 5: Layout and Editing Tools 195

HAMMER Modeler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-195
Creating New Elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-196
Morphing Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-197
Selecting Hydraulic Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-198
Editing Hydraulic Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-199
Moving Hydraulic Elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-199
Copying/Cutting/Pasting/Deleting Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-200
Finding Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-201
View Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-201
Pan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-202
Zoom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-202
Drawing Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-202
Screen Layout (Format Display) Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-203

Chapter 6: Hydraulic Element Reference 205

Overview of Hydraulic Element Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-205
Pipes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-207
Nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-209
System Boundaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-210
Control Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-212
Flow-Control Valve Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-212
Flow-Control Valves as Sources of Hydraulic Transients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-213
Flow-Control Valve Reference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-215
Orifice Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-217
Rotating Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-218
Pump Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-219
PUMP INERTIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-221
SPECIFIC SPEED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-222
FIRST-QUADRANT AND FOUR-QUADRANT REPRESENTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . .6-224

HAMMER User's Guide Contents-v

 VARIABLE-SPEED PUMPS (VSP OR VFD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-224
Pump Element Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-225
Turbine Element Reference - Hydropower Hydraulics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-229
IMPULSE TURBINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-231
REACTION TURBINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-232
MODELING HYDRAULIC TRANSIENTS IN HYDROPOWER PLANTS . . . . . . . . . 6-233
Full Load Rejection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-234
Full Load Acceptance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-235
Emergency Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-235
Electrical Load Variation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-236
IMPACT OF TURBINE GOVERNOR ON TRANSIENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-237
TURBINE PARAMETERS IN HAMMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-238
Protection Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-239
Check Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-240
Pressure Relief and Other Regulating Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-240
Protective Equipment Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-242
Gas Vessels and Surge Tanks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-244

Chapter 7: Modeling Capabilities 249

Analysis of Hydraulic Transient Pressures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-249
Rigid-Column Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-251
Elastic Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-252
Data Requirements and Boundary Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-253
Analysis of Transient Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-254
Infrastructure and Risk Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-255
Water Column Separation and Vapor Pockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-256
Global Adjustment to Vapor Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-257
Global Adjustment to Pipe Elevations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-258
Global Adjustment to Wave Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-258
Automatic or Direct Selection of the Time Step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-259
Check Run . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-259
Orifice Demand and Intrusion Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-260
Numerical Model Calibration and Validation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-262
Gathering Field Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-264
Timing and Shape of Transient Pressure Pulses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-264
Steady State Run . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-265

Chapter 8: Presenting Your Results 267

Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-268
Using Time or Head to Trigger Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-268
Text Output File Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-269
Predefined Report Formats in Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-270
Using FlexTables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-273

Contents-vi HAMMER User's Guide

 FlexTable Setup Dialog Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-274
Using the FlexTable Table Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-275
FlexTable Table Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-276
Opening FlexTables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-277
FlexTable Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-278
PRINT PREVIEW WINDOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-279
Creating New FlexTables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-279
Deleting FlexTables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-280
Naming and Renaming FlexTables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-281
Editing FlexTables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-281
EDITING COLUMN-HEADING TEXT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-282
CHANGING UNITS, FORMAT, AND PRECISION IN FLEXTABLES . . . . . . . . . . . .8-283
NAVIGATING IN TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-283
GLOBALLY EDITING DATA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-284
GLOBAL EDIT DIALOG BOX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-285
Sorting and Filtering FlexTable Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-285
SORTING THE ORDER OF COLUMNS IN A FLEXTABLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-286
SORTING THE CONTENTS OF A FLEXTABLE COLUMN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-286
CUSTOM SORT DIALOG BOX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-287
FILTERING TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-287
CUSTOM FILTER DIALOG BOX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-289
Customizing Your FlexTable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-290
Copying, Exporting, and Printing FlexTable Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-291
COPYING FLEXTABLE DATA VIA THE CLIPBOARD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-291
EXPORTING DATA AS TEXT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-292
CREATING A FLEXTABLE REPORT AND PRINTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-292
Hydraulic Element Labels and Colors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-293
Using Your Organization’s Name and Logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-293
System Colors and Display Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-294
Hydraulic Element Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-294
Hydraulic Element Colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-295
Generating Color Maps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-295
Profile Plots along a Path (or Walk). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-298
Walking the Path (or Profile Setup) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-298
Path or Profile Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-300
Time History Graphs at a Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-300
Graph Formatting and Annotation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-301
Graph Formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-302
Output Variable Formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-303
Adding Annotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-304
No Need for Print Previews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-304
Animating Maps, Profiles and Point Histories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-305

HAMMER User's Guide Contents-vii

Chapter A: Frequently Asked Questions 309
Overview: “How Do I” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-309
Import/Export Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-310
Transitioning from Steady-State Models to HAMMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-310
SCENARIO MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-311
DEMAND ALTERNATIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-312
CONTROL VALVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-312
PUMPS AND PUMP CURVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-313
IN SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-314
Importing Data from WaterCAD/WaterGEMS Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-314
Importing EPANET Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-315
Importing Surge2000 and PIPE2000 Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-315
Importing from a Database Using the HAMMER Datastore. . . . . . . . . . . . . A-316
Additional Considerations When Working with Large Model Files. . . . . . . . A-316
Modeling Tips. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-317
How Do I Set Up a HAMMER Project? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-318
Modeling a Hydropneumatic Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-320
Modeling a Pumped Groundwater Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-321
Modeling Parallel Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-322
Modeling Pumps in Parallel and Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-322
Modeling Hydraulically Close Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-323
Top-Feed/Bottom Gravity Discharge Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-323
Estimating Hydrant Discharge Using Flow Emitters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-325
Modeling Variable-Speed Pumps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-326
How Do I Access the Knowledge Base? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-327
Display Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-328
How Do I Display my Organization’s Name and Logo? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-328
How Do I Control Element and Label Display? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-329
How Do I Color-Code Elements?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-329
How Do I Reuse Sets of Hydraulic Elements?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-330
How Do I Copy a Path from One HAMMER Project to Another? . . . . . . . . A-330
Editing Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-331

Appendix B: HAMMER Theory and Practice 333

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-334
Overview of Hydraulic Transients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-335
History of Solution Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-336
Causes of Transient Initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-338
Impacts of Transients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-341
Design of Protective Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-343
Hydraulic Transient Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-344
Conservation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-345
Governing Equations for Steady-State Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-346
CONSERVATION OF MASS AT STEADY STATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-348

Contents-viii HAMMER User's Guide

 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY AT STEADY STATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-348
Governing Equations for Unsteady (or Transient) Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-348
CONTINUITY EQUATION FOR UNSTEADY FLOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-349
MOMENTUM EQUATION FOR UNSTEADY FLOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-350
METHOD OF CHARACTERISTICS (MOC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-351
Rigid Column Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-353
Rigid Column versus Elastic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-356
Elastic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-358
Water System Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-359
Celerity and Pipe Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-359
Wave Propagation and Characteristic Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-363
Wave Reflection and Transmission Pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-364
Type of Networks and Pumping Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-366
Putting It All Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-368
Pump Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-369
Pump Characteristics and Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-370
Variable-Speed Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-372
Constant-Horsepower Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-373
Valve Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-374
Valve Selection and Sizing Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-374
Typical Valve Bodies and Pistons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-376
Closing Characteristics of Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-378
Flow-Decreasing Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-380
Friction and Minor Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-381
Hazen-Williams Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-382
Darcy-Weisbach Equation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-383
SWAMEE AND JAIN EQUATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-384
COLEBROOK-WHITE EQUATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-385
Manning’s Equation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-385
CHÉZY’S EQUATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-386
Minor Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-387
Quasi-Steady Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-389
Unsteady or Transient Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-391
TURBINE SIMULATION IN HAMMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-393
Four-quadrant Characteristics of Turbomachinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-393
Numerical Representation of Hydroelectric Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-393
Transient Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-395
Developing a Surge-Control Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-398
Piping System Design and Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-399
Protection Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-401
Approaches to Surge Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-402
SYSTEM-IMPROVEMENT METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-406
FLOW-SUPPLEMENT APPROACH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-406
TWO-WAY SURGE TANK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-407
ONE-WAY SURGE TANK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-409
GAS VESSEL OR AIR CHAMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-409

HAMMER User's Guide Contents-ix

 INCREASE OF INERTIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-412
Pump Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-412
CHECK VALVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-412
BOOSTER PUMP BYPASS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-413
Surge-Relief Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-414
Operation and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-421
Engineer’s Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-423
Roughness Values—Manning’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-424
Roughness Values—Darcy-Weisbach Equation (Colebrook-White) . . . . . . B-425
Roughness Values—Hazen-Williams Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-426
Typical Roughness Values for Pressure Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-427
Fitting Loss Coefficients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-428
Properties of Common Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-429
Using Presets and Parameter Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-431
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-432

Appendix C: About Haestad Methods 437

Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-437
SewerGEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-438
CivilStorm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-439
WaterGEMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-440
WaterCAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-441
SewerCAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-442
StormCAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-442
PondPack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-443
FlowMaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-444
CulvertMaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-444
Bentley Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-445
Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-445
Internet Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-446
Instant Account Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-447
CivilProjects.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-447
CivilQuiz.com. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-447

Chapter D: Environmental Hydraulics Group 449

Water Networks and Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-449
Deep Sewers and Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-451
Hydraulic Testing and Forensic Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-452
Pump Station Upgrades and NPHS Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-453

Contents-x HAMMER User's Guide

 Expert Witness and Break Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-453
Field and Lab Tests for Disinfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-454
Hydropower and Cogeneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-455
Mining and Industrial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-455

Index 457

HAMMER User's Guide Contents-xi

Contents-xii HAMMER User's Guide
 Chapter

Orientation and 1
Installation

Thank you for purchasing HAMMER. At Bentley Systems, we pride ourselves in

providing the very best engineering software available. Our goal is to make software
that is easy to install and use, yet so powerful and intuitive that it anticipates your
needs without getting in your way.

When you first use HAMMER, the intuitive interface and interactive dialog boxes will
guide you. If you need more information, use the online help by pressing the F1 key or
selecting help from the Help menu. Help text regarding the area of the program in
which you are working will be displayed.

In addition to Help resources, three other sources of information are available:

• Printed User’s Guide—The printed manual provides Quick Start lessons and it
can be used away from the computer to review HAMMER features and theory.
• Online Book—The online text, which is available with each new software
version you download, includes information about the HAMMER interface and
hypertext links to help navigate the information more easily. (For more informa-
tion, see “Using the Online Help, Online Book, and Help Pane”.)
• Internet Resources—The Haestad Methods WaterTalk forum is a free service
where anyone can ask questions (from novice to expert level), and get answers
from other users. Engineers and experts from Bentley Systems and Environmental
Hydraulics Group often post answers to questions. To sign up for WaterTalk, visit
http://www.haestad.com/forums.

1.1 What is HAMMER?

HAMMER is a powerful yet easy-to-use program that helps engineers analyze
complex pumping systems and piping networks as they transition from one steady
state to another. Hydraulic transients only last from seconds to a few minutes, but they
can damage a system or cause significant operational difficulties. For example,

HAMMER User's Guide 1-1

What is HAMMER?

HAMMER’s name is due to the loud “water hammer” knocking sound that can be
heard when sudden hydraulic transients occur. HAMMER helps engineers understand
their pumping and piping networks better, enabling them to design safe and econom-
ical surge-control systems.

HAMMER is based on technology originally created by Environmental Hydraulics

Group Inc. (EHG), the water hammer specialists, and backed by a long-term collabo-
ration between EHG and Bentley Systems. Bentley Systems and EHG are committed
to continuously improving HAMMER.

1.1.1 About EHG

Environmental Hydraulics Group, Inc. (EHG), has a proven track

record of advanced consulting projects and break investigations
involving water, sewage, oil/fuel, slurries, and steam for the public,
mining and industrial sectors world wide. EHG is led by Dr. Alan
Fok, P.Eng., a designated Hydraulics Specialist (1983) who
founded the firm in 1987 after completing his water hammer Ph.D.
EHG’s clients are governments, legal firms, and consulting engi-
neers requiring expert assistance or reviews based on the highest level of technical
expertise and most advanced modeling technologies (http://www.ehg-inc.com).

1.1.2 Capabilities of HAMMER

HAMMER’s graphical interface makes it easy to quickly lay out a complex network
of pipes, tanks, pumps, and surge control equipment. You can also use FlexTables or
preset libraries to rapidly copy model parameters. If you already have a steady-state
model of your system, HAMMER can import its data and results automatically to save
you time and eliminate transcription errors.

You can use HAMMER to:

• Reduce the risk of transient-related damage to maximize operator safety and

reduce the frequency of service interruptions to customers.
• Reduce daily wear and tear on pumping and piping systems to maximize the
useful life of infrastructure.
• Reduce the risk of water contamination during subatmospheric transient pres-
sures, during which groundwater and pollutants could be sucked into the pipe.
• Reduce the number and severity of transient forces resulting from transient pres-
sure shocks, where applicable. Transient forces and pressures can loosen joints or
grow cracks, increasing leaks and unaccounted-for water (UFW).
• Analyze hydropower systems complete with four-quadrant characteristic turbine
representations to simulate load rejection, acceptance and variation cases.

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 Orientation and Installation

• Prepare operation checklists for use in emergencies such as power failures, pipe
breaks, and component (valve, pump) and/or control failures.
• Develop standards to ensure major water users do not damage the water system.
Information can be provided to industries to avoid sudden water takings or load
rejection. Safe speeds to open or close fire hydrants can be provided to the fire and
waterworks department.
• Provide additional information (with respect to steady-state models) to help select
pumps, locate elevated tanks, and size air valves.

Transient Tip: Usually, hydraulic systems operate at a steady state of

dynamic equilibrium and changes in flow take minutes to
hours. “Normal” hydraulic transients may occur several
times a day as pumps start or stop. “Emergency”
transients may only occur once every month, year, or
decade when power fails or pipes break. Hydraulic
transients and surge-protection needs must be
considered in the context of a water utility’s risk
management and environmental protection plan.

1.2 What’s New in this Release?

This release of HAMMER includes the following new features:

• Steady-State calculations
• Merge pipes
• FlexTables
• Wider range of specific speeds for pumps
• Time step selection
• Display wave speed
• Pressure plots
• Profiles with node symbols and labels
• Libraries
• Enhanced turbine operation
• Support for developing pipe forces

1.3 Installing HAMMER

Click the following links to learn how to install HAMMER:

• “Installation Overview - Installing from the Product CD”

HAMMER User's Guide 1-3

Installing HAMMER

• “Installation Overview - Downloading and Installing”

• “Installing on a Single Computer (Node-Locked Version)”
• “Setting Up a Shared Use Version (Bentley SELECTserver Network Version)”
• “Setting Up a Shared-Use Version (SentinelLM Network Version)”
• “Deploy HAMMER for Installation on Multiple Computers”
• “Install HAMMER on a Client Workstation from the Network Deployment”
• “Registering and Activating the Software”
• “Uninstalling from a Single Computer”
• “Uninstalling the Network Deployment”
• “Deactivating the Software”
• “Checking Your Current Registration Status”
• “Program Maintenance Dialog Box”
• “Software Updates via the Web”
• “Troubleshooting”
• “Technical Support”

1.3.1 Installation Overview - Installing from the Product CD

If you run the HAMMER setup program from the product CD, the main installation
screen appears with the following options:

Includes:
• Haestad Methods Virtual Tour—Starts the
Haestad Methods Virtual Tour, a multimedia
presentation on the product CD that includes
information about our products and services.
View on CD
• HAMMER Installation Help—Launches
this installation help file.
• HAMMER Help—Launches the HAMMER
online help.
Install on a Single
Installs HAMMER on an individually licensed
Computer (Node-
computer.
Locked Version)

1-4 HAMMER User's Guide

 Orientation and Installation

Includes:
• Help for Shared Use Version—Launches the
installation help and displays the help topic
that describes how to set up HAMMER for
shared use.
• Install SentinelLM License Manager/Install
Set Up a Shared-Use SELECTserver License Manager—Installs
Version (Network either the SentinelLM or SELECTserver
Version) license manager program. This is the required
first step in the shared-use installation, unless
the license manager is already installed.
• Deploy HAMMER for Installation on
Multiple Computers—Installs all the files on
your network that your end users will use to
install HAMMER on their local computers.
Includes:
• Install FlexUnits 2.0—Installs FlexUnits, a
unit conversion software program capable of
performing thousands of measurement
Install Optional Tools conversions.
• Install Haestad Methods Virtual Tour—
Installs the Haestad Methods Virtual Tour on
your computer.

Related Topics

• “Installing on a Single Computer (Node-Locked Version)”

• “Setting Up a Shared Use Version (Bentley SELECTserver Network Version)”
• “Setting Up a Shared-Use Version (SentinelLM Network Version)”
• “Registering and Activating the Software”
• “Troubleshooting”

1.3.2 Installation Overview - Downloading and Installing

If you are planning to install HAMMER from a downloaded installation file, perform
the following steps:

1. If you are a Bentley SELECT customer, visit the Bentley SELECT Web site, http:/
/selectservices.bentley.com.
If you are a ClientCare customer, visit the Haestad Methods Web site, http://
www.haestad.com/clientcare.

HAMMER User's Guide 1-5

Installing HAMMER

2. Go to to the Downloads page on the Bentley Web site or the Product Updates page
on the Haestad Methods Web site, then download one of the following installation
files:
– Single User License—Download this file to install HAMMER on an individ-
ually licensed computer (also known as node-locked).
– Concurrent Use License—Download this file to set up a shared-use version
of HAMMER on multiple computers (network installation).

3. Install your product as described in the appropriate help topic:

– To install for a single computer, see “Installing on a Single Computer (Node-
Locked Version)”.
– To install for multiple computers, see “Setting Up a Shared Use Version
(Bentley SELECTserver Network Version)” or “Setting Up a Shared-Use
Version (SentinelLM Network Version)”, depending on which license
management system you are using.

Be sure to download the installation file to the computer on which you intend to install
the product.

Related Topics

• “Installing on a Single Computer (Node-Locked Version)”

• “Setting Up a Shared Use Version (Bentley SELECTserver Network Version)”
• “Setting Up a Shared-Use Version (SentinelLM Network Version)”
• “Registering and Activating the Software”
• “Troubleshooting”

Note: HAMMER can be installed on computers running Windows XP or

Windows 2000. Windows 95, 98, NT and ME are NOT supported.

1.3.3 Installing on a Single Computer (Node-Locked Version)

Choose this installation if you intend to use the program on an individually licensed
computer. This installation is also known as “single user license” or “node-locked.”

To install on a single computer from the product CD:

1-6 HAMMER User's Guide

 Orientation and Installation

Note: These instructions assume you have already started the

installation program from the product CD. If you haven’t already
done so, insert the product CD-ROM disc into your CD-ROM
drive, or start the Setup. If Autorun is enabled on your operating
system, setup begins automatically. This help file is also
available from the main installation screen.

If Autorun is disabled, click Start > Run from the taskbar, then
type d:\setup (where d is the actual drive letter of your CD-ROM
drive), then click OK.

1. On the main installation screen, click Install HAMMER on your local machine.
Follow the instructions on the screen.
If you have a previous version of HAMMER installed on your computer, the
Setup Wizard prompts you to uninstall it before installing the new version.

2. When the installation is complete, start HAMMER.

You will be prompted to register and activate the software the first time you run it.
For more information, see “Registering and Activating the Software”

To install on a single computer from a downloaded installation file:

1. Download the Single User License version of HAMMER to a folder on the

computer on which you plan to install it. For more information, see “Installation
Overview - Downloading and Installing”.
2. Run the downloaded installation file. Follow the instructions on the screen.
If you have a previous version of HAMMER installed on your computer, the
Setup Wizard prompts you to uninstall it before installing the new version.

3. When the installation is complete, start HAMMER.

You will be prompted to register and activate the software the first time you run it.
For more information, see “Registering and Activating the Software”

HAMMER User's Guide 1-7

Installing HAMMER

1.3.4 Setting Up a Shared Use Version (Bentley SELECTserver

Network Version)

Note: Do not perform the procedures in this section until after you
have received a license file from Bentley Systems. You will
receive a license file for either the Bentley SELECTserver or
SentinelLM license management system.

Perform the procedures in this section if you are setting up HAMMER for shared use
(network license) using the Bentley SELECTserver license management system.
Close any programs or processes that are running before you start the installation
program. This installation is also known as “concurrent use license.”

Before you begin installing for multiple computers, obtain the product ID and
network-enabled registration number from Technical Support department.

Note: You should have already received a registration number. If not,

contact us as described in “Technical Support”.

Setting up for shared use (concurrent use license) installs these components:

• SELECTserver License Manager—the license manager program that automati-

cally monitors availability and distributes network floating licenses to the client
applications as they start up across the license hosting LAN. You can choose to
skip the SELECTserver License Manager installation if, for example, the software
is already installed on your system.
• Network deployment folder—a folder installed on a network node that is avail-
able from all client workstations on which the license product will be installed.
Users of the floating licenses will run the network-based installation program
setup.exe, which installs and configures the application to each client workstation.

Note: You must have full administrator privileges to the deployment

folder and the license manager program folder on the server to
perform this procedure.

To set up HAMMER for shared use from the product CD:

1-8 HAMMER User's Guide

 Orientation and Installation

Note: These instructions assume you have already started the

installation program from the product CD. If you haven’t already
done so, insert the product CD-ROM disc into your CD-ROM
drive. If Autorun is enabled on your operating system, setup
begins automatically. This help file is also available from the
main installation screen.

If Autorun is disabled, click Start > Run from the taskbar, then
type d:\setup_selectserver.exe (where d is the actual drive letter
of your CD-ROM drive), then click OK.

1. On the main installation screen, click Install SELECTserver License Manager.

Follow the instructions on the screen.
2. You must obtain a license file from Bentley Systems before performing this part
of the installation. Install the license file as described in “Install the License File”.
3. On the main installation screen, click Set Up a Shared-Use Version (Network
Version). This will install the network deployment, which your end users will
access to install HAMMER on their local computers. For more information, see
“Deploy HAMMER for Installation on Multiple Computers”.
4. Announce the availability of the product via email, instructing interested users to
install the product using the procedure described in “Install HAMMER on a Client
Workstation from the Network Deployment”.

To set up HAMMER for shared use from a downloaded installation file:

1. Download the Concurrent Use License version of HAMMER from our Web site.
Save the file to the network computer on which you plan to install the license
manager and network deployment. For more information, see “Installation Over-
view - Downloading and Installing”.
2. Install the SELECTserver License Manager (SELECTserver 2004 Edition).
SELECTserver 2004 Edition can be downloaded from the "SELECT Released
Products" Application Group at http://appsnet.bentley.com/downloads/.
You can choose to skip the SELECTserver License Manager installation if the
software is already installed on on the computer.

3. Install the license file as described in “Install the License File”. You must obtain a
license file from Bentley Systems before performing this part of the installation.
4. Run the installation file you downloaded in Step 1. This will install the network
deployment, which your end users will access to install HAMMER on their local
computers.
5. Announce the availability of the product via email, instructing interested users to
install the product using the procedure described in “Install HAMMER on a Client
Workstation from the Network Deployment”.

HAMMER User's Guide 1-9

Installing HAMMER

Install the License File

During this part of the installation, you install the Bentley SELECT floating license
you received from Bentley Systems.

To install the license file:

1. You should have received an email from Bentley Systems containing the perma-
nent license string.
2. Open the license.lic file (usually located in C:\Program Files\SELECTserver) in
Notepad or a similar text editor. Copy the license string from the email you
received from us into the license.lic file, then save and close the file.
If you are updating an existing license, be sure to replace the existing license
string with the new license string. See the email you received from us for more
information.

3. Reload the license file by performing these steps:

a. Select Start > All Programs > SELECTserver > Administrative Interface.
This launches the license manager administration application in your default
Web browser.
b. Click License List on the left side of the screen.
c. Click Reload License File. You new license information will be displayed.
d. Exit the SELECTserver Administrative Interface.

4. When you have finished updating the license file, go back to the main installation
screen and click Deploy HAMMER for Installation on Multiple Computers to
install the network deployment.
If you are installing HAMMER from a downloaded installation file, launch the
installation file you downloaded. For more information, see “Deploy HAMMER
for Installation on Multiple Computers”.

1.3.5 Setting Up a Shared-Use Version (SentinelLM Network

Version)

Note: Do not perform the procedures in this section until after you
have received a license file from Bentley Systems. You will
receive a license file for either the Bentley SELECTserver or
SentinelLM license management system.

Perform the procedures in this section if you are setting up HAMMER for shared use
(network license) using the SentinelLM license management system. Close any
programs or processes that are running before you start the installation program.

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 Orientation and Installation

Before you begin this procedure, obtain the product ID and network-enabled registra-
tion number from Technical Support department.

Note: You should have already received a registration number. If not

contact us as described in “Technical Support”.

Setting up for shared use (concurrent use license) installs these components:

• SentinelLM License Manager—the license manager program that automatically

monitors availability and distributes network floating licenses to the client appli-
cations as they start up across the license hosting LAN. You can choose to skip the
SentinelLM License Manager installation if, for example, the software is already
installed on your system.
• Network deployment folder—a folder installed on a network node that is avail-
able from all client workstations on which the license product will be installed.
Users of the floating licenses will run the network-based installation program
setup.exe, which installs and configures the application to each client workstation.

SentinelLM must be installed and running on a server on the same network as the
client machines that need access to a license.

Note: You must have full administrator privileges to the deployment

folder and the license manager program folder on the server to
perform this procedure.

To set up HAMMER for shared use from the product CD:

Note: These instructions assume you have already started the

installation program from the product CD. If you haven’t already
done so, insert the product CD-ROM disc into your CD-ROM
drive. If Autorun is enabled on your operating system, setup
begins automatically. This help file is also available from the
main installation screen.

If Autorun is disabled, click Start > Run from the taskbar, then
type d:\setup (where d is the actual drive letter of your CD-ROM
drive), then click OK.

1. On the main installation screen, click Install SentinelLM License Manager.

Follow the instructions on the screen.
If an error message appears during the license manager installation, click OK.

2. You must obtain a license file from Bentley Systems before performing this part
of the installation. Install the license file as described in “Install the License File”.

HAMMER User's Guide 1-11

Installing HAMMER

3. On the main installation screen, click Deploy HAMMER for Installation on

Multiple Computers. This will install the network deployment, which your end
users will access to install HAMMER on their local computers. For more informa-
tion, see “Deploy HAMMER for Installation on Multiple Computers”.
4. Announce the availability of the product via email, instructing interested users to
install the product using the procedure described in “Install HAMMER on a Client
Workstation from the Network Deployment”.

To set up HAMMER for shared use from a downloaded installation file:

SentinelLM must be installed and running on a server on the same network as the
client machines that need access to a license.

1. Download the Concurrent Use License version of HAMMER from our Web site.
Save the file to the network computer on which you plan to install the license
manager and network deployment. For more information, see “Installation Over-
view - Downloading and Installing”.
2. Install the SentinelLM License Manager. You can download this software from
ftp://ftp.haestad.com/techFTP/Utilities/SentinelLM. The SentinelLM software is
downloaded as a .zip file (you must have Winzip or another program to dearchive
or unzip the file.).
For best performance, we recommend that you use SentinelLM 7.1 or greater to
manage your license(s).
You can choose to skip the SentinelLM License Manager installation if the soft-
ware is already installed on on the computer.

3. Install the license file as described in “Install the License File”. You must obtain a
license file from Bentley Systems before performing this part of the installation.
4. Run the installation file you downloaded in Step 1. This will install the network
deployment, which your end users will access to install HAMMER on their local
computers.
5. Announce the availability of the product via email, instructing interested users to
install the product using the procedure described in “Install HAMMER on a Client
Workstation from the Network Deployment”.

Install the License File

During this part of the installation, you install the SentinelLM floating license you
received from Bentley Systems.

To install a new license file:

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 Orientation and Installation

Use this procedure if you have just installed the SentinelLM License Manager, or
would like to completely replace any existing license information with the informa-
tion in the license file you received from us.

1. You should have received an email from Bentley Systems containing the perma-
nent license file. We recommend creating a folder called “License File” in your
default Haestad folder, usually C:\Program Files\Haestad, for this purpose.
2. The license manager runs as a service. Manually stop the license manager service
as follows:
a. Click Start > Control Panel from the taskbar.
b. Click Administrative Tools, then click Services.
c. Right-click the SentinelLM License Manager service in the list of services,
then select Stop from the shortcut menu to stop the service.
d. Close the Services window.

3. Open the SentinelLM License Management Administration application (other-

wise known as WLMAdmin.exe). The location of this application varies from
machine to machine, but can usually be found by clicking Start > All Programs >
Rainbow Technologies > SentinelLM7.X.
a. Click and expand the Subnet Servers entry.
b. Find the server you want to use to manage your license. This is the server on
which you just installed the SentinelLM License Manager.
c. Right-click the server you want to use to manage your license.
d. From the shortcut menu, select Add Feature > From a File > To Server and
Its File.
e. In the Open dialog box, browse to and select the license file, then click Open.
The license code is added to the server.
You will see the software name listed under the server if the license has been
added correctly.

4. When the license file installation is complete, manually restart the license
manager service as follows:
a. Click Start > Control Panel from the taskbar.
b. Click Administrative Tools, then click Services.
c. Right-click the SentinelLM License Manager, then select Start from the
shortcut menu to restart the service.
d. Close the Services window.

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Installing HAMMER

5. If you are installing HAMMER from the product CD, click Deploy HAMMER
for Installation on Multiple Computers on the main installation screen to install
the network deployment.
If you are installing HAMMER from a downloaded installation file, launch the
installation file you downloaded. For more information, see “Deploy HAMMER
for Installation on Multiple Computers”.

To update an existing license file:

Use this procedure if you already have SentinelLM installed and managing other soft-
ware applications, and would like to add additional products to the license file.

1. You should have received an email from Bentley Systems containing the perma-
nent license file. We recommend creating a folder called “License File” in your
default Haestad folder, usually C:\Program Files\Haestad, for this purpose.
2. Open the license file (this is a .txt file) in a text editor such as Windows Notepad.
Select and copy all of the text.
– You can also copy the license strings from the email you received from Tech-
nical Support.
3. On your server, manually stop the the license manager service as follows:
a. Click Start > Control Panel from the taskbar.
b. Click Administrative Tools, then click Services.
c. Right-click the SentinelLM License Manager service in the list of services,
then select Stop from the shortcut menu to stop the service.
d. Close the Services window.

4. Delete outdated product entries from the lservrc file:

a. Double-click the SentinelLM service and note the Path to Executable.
Browse to this location using Windows Explorer, and as a precaution make a
backup copy of the file called lservrc.
b. Open the lservrc file in a text editor, such as Windows Notepad. You will see
a line of text similar to “7 PondPack 9.0,” (this is an example - the line of text
will have your product name(s) and the previous version(s)).
c. Delete any lines of text from the lservrc file that refer to software versions that
will be superseded by your new license information.
5. Paste your new license information (copied from the license file in Step 1) into the
lservrc file after any existing text, then save and close the file.
6. Manually restart the license manager service as follows:
a. Click Start > Control Panel from the taskbar.
b. Click Administrative Tools, then click Services.

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 Orientation and Installation

c. Right-click the SentinelLM License Manager, then select Start from the
shortcut menu to restart the service.
d. Close the Services window.

7. To verify that the licenses were added correctly, open the SentinelLM License
Management Administration application (WLMAdmin.exe) and make sure the
software names are listed under your server. If not, please repeat the process
above or call for assistance.
– The location of this application varies from machine to machine, but can
usually be found by clicking Start > All Programs > Rainbow Technologies
> SentinelLM7.X.

Once the licenses are set up in SentinelLM you should be able to install and run
HAMMER on the client machines. If you have any trouble obtaining a license on the
client machines, please set one of the following environment variables on the client
machine:

LSHOST = server_name

Or

LSFORCEHOST = server_name

Where server_name is the name or IP address of the server where SentinelLM is

running. For more information on these environment variables, please refer to the
SentinelLM User’s Guide.

If you are still unable to obtain a license, please call us for assistance.

Remember that, according to the license agreement, you must uninstall any old instal-
lations of HAMMER after upgrading to a new version.

1.3.6 Deploy HAMMER for Installation on Multiple Computers

This part of the installation deploys HAMMER for installation on multiple copmuters,
allowing your end users to install HAMMER on their local computers.

To deploy HAMMER for installation on multiple computers:

1. If you are installing HAMMER from the product CD, click Deploy HAMMER
for Installation on Multiple Computers on the main installation screen.
If you are installing HAMMER from a downloaded installation file, launch the
installation file you downloaded.

2. Follow the instructions on the screen.

HAMMER User's Guide 1-15

Installing HAMMER

3. On the Customer Information screen, enter the following information:

– Product ID—You should have already received this from us.
– Registration Number—You should have already received this from us.
– License Manager Server Name—This is the server on which you installed
the license manager.

4. Follow the instructions on the screen to complete the installation of the network
deployment.
5. Announce the availability of the product via email, instructing interested users to
install the product using the procedure described in “Install HAMMER on a Client
Workstation from the Network Deployment”.

1.3.7 Install HAMMER on a Client Workstation from the

Network Deployment

The final step in installing HAMMER for multiple computers is to instruct your end
users to install the program on their local computers from the network deployment.

To install HAMMER on a client workstation from the network deployment :

1. On the client workstation, click Start > Run from the taskbar.
2. Click Browse, then navigate to the network deployment folder and select
setup.exe to install the program to your client workstation.
3. Follow the instructions in the Setup Wizard, which will guide you through the
installation.

1.3.8 Uninstalling from a Single Computer

To uninstall HAMMER from an individually licensed computer:

1. Click Start > Control Panel.

2. In the Control Panel, click Add or Remove Programs.
3. Scroll down the list of installed programs and find the Haestad Methods product
you want to remove.
4. Select the product and click the Remove button.
5. Follow the prompts on the screen to complete the uninstallation of the product.
During uninstallation, you are prompted to deactivate the software.

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 Orientation and Installation

1.3.9 Uninstalling the Network Deployment

If you want to uninstall the network deployment, you must uninstall the network
deployment, the license manager, and any product installations performed on client
workstations.

To uninstall the HAMMER network deployment:

1. Open the Windows Control Panel, then open Add or Remove Programs.
2. Scroll down the list of installed programs and select HAMMER by Haestad
Methods Network Deployment Wizard, then click Remove.
During uninstallation, you are prompted to deactivate the software.

To uninstall the SentinelLM license manager:

1. Open the Windows Control Panel, then open Add or Remove Programs.
2. Scroll down the list of installed programs and select SentinelLM Server.
3. Follow the instructions on the screen to uninstall the license server.
4. Open the Windows Control Panel, then open Add or Remove Programs.
5. Scroll down the list of installed programs and select SentinelLM.
6. Follow the instructions on the screen to uninstall the license manager.

To uninstall the Bentley SELECTserver license manager:

To uninstall the Bentley SELECTserver license manager, refer to the SELECTserver

documentation.

To uninstall the product from a client workstation:

1. Open the Windows Control Panel, then open Add or Remove Programs.
2. Scroll down the list of installed programs and select HAMMER, then click
Remove.
3. Follow the instructions on the screen to uninstall the product from the client work-
station.
During uninstallation, you are prompted to deactivate the software.

Related Topic

• “Uninstalling from a Single Computer”

HAMMER User's Guide 1-17

Installing HAMMER

1.3.10 Registering and Activating the Software

You must register and activate your software before you can use it. You register and
activate HAMMER in one step when you first run the software on your computer.

When you start HAMMER for the first time, the Activation Wizard opens. You can
activate the software immediately, or defer activation to a later time. However, you
can only defer activation for a limited number of times, and, until you activate
HAMMER, the Activation Wizard opens every time you run the software.

To activate HAMMER, follow the instructions in the Activation Wizard. You can acti-
vate the software via the Internet (recommended) or by calling Bentley Systems and
obtaining and manually inserting an activation code.

Note: Software activation is specific to the computer on which the

activation occurred. If you need to remove the software from one
computer and install it on another, you must first uninstall and
deactivate HAMMER from one computer, then install and
activate HAMMER on the new computer.

Related Topic

• “Deactivating the Software”

• “Technical Support”

1.3.11 Deactivating the Software

You must deactivate HAMMER if:

• You decide to stop using the software, or

• If you want to remove the software from one computer and install it on another.

To deactivate HAMMER, uninstall it from your computer. You are prompted to deac-
tivate the software during the uninstallation process.

Note: Remember, before you can install HAMMER on another

computer, you must first uninstall and deactivate the software.

1.3.12 Checking Your Current Registration Status

After you have registered the software, you can check your current registration status
by opening the registration dialog box from within the software itself.

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 Orientation and Installation

To open the registration dialog box:

1. Select Help > About HAMMER.

Note: The version and build number for HAMMER display in the lower-
left corner of the About HAMMER dialog box.

2. Click the Registration button in the About HAMMER dialog box.

The current registration status is displayed, including number of licenses, expira-
tion date, and feature level.

1.3.13 Program Maintenance Dialog Box

The Program Maintenance dialog box opens if you try to install the software when the
software is already installed.

• If you opened this dialog box by mistake, click Cancel to exit the installation. The
existing installation will be unaffected.
• If you are attempting to troubleshoot the installed software, removing and then
reinstalling the software is a more thorough approach than using either Repair or
Modify.
• To uninstall the software from the Program Maintenance dialog box, select
Remove, click Next, then follow the on-screen instructions.

1.3.14 Software Updates via the Web

Note: Your PC must be connected to the Internet to use the Check for
Updates button.

Bentley SELECT is the comprehensive delivery and support subscription program

that features product updates and upgrades via Web downloads, around-the-clock
technical support, exclusive licensing options, discounts on training and consulting
services, as well as technical information and support channels. It’s easy to stay up-to-
date with the latest advances in our software. Software updates can be downloaded
from our Web site, and your version of HAMMER can then be upgraded to the current
version quickly and easily. Just click the Check for Updates button on the toolbar to
launch your preferred Web browser and open our Web site. The Web site automati-
cally checks to see if your installed version is the latest available, and if not, it
provides you with the opportunity to download the correct upgrade to bring it up-to-
date. You can also access our Knowledgebase for answers to your Frequently Asked
Questions (FAQs).

For more information, see “Technical Support”.

HAMMER User's Guide 1-19

Installing HAMMER

1.3.15 Troubleshooting

Because of the multitasking capabilities of Windows, you may have applications

running in the background that make it difficult for software setup and installations to
determine the configuration of your current system. If you have difficulties during the
installation or uninstallation process, please try these steps before contacting our tech-
nical support staff:

1. Shut down and restart your computer.

2. Verify that there are no other programs running. You can see applications
currently in use by pressing Ctrl+Shift+Esc in Windows 2000 and Windows XP.
Exit any applications that are running.
3. Disable any antivirus software that you are running.

Caution: After you install HAMMER, make certain that you restart any
antivirus software you have disabled. Failure to restart your
antivirus software leaves you exposed to potentially
destructive computer viruses.

4. Try running the installation or uninstallation again (without running any other
program first).

If these three steps fail to successfully install or uninstall the product, contact our
Technical Support staff. For more information, see “Technical Support”.

Related Topic:

• “Updating Your SentinelLM Licenses if You Move Your License Server”

• “Updating Your Bentley SELECTserver Licenses if You Move Your License
Server”

Updating Your SentinelLM Licenses if You Move Your License

Server
If you move your SentinelLM license manager to a different server, following these
steps to update the licenses:

1. Install the license file on the new server as described in “Install the License File”
on page 1-12.
2. Replace the server name in the license.ini file on all client workstations with the
new server name (on the line containing “Server=”). Don’t forget to save the file
on each workstation. The license.ini file is usually located in the Haestad Method
product directory.

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 Orientation and Installation

Updating Your Bentley SELECTserver Licenses if You Move Your

License Server
If you move your Bentley SELECTserver license manager to a different server,
following these steps to update the licenses:

1. Obtain a new license file (license string) from Bentley Systems, then update the
license.lic file on the new server with the new license string as described in
“Install the License File”
2. Replace the server name in the license.lic file on all client workstations with the
new server name. Don’t forget to save the file on each workstation. The license.lic
file is usually located in the Haestad Method product directory.

1.4 Learning HAMMER

In addition to the online help and documentation, there are many ways to quickly learn
HAMMER:

• “Frequently Asked Questions—How Do I?” on page 1-21

• “Tutorials and Sample Projects” on page 1-21
• “Bentley Systems Workshops” on page 1-22

1.4.1 Frequently Asked Questions—How Do I?

“How Do I?” is an easily referenced topic in HAMMER’s online documentation. It is

a listing of commonly asked questions about HAMMER. To use it click Help > How
Do I? and a listing of topics will appear. Click the topic of your choice for a detailed
explanation.

1.4.2 Tutorials and Sample Projects

You can explore sample projects to investigate HAMMER’s capabilities further:

1. Select File > Open to access the Open Project File dialog box.
2. Choose hamsam??.hif (where ?? is a number) from the Samples directory and
click Open.

These are working models, so you can explore the systems and see how different
elements are modeled. First, calculate the system by using the GO button on the main
toolbar to see how the system behaves. Then, click Tools > Viewer > Graphics to
look at sample graphs (.grp) and animations (.ani).

HAMMER User's Guide 1-21

Contacting Bentley Systems About Haestad Methods Products

1.4.3 Bentley Systems Workshops

Bentley Systems offers a variety of workshops dealing with water-distribution

modeling topics. These provide theory, modeling insights, and hands-on practice with
software instruction. These workshops are held at various locations and discounted
pricing is available to purchasers of Bentley Systems software.

For more information about our workshops (such as instructors, schedules, pricing,
and locations), please contact our sales department or visit our Web site at http://
www.haestad.com for current workshop schedules and locations. We will be glad to
answer any questions you may have regarding the workshops and our other products
and services.

Bentley Systems offers a range of other training services including on-site, on-line,
and on-campus training. For detailed information on the availability of these options,
visit http://www.haestad.com/education.

1.5 Contacting Bentley Systems About Haestad

Methods Products
For information on contacting Bentley Systems, see:

• “Sales” on page 1-22

• “Technical Support” on page 1-23
• “Engineering Support” on page 1-24
• “Addresses” on page 1-24

1.5.1 Sales

Bentley Systems’ professional staff is ready to answer your questions. Please contact
your sales representative with any questions regarding Bentley Systems’ latest prod-
ucts and prices:

Phone: +1-203-755-1666

Fax: +1-203-597-1488

Email: [email protected]

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 Orientation and Installation

1.5.2 Technical Support

We hope that everything runs smoothly and you never have a need for our technical
support staff. However, if you do need support, our highly skilled staff offers their
services seven days a week and may be contacted by phone, fax, and the Internet. For
information on the various levels of support we offer, contact our sales team and
request information about our Bentley SELECT program.

When calling for support, in order to assist our technicians in troubleshooting your
problem, please be in front of your computer and have the following information:

• Operating system your computer is running (Windows 2000 or Windows XP).

• Name and build number of the Bentley Systems software. The build number can
be determined by clicking Help > About HAMMER. The build number is the
number in brackets located in the lower-left corner of the dialog box that opens.
• A note of exactly what you were doing when you encountered the problem.
• Any error messages or other information displayed on your screen.

When emailing or faxing for support, please provide additional details as follows so
we can provide a timely and accurate response:

• Company name, address, and phone number

• A detailed explanation of your concerns
• The forerr.log file located in the \Comp subfolder of the product directory

You can contact our support staff during the hours shown below:

Monday – Friday: 9:00 AM EST to 8:00 PM EST

Saturday – Sunday: 9:00 AM EST to 5:00 PM EST

Phone: +1-203-755-1666

Fax: +1-203-597-1488

Email: [email protected]

HAMMER User's Guide 1-23

Your Suggestions Count

1.5.3 Engineering Support

Technical-support questions pertain to the correct use of your HAMMER software's

features and capabilities. Engineering support is also available from Environmental
Hydraulics Group to help you develop particular surge control designs or written
recommendations. Consider engineering support whenever project requirements
exceed your in-house capabilities or the available staff time. In addition to Bentley
Systems training courses, project-specific coaching or collaborations can help you
reach the next level of expertise in hydraulic transients.

1.5.4 Addresses

Use this address information to contact us:

Internet http://www.haestad.com

Email: [email protected]

[email protected]

[email protected]

Phone: +1-203-755-1666

Fax: +1-203-597-1488

Bentley Systems, Incoporated

Haestad Methods Solutions Center
Suite 200 W
Mail:
27 Siemon Company Drive
Watertown, CT 06795
USA

1.6 Your Suggestions Count

At Bentley Systems, we strive to continually provide you with sophisticated software
and documentation. We are very interested in hearing your suggestions for improving
our products, our online help system and our printed manuals. Your feedback will
guide us in developing products that will make you more productive. Please let us hear
from you ([email protected])!

1-24 HAMMER User's Guide

 Chapter

HAMMER Main 2
Window

If you are already familiar with standard Microsoft Windows interfaces or other
Bentley Systems software, such as WaterCAD or WaterGEMS, you will find
HAMMER to be intuitive and comfortable. Even if you are not accustomed to
Windows, just a few minutes of exploring HAMMER should be enough to acquaint
yourself with its flexibility and power.

Note: You can also explore each component by moving the cursor
over it and then holding it still for a little while (i.e., hovering), to
display Tool Tip help text describing each particular item.

This section describes the program’s main windows, menus, toolbars, and online help
to let you use HAMMER quickly and efficiently.

2.1 Main Window Components

HAMMER has two alternative modes: Main Window or Modeler mode and Viewer
mode. In Modeler mode, you can assemble hydraulic models in the Main Window or
import them from other models or databases. In Viewer mode, you can display, anno-
tate and animate current (or previous) HAMMER simulation results as well as
generate and print tables and reports.

You will normally begin a new project using Modeler, but you can also run Viewer
separately if you only need to examine results or animations. To start HAMMER from
the start menu, select:

Start > All Programs > Haestad Methods > HAMMER > HAMMER

You can open the Viewer from within Modeler using Tools > Viewer > Graphics (for
graphs or animations) or Tools > Viewer > Output Database (for tables or reports).
You can also access FlexTables using Tools > FlexTables to work with input or
results. FlexTables can be also be customized and printed.

HAMMER has the following Main Window (Modeler) components:

HAMMER User's Guide 2-29

Main Window Components

• Menus, Tool Bar, and Status Bar

• Drawing and Element Panes

The Viewer Mode has the following components:

• Graphing and Annotation Tools and Shortcut Menus

• Animation Controller

2.1.1 Main Window: HAMMER Modeler

It is useful to keep HAMMER’s fundamental purpose in mind while exploring the

Main Window. HAMMER simulates hydraulic systems made of various hydraulic
elements (e.g., pipes or valves) connected together at particular end points (or nodes)
to form paths (also known as profiles in WaterCAD) and/or networks. The Main
Window is used to input element data and to specify the locations (points or paths) for
which output is required.

The following figure shows the areas of HAMMER’s Main Window (without showing
any model data):

Title bar
Element
Menus selector
pane
Tool bar
(buttons)
Drawing pane

Element
data pane

Status bar

The components of the Main Window are:

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 HAMMER Main Window

• Title Bar—The title bar for the Main Window displays the current folder and
input file name. If the file has been modified since it was last saved, the title bar
displays [Modified].
• Menus—Each menu item can be accessed from the keyboard by holding down
the Alt key and pressing the underlined letter on the menu. Some frequently used
commands can also be accessed using toolbar buttons or shortcut key combina-
tions. Shortcuts are invoked by holding down the Ctrl key and pressing the letter
shown to the right of some menu entries (e.g., Ctrl+S to save).
• Model and Element Toolbars—The left-hand-side buttons are used to manage
files and to set view and simulation parameters. Buttons used to set the display
(zoom, color-code), some of which are inactive prior to a run, are shown in the
middle. The right-hand-side buttons are used to select hydraulic elements to drop
onto the Drawing Pane.

Note: Individual buttons are provided for the two most common items
(node and link), followed by drop-down lists for each element
type: system boundaries (reservoir icon shown), control
equipment (orifice icon shown), protection equipment (air valve
icon shown), and rotating equipment (pump icon shown). For
more information, see “Overview of Hydraulic Element Properties”
on page 6-205.

• Drawing Pane—The Drawing Pane displays the hydraulic elements forming the
system to be analyzed. It is the main interactive area for creating elements, editing
their parameters, and mapping key results for each one. After selecting a suitable
background color, you can copy the contents of the current Drawing Pane view to
the Windows clipboard (using the camera button on the toolbar) to create figures
describing your system in your favorite graphics software.
• Display Tabs—Click the Properties tab to display properties of the currently-
selected hydraulic element.
a. Element Selector Pane—The element selector pane sorts elements alphabeti-
cally to help you find and select them easily. The drop-down list shows all
elements by default, but it can be restricted to display a single type of element,
such as pipes, nodes, system boundaries, control equipment, protection equip-
ment, or rotating equipment.
b. Element Data Pane—The element data pane provides a name, data-entry
field, and unit (if applicable) for each attribute of the currently selected
hydraulic element. The number and types of fields are different for each
hydraulic element.

• Status Bar—The Status Bar located along the bottom of HAMMER’s Main
Window displays useful information about the current state of your HAMMER
model, such as the cursor position, units, zoom percentage, display setting, and
whether the project file has been saved or computed recently.

HAMMER User's Guide 2-31

Main Window Components

2.1.2 Output Windows: HAMMER Viewer

During a hydraulic transient simulation, HAMMER calculates how three fundamental

and interrelated variables change over time: head (or pressure), flow (or velocity), and
volume (of air or vapor) at each particular point in the system. The HAMMER Viewer
displays the results of these calculations as graphs, animations, tables, and reports.

After a transient model has been run, select Tools > Viewer > Graphics from the
main menu to display the graphics Viewer.

The following figure shows the graphics Viewer after running a sample file. The
components of the HAMMER Viewer are:

• Title Bar—Similar to the Main window’s title bar but showing the output file
name. It can be toggled on and off within each graph window to maximize the
available display area.
• Menus—Similar to the Main window but showing only applicable commands.
• Paths—In HAMMER, a continuously connected pipe run is called a Path (red
label, top left in the viewer). This is analogous to a profile in WaterCAD. The
Viewer displays the number of interior points and the length of the current Path
from its start (From Point) to its end (To Point).
• Time Histories—In HAMMER, results at a point of interest are called a time
History (red label, middle left). The Viewer displays the number of time steps in
the current history and its location or end point.

Profile
control

Point
control

Select location Select output Select type

to display variables to of display
display

Looking from left to right, the Viewer allows you to select the locations (point histo-
ries or pipeline profiles) for which to display one or more of the result variables (head,
flow, or volume) as plots or animations:

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 HAMMER Main Window

• Clicking Plot automatically displays the selected variables on a graph so you can
annotate, save, and print it.
• Clicking Animate displays the selected variables on a graph and automatically
loads the compact Animation Controller so you can animate all on-screen
graphs. You can also save the screen layouts you prepare (as an .ani file) for use in
future presentations.

The components of the Animation Controller are:

Speed and
frame sliders

Play controls
Clock
Time (HH:MM:SSSS)
step

• Play Controls—Like other media devices, these controls let you play forward or
backward, stop, or advance by a single frame forward or backward.
• Menus—Similar to those on the Viewer but only showing applicable commands.
• Time Value—Shows the time step or frame for which results are currently
displayed onscreen for point histories or path (profile) graphs (not shown).
• Clock—The large, easy-to-read clock displays minutes, seconds, and hundredths
of a second. Transient pressure pulses can travel fast enough to require this degree
of simulation and display accuracy.
• Sliders—Control animation speed (in frames per second) and frame position.
Manipulate them during an animation to jump ahead or change speed.

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HAMMER Menus and Shortcut Menus

2.2 HAMMER Menus and Shortcut Menus

Although the toolbars and shortcut keys provide quick and easy access to commonly
used features, the menu system provides comprehensive access to HAMMER proper-
ties and behaviors. Since toolbar buttons and shortcut keys do not exist for all of these
features, the menus are a logical choice for exploring all areas of HAMMER. This
section will introduce you to the features you can access using the menus and the
corresponding toolbar buttons and shortcut keys (where available).

A typical HAMMER modeling project begins by laying out the system in the Main
Window (with dozens of menu and toolbar items) and ends by reviewing output using
the HAMMER Viewer or Animation Controller (with a minimum number of menu
and toolbar items). Note the following special features:

• The menus show only the options required to accomplish tasks or to access model
features which may be needed in the part of the program you are using.
• Nearly every item is available either from the main menu or from shortcut menus
opened by right-clicking items or graphs.
• Menus and title bars can be hidden to maximize the portion of the graph window
available for plots or animations. This is useful during presentations or for large
systems.

Commands are grouped under top-level menus:

• File Menu—manage projects and the resulting graphs and animations.

• Edit Menu—modify or annotate system data or graphs.
• View Menu—pan, zoom, and other graphic controls.
• Tools Menu—change settings or start the Viewer or Animation Controller.
• Help Menu—access online help or documentation.

2.2.1 File Menu

Certain menu commands are only available in HAMMER Modeler or Viewer mode.
Commands are grouped under several categories separated by horizontal bars in the
menu. For example, the file management category provides menu commands to
create, open, run, save, rename, and close files, as described in the following:

• New (Ctrl + N)—Creates a new project file and opens a dialog box where
you can select a drive, directory, and file name for your new project file.
• Open (Ctrl + O)—Loads an existing project file from disk. A dialog box
opens so you can choose the name and location of the file.

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• Close (Ctrl + F4)—Closes the current project file, but not the HAMMER
program, allowing you to load another project file.
• Save (Ctrl + S)—Saves the current project file to disk, overwriting any
previous version with the same name, if any. Remember to save often to
avoid losing your work if a problem occurs.
• Save As—Saves the current project file to disk under a different filename. A
dialog box will open prompting you to enter the drive, directory, and new file
name for your project.
• ProjectWise—Opens a submenu containing the followijg commands:
– Open—Open an existing SewerGEMS project from ProjectWise. You are
prompted to log into a ProjectWise datasource if you are not already logged
in.
– Save As—Saves the current project to a ProjectWise datasource. You are
prompted to log into a ProjectWise datasource if you are not already logged
in.
– Change Datasource—Lets you connect to a different ProjectWise datasource
for future Open and Save As operations.
– Options—Opens the ProjectWise Options dialog.

Note: For more information about using HAMMER with ProjectWise,

see “Considerations for ProjectWise Users” on page 4-169.

• Project Summary—Displays the Summary tab of the Project Options

dialog box. This information includes the project title, run duration, and
other data.
• Run (Ctrl + R)—Runs the HAMMER file that is currently open. A
dialog box prompts you to choose the name and location of the output
files and whether you want to generate animation data. You can also run a model
by right-clicking anywhere in the Drawing Pane and clicking Run, clicking
Compute (if it is currently displayed) on the Status bar, or using the GO button on
the toolbar.

The import – export category provides commands to exchange data with other appli-
cations, as follows:

• Import > Network—Imports network data from other hydraulic models such as
EPANET 2.0, Surge2000 (and PIPE 2000), and WaterCAD and WaterGEMS. You
may need to supply information not imported from these models prior to running
HAMMER.

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HAMMER Menus and Shortcut Menus

• Export > Network—Exports network data to the EPANET 2.0 steady-state

model.
• Export > Database—Exports a HAMMER input or output (results) file to a
Microsoft Access database in HAMMER datastore format, complete with
predefined, customizable tabular reports.

The utility category includes the print, recent files, and exit commands. These are
only available by right-clicking in a graph window.

• Page Setup—In HAMMER Viewer mode, in a graph, right-click and select Page
Setup to open a dialog to select the paper size, orientation, printer name, and the
page margins.
• Print—In HAMMER Viewer mode, in a graph, right-click and select Print to
print the contents of the current graph window. HAMMER does not currently
support printing from the Main Window, but it is possible to capture the contents
of the Drawing Pane and copy them to the Windows clipboard (click the Capture
Screen button).
• Exit (Alt + F4)—Closes the current project file and then closes HAMMER.

2.2.2 Edit Menu

The edit menu provides commands to select, locate, and modify network models and
their hydraulic elements. As with the File menu, menu commands are grouped into
categories separated by horizontal bars.

Note: Menu commands used in Modeler or Viewer mode are only

displayed in these modes. For example, commands used to
modify element data in Modeler mode are not shown in Viewer
mode to avoid a situation where input data does not correspond
to the output graphs and tables generated by HAMMER.

The cut and paste category includes the following menu commands, available in both
Modeler and Viewer modes, as follows:

• Cut (Ctrl + X)—Deletes the selected item or group of items and places it
on the Windows clipboard. This item can be pasted back into HAMMER or
other programs. You can also right-click any element and select Cut.
• Copy (Ctrl + C)—Copies the selected item or group of items and places it
on the Windows clipboard. This item can be pasted back into HAMMER or
other programs. You can also right-click any element and select Copy.

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• Paste (Ctrl + V)—Inserts the items on the Windows Clipboard into the
Drawing Pane at the current cursor position and selects them. The same
items can be pasted repeatedly to replicate similar pump suction and
discharge piping, for example. You can also right-click any location and select
Paste.
• Delete (Delete)—Deletes an item or group of items permanently. You can also
right-click any element and select Delete.

Note: You can select hydraulic elements in the Drawing Pane using the
Select toolbar button.

There are two ways to select a group of elements: clicking on

each item while holding down the Shift key or using a Selection
Window. To use a Selection Window, click and hold the left
mouse button, and move the cursor until the rectangle includes
the required items, and then let go of the button to select them.

The search and select category includes the following menu commands:

• Find (Ctrl + F)—Finds any type of element using its label or description and
selects it in the Drawing Pane. The find command is case sensitive.
• Find Next (F3)—Repeats a search to find any type of element using its label or
description.
• Select All (Ctrl + A)—Selects every element in the Drawing Pane. You can also
select or deselect individual elements using the mouse.

2.2.3 View Menu

• Pan—After clicking this toolbar icon, hold down the left mouse button to
move the drawing within the Drawing Pane.
• Zoom In (Ctrl + numpad +)—Enlarges the current view of the drawing
using the location you click as the center of the next view.
• Zoom Out (Ctrl + numpad -)—Reduces the current view of the drawing
using the location you click as the center of the next view
• Zoom To Area—This tool lets you select the corners of the area within the
drawing pane that you wish to enlarge. You can also click in any area of the
drawing pane to zoom into that location.
• Normalize Window—Resizes all symbols in the Drawing Pane to a conve-
nient size for the current window. These symbol sizes persist when the
zoom level changes.
• Zoom Extents—Resets the drawing pane zoom factor such that all
elements are displayed in the drawing pane.

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HAMMER Menus and Shortcut Menus

• Lock Drawing Pane—Toggles the Drawing Pane lock on or off. When the
Drawing Pane is locked, you can select hydraulic elements to modify their param-
eters or inspect their results, but you cannot change their coordinates using the
mouse. This is useful to prevent accidental movement or deletion of hydraulic
elements.
• Anti-Alias—Turns on (and off) the anti-aliasing feature to let you display lines
more smoothly.

2.2.4 Tools Menu

The external tool manager category includes the following menu items to start
external programs:

• Start WaterCAD/WaterGEMS—Starts the WaterCAD or WaterGEMS soft-

ware.
• Start EPANET—Starts the EPANET program identified in the File I/O tab in the
Global HAMMER options dialog box (Tools > Global HAMMER Options).
• Start Text Editor—Starts the text editor of your choice to review HAMMER
output text files (based on the path and executable identified in the File I/O tab in
the Global HAMMER Options).
• View Reports/Logs—Starts the text editor of your choice and loads the output
logs generated by HAMMER during each run. The report includes detailed point
histories and path output for key variables. The output log includes warnings and
errors as well as preselected output tables as the run progresses. The error log
includes messages only if HAMMER terminates abnormally.

The output manager category includes the following menu commands to compare
the results of different HAMMER project files:

• Viewer > Graphics—Opens a dialog box from which you can select a HAMMER
output, graph, or animation file to open using the graphics Viewer. The graphics
Viewer lets you generate graphs and animations from output files (.hof).
• Viewer > Output Database—Starts Microsoft Access and prompts you for a
HAMMER output database to open (defaults to the most recently completed run).
The predefined tabular and summary reports provide a quick understanding of
your results and they are fully customizable.

The output variable category provides menu commands to specify and work with
output to create graphs and animations.

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• Generate Animations—Generates the HAMMER output file (.hof) required to

view animations and automatically launches the Animation Controller. Since this
can be time consuming for large systems, this command allows you to defer this
step until you have already inspected summary output and graphics after a
successful HAMMER run.
• Animation Controller—Launches the Animation Controller, which allows you
to open current or previously generated HAMMER output files (.hof) or anima-
tion files (.ani) and view graphs and animations onscreen.
• Copy Paths—Copies paths from another HAMMER project file to the current
project file.
• Reset Results—Resets the results of the previous run and turns off color coding.
• Capture Screen—Copies the contents of the Drawing Pane to the
Windows clipboard. This is only available as a toolbar button.

The settings category includes the following menu commands to configure the
HAMMER workspace and runs:

• Global HAMMER Options—Opens a tabbed dialog box in which you specify

key HAMMER settings and options for colors, tool tips, default directories and
programs, and fonts. You can also right-click anywhere in the Drawing Pane and
select Global HAMMER Options.
• Project Options—Opens a tabbed dialog box in which you specify run-
specific settings and options including project summary, report points,
report times, report paths, and other preferences and options. You can also
right-click anywhere in the Drawing Pane and select Project Options.
• FlexUnits—Opens a dialog box in which you can globally change the units used
in HAMMER for specific attributes. You can also right-click anywhere in the
Drawing Pane and select FlexUnits.
• FlexTables—Opens the FlexTable Table Manager dialog box in which you can
globally change the information displayed by each FlexTable. FlexTables are also
available from the toolbar button.
• Update 4 Quadrant Data—Imports 4 quadrant pump or turbine curves from an
XML format (documented in Appendix B) and makes them available for
HAMMER simulations.
• Merge Pipes—Opens a dialog box in which you can globally merge pipes
together provided they have similar diameters, pressure wave speeds and are not
located at a local high point.

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HAMMER Menus and Shortcut Menus

2.2.5 Help Menu

The Help menu contains online documentation for HAMMER, and includes the infor-
mation contained in the printed documentation as well as updated information and
built-in tutorials. The following menu items can also be accessed from the Help menu.

• Contents (F1)—Opens the Table of Contents for the online help. For more
information, see “Using the Online Help, Online Book, and Help Pane” on
page 2-47.
• Index—Opens the online help at the index.
• Search—Opens the online help at the search tab.
• Release Notes—Provides the latest information on the current version of
HAMMER. Like a README file, it includes information about new features,
tips, performance tuning, and other general information.
• Services—Opens an Internet browser to Haestad Methods’ Web site or a local
page that provides an overview of the services and products offered by Bentley
Systems (including training) and EHG. The local page, accessed by selecting
Contents, provides links to frequently updated Haestad Methods Internet sites.

The introduction to HAMMER category provides access to resources for learning

HAMMER:

• Welcome Dialog—Displays the Welcome dialog box.

• Using HAMMER—Opens a help topic that describes the different ways you can
learn about HAMMER.
• How Do I?—Provides instructions for tasks commonly performed within the
program, as well as frequently asked questions.

The notices category provides access to the most up-to-date information about
HAMMER:

• Check For Updates—Connects to http://www.haestad.com to check for updates.

• About HAMMER—Opens a dialog box displaying product and registration
information. (For more information, see “Checking Your Current Registration
Status” on page 1-20.)

2.2.6 Format Graph Shortcut Menu

These menu commands are only available from within the HAMMER Viewer. Open
this menu by right-clicking on a graph axis.

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 HAMMER Main Window

The formatting category includes the following menu commands to format the
contents of the output variable graphs (in Viewer) to obtain report-ready figures:

• Format Graph—Opens a dialog to select the axis titles and labels, major and
minor grid lines, tick marks, background color, and outline style.
• Format Data—Opens a dialog to select the line type, color, and thickness for
each output variable (head, flow, or volume) displayed in the current graph. For
the currently selected output variable, you can specify an offset value to create a
new line parallel to it; for example, to show a pipeline’s surge pressure tolerance.
You can also limit your formatting selections to a Line Segment, to show
different pipe materials along a pipeline, for example.

Note: A Line Segment is a portion of the dependent variable (head,

flow, or volume) bounded by two user-selected values of the
independent variable (on the x-axis). You can subdivide output
variables into several Line Segments.

• Format Shades—Opens a dialog to create and modify Differential Shades

between any two output variables (head, flow, or volume). You can select the
color and opacity of each Differential Shade. You can toggle each Differential
Shade on or off to improve animation performance or to reduce the size of a graph
when printing to a file.
• Copy Settings—Copies the settings for the current graph to the Windows clip-
board.
• Paste Settings—Modifies the current graph using the settings previously copied
to the Windows clipboard.
• Copy Symbols—Copies all symbols in the current graph pane to the Windows
clipboard.
• Paste Symbols—Pastes the symbols previously copied to the Windows clipboard
into the current graph pane.

The edit category includes the following menu commands:

• Copy Data—Copies the output variable line data shown in the current graph pane
so you can paste it into another graph.
• Paste Data (–)—Clears the contents of the current graph pane, then pastes the
output variable line data previously copied to the Windows clipboard into the
current graph pane.
• Paste Data (+)—Pastes the output variable line data previously copied to the
Windows clipboard into the current graph pane so you can compare the results of
two HAMMER project files. All results are displayed at the correct scale using the
units set for the graph.

HAMMER User's Guide 2-41

HAMMER Menus and Shortcut Menus

The draw category includes the following menu commands, which are available in
the Viewer only:

• Draw Lines—Draws vertical, horizontal, or diagonal lines and allows you to

specify their line type, color, and thickness.
• Draw Text—Allows you to enter vertical or horizontal text labels.
• Draw Symbols—Displays a graphical list of hydraulic symbols you can insert
into the current graph pane.

The node symbols category includes the following menu commands, which are avail-
able in the Viewer only:

• Set Symbol Size—Sets the symbol size for nodes.

• Set Text Size—Sets the size of node labels.
• Show/Hide Labels—Shows or hides node labels.
• Show/Hide Junctions—Shows or hides junctions.
• Show/Hide Consumptions—Shows or hides consumptions.

2.2.7 Format Display Shortcut Menu

These menu commands are only available from within the HAMMER Viewer by
right-clicking anywhere except the graph axes.

• FlexUnits—Opens the FlexUnits manager, from which you can select the units of
measurement, display precision, and whether or not to use scientific notation.
Please note that changes made to FlexUnits take effect throughout the current
HAMMER project.

The graph display category includes the following menu commands to adapt the
appearance of each graph for use on-screen or as a printed figure:

• Show Frame (Ctrl + F)—Toggles the display of the frames that convert an on-
screen plot to a report-ready figure, complete with your company logo, project
number, date, and a title block.
• Page View (Ctrl + V)—Toggles the display of the page outline to help you visu-
alize how it will look after printing. With HAMMER figures, what you see is what
you get (WYSIWYG) so there is no need for a print preview command.

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• Lock Aspect Ratio (Ctrl + L)—Toggles the display of the frames between figure
format, in which the length and width are scaled to the paper size, and on-screen
format, for which you can set the length and width by dragging the corner of the
graph window.
• Show Title Bar (Ctrl + T)—Toggles the display of the graph window’s title bar.
Turn title bars off to maximize the display area; for example, when animating.

The print and save category includes the following menu commands to specify
printing options:

• Page Setup—Opens a dialog box in which you can select a printer, set page orien-
tation, and set margin widths.
• Print (Ctrl + P)—Prints the current graph according to the graph display options
currently shown in the graph window.
• Save (Ctrl + S)—Saves the current graph file to disk, overwriting any previous
version of the same name. Remember to save your work often.
• Save As—Saves the current graph file to disk under a different filename. A dialog
box prompts you to enter the drive, directory, and new file name.

The data sources category includes the following menu commands to specify or
modify data sources:

• Set Data From—Opens an .rpt file and plots the selected variables in the current
graph window, after deleting the current graph contents.
• Add Data From—Opens an .rpt file and plots the selected variables in the current
graph window, without deleting the current graph contents. Useful for comparing
the results of two similar HAMMER projects.
• Close (Ctrl + F4)—Closes the current graph window without saving its contents.

HAMMER User's Guide 2-43

Using the Online Help, Online Book, and Help Pane

2.3 Using the Online Help, Online Book, and

Help Pane
HAMMER provides two ways to get help: the Online Book and Online Help, which
can be updated and be available for download with new product releases.

2.3.1 Online Book (pdf)

Note: On-screen display of graphics in .pdf files is dependent on the

zoom level you use. For better viewing of graphics in Adobe
Acrobat Reader, try using 167% and 208% zoom.

HAMMER includes an Adobe Acrobat online book (.pdf) in the installation directory.
The online book is designed so that you can view it on screen or print page ranges.
Use the bookmarks, index, and search in the Adobe Acrobat Reader to find the topic
you want.

2.3.2 Online Help

For help menu commands, see “Help Menu” on page 2-42.

“Checking Your Current Registration Status” on page 1-20To open the online help for
browsing, select Help > Contents. Use the table of contents or index or perform a
search to locate the information you need. You can also save a list of favorite help
topics for quick reference.

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 HAMMER Main Window

Click Hide/Show to
hide or show the
Contents tab

HAMMER User's Guide 2-45

Using the Online Help, Online Book, and Help Pane

Online Help Index

Use the Index tab to search the online help index. For most searches, the index
provides results more efficiently than the Search tab.

Type the
Click a topic and click Click a Related Topic
keyword you
Display to display the button to see and
want to find
selected topic select topics related to
the current one

To use the index:

1. Type the word (called keywords) you want to find.

2. Select the topic you want to see and click Display. The topic you selected displays
in the help window. Keywords are highlighted.
3. If your keyword pertains to more than one topic, you are prompted to select the
topic you want. Click the topic to select it and click Display.

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Online Help Search

Use the Search tab to search for all instances of a word or words in the help system.

• If you enter more than one word, the online help will return only those topics that
contain all of the words you enter, though those topics might not have the words
all together or in the order you specify.
• If you enter more than one word inside quotation marks, the online help search
returns only topics with the complete phrase as typed.

To search for words:

1. Type the words (called keywords) you want to find.

2. Click List Topics.
3. Click the topic you want to highlight it.
4. Click Display. The topic you selected displays in the help window; keywords are
highlighted.

HAMMER User's Guide 2-47

Using the Online Help, Online Book, and Help Pane

Keywords
are
highlighted
in the text

Type the keywords you

want to find and click
List Topics
Click a topic and click
Display to display the
selected topic

Online Help Favorites

You can use the Favorites tab to create a list of topics you frequently use.

• Click the Add button in the Favorites tab to add the current topic to your list of
favorites.
• Click Display to display the contents of the selected favorite topic in the help
window.
• Click Remove to remove the selected favorite topic from the Favorites tab.

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Click Add to add the

current topic to the
Favorites tab

If you want to print part of the online help, consider opening the online book, which is
set up for printing.

Online Help Topics

Online help topics can be navigated by using hypertext and Related Topics.

Hypertext: Hypertext is underlined blue text that is clickable.

Clicking hypertext displays the destination topic for
that hypertext link. Click Back to return to your
location before you clicked the hypertext.
Related Topics: Related Topics is a button that displays at the end of
some help topics. If there is more than one related
topic, click the button to see a list of the related
topics. This list is hypertext. You can click an item in

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Using the Online Help, Online Book, and Help Pane

the list to display the related topic. If there is only

one related topic, click the button to display that
related topic. Click Back to return to where you were
before you clicked the hypertext.

Click the Related Topic

button to see and
Click Back to return select topics related to
to the previous help the current one
topic

Navigation Arrows
In addition to the standard HTML Help navigation tools, HAMMER online help
includes forward and backward arrows at the bottom-left of every topic that let you
navigate sequentially through the online help file. While the online book (.pdf) is
better suited to this kind of navigation, these buttons may be particularly helpful if you
are reviewing the HAMMER lessons online (for more information, see “Quick Start
Lessons” on page 3-105).

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Navigation buttons at
the bottom-left of every
topic

2.4 Hammer Dialog Boxes

HAMMER provides dialog boxes for the following items:

• “Project Options” on page 2-51

• “Run Dialog Box” on page 2-58
• “Expanded Run Dialog Box” on page 2-59
• “WaterCAD/WaterGEMS Import Dialog Box” on page 2-60
• “Import EPANET File Dialog Box” on page 2-63
• “Import Surge 2000 File Dialog Box” on page 2-64
• “Search Dialog Box” on page 2-78
• “FlexUnits Dialog Box” on page 2-79
• “Color Mapping Box” on page 2-80
• “Color Map Settings Dialog Box” on page 2-81
• “Choose Color Dialog Box” on page 2-83
• “Global HAMMER Options Dialog Box” on page 2-84
• “HAMMER Viewer Dialog Box” on page 2-89

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Hammer Dialog Boxes

• “Animation Control Dialog Box” on page 2-90

• “Font Dialog Box” on page 2-91
• “Copy Paths Dialog Box” on page 2-91
• “Image Settings Dialog Box” on page 2-92

2.4.1 Project Options

The Project Options dialog box includes the following tabs:

• “Summary” on page 2-51

• “Report Points” on page 2-52
• “Report Times” on page 2-53
• “Report Paths” on page 2-54
• “Preferences” on page 2-55
• “Display Options” on page 2-57
• “Steady State Run” on page 7-265

Summary
The summary tab lets you set the system parameters.

Title: Description of the model.

Run Duration: Period of time simulated by the model.
Time: Choose steps or seconds for modeling time.
Specific Gravity: Comparison of a substance’s density to the density of
water.
Pressure Wave Speed: Speed for the liquid being conveyed, the pipe
material selected and its dimension ratio (DR),
bedding, and other factors.
Vapor Pressure: Pressure below which a liquid changes phase and
become a gas (steam for water), at a given
temperature and elevation.

For more information, see “Project Setup” on page 4-178.

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Click the ellipsis

buttons to
access the liquid
library

Report Points
Report: Report by All Points, Specific Points, or No Points.
Specific Points: Report for points that you manually specify.
System: Contains elements you do not necessarily want in
your report.
Click the < > move buttons to move selected
elements between the System and Report columns.
Ctrl+click or Shift+click to select more than one
element at a time.
Report: Contains those elements that you want in your report.

For more information, see “Project Setup” on page 4-178.

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Hammer Dialog Boxes

Report Times

Note: The length of time steps is based on the start time, end time, and
number of steps in a simulation. To see the actual time step
used, click Tools > View Reports/Logs > Latest Output Log.

Report Times have no units, since these refer to steps in an

iterative solution.

Report Periodically: Report at equal intervals of time (default).

Report Specific Times: Specify report for selected time steps. Start time
denotes the initial time step limit for reporting, Max
time denotes the final time step for reporting.
Click the < > move buttons to move selected time
steps between the System and Report columns.
Ctrl+click or Shift+click to select more than one
element at a time.
Time steps in the System column are excluded from
the report; those in the Report column are included.
Report All Times: Reports the result for all time steps.
Report No Times: No report based on time steps.
Period: Period denotes the number of simulation time steps
between consecutive-output data (if Report
Periodically is selected).

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For more information, see “Project Setup” on page 4-178.

Report Paths
Before you select Project Options > Report Paths to add a path, look at the network
and write down the names of the pipes you want in that path on a piece of paper. These
pipes must be connected (i.e., no gaps). Once you start entering pipes, HAMMER
prompts you with the available pipes at each junction, to ensure connectivity.

Report Path: A continuously-connected pipe run is called a path

(or profile in WaterCAD).
Set the paths to be included in the report using the
Add Path, Remove Path, Rename Path, and Show
Path buttons.
Add Path: Lets you add a continuously-connected pipe run.
Remove Path: Lets you delete a continuously-connected pipe run.
Rename Path: Lets you change the name for a path.
Show Path: Lists the elements in the connected pipe run, selects
them in the Drawing Pane and zooms in.
Pipeline Profile: Displays the elevation profile of the pipeline for the
selected path.
System Pipes: Lists the pipes available for inclusion in a path.

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Report Pipes: Lists the pipes in the path that are included in the
report.
Valid Path: Shown in green, indicates the pipes follow a logical
sequence and constitute a valid path.
Fix Path: Shown in red, indicates the pipes sequence is
incorrect.

For more information, see “Project Setup” on page 4-178.

Preferences
Initial Flow Consistency Value: Flow changes that exceed the specified value are
listed in the output log as a location at which water
hammer occurs as soon as simulation begins. The
default value is 0.02 cfs.
Initial Head Consistency Value: Head changes that exceed the specified value are
listed in the output log as a location at which water
hammer occurs as soon as simulation begins. The
default value is 0.1 ft.
Friction Coefficient Criterion: For pipes whose Darcy-Weisbach friction coefficient
exceeds this criterion, an asterisk appears beside the
coefficient in the pipe information table in the output
log. The default value is 0.02.

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Decrement in All Pipe Elev: Decreases the elevation of each pipe by the amount
specified. Use a negative value to raise the pipes. By
default, elevations are not adjusted. (Permissible
units are m and ft.)
Show Extreme Heads After: Sets the time to start output of the maximum and
minimum heads for a run. You can set these to show
beginning at time = 0 (right away), after the first
maximum or minimum, or after a specified time
delay.
Report History after Time: Set the time at which reporting begins. The default
value is 0.02.
Transient Friction Method: Select Steady, Quasi-Steady, or Unsteady friction
method to be used for transient calculations. For
more information, see “Selecting the Friction
Method” on page 4-183.

For more information, see “Selecting the Friction Method” on page 4-183.

Click the ellipsis

button to access
the liquid library

Report Options
Enable Text Reports: Toggles the generation of ASCII output text files on
or off. These can become voluminous for simulations
with many time steps and they are not required for
the operation of the FlexTables or graphics. Some
users prefer to set this setting to False.

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Show Standard Output Log: Toggles the standard output file (as above).
Show Pockets Opening/Closing: Toggles whether the list of vapor pockets open and
close times will be appended to the output text file.
Max. Char. Output: Sets the number of characters to output for labels.
Extended CAV: Toggles the standard or extended Combination Air
Valve (CAV) sub-model. The vacuum breaker
component of CAV admit air into the pipeline during
low transient pressures that is subsequently expelled
at the outlet orifice(s). The extended model tracks
momentum more accurately.

Display Options
Display options lets you set the appearance of HAMMER.You can toggle the display
of pipes, nodes and labels and set their relative size and font. You can also choose
whether to show the interior points used by HAMMER during the simulation.

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2.4.2 Run Dialog Box

The Run dialog box lets you control the output created by a HAMMER calculation.
For more information, see “File Menu” on page 2-36.

Browse: Click Browse to navigate to the folder where you

want to store the generated files.
File Name: Type the filename you want to use for output.
Generate Animation Data: Select this check box to generate animation data for
selected report paths and points.
Generate Output Database: Select this check box to generate an output database.
Calculate Transient Forces: Select this check box to calculate transient forces.
Full: Select a Full Type of Run to create a simulation with
specified conditions and parameters.
Data Check: Select a Data Check Type of Run to quickly validate
your model. This lets you check for data-entry errors
and modeling problems without committing to a
lengthy run calculation.

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Hammer Dialog Boxes

Click Time Step to display an expanded version of this dialog showing the time step
suggested by HAMMER and the adjustments to lengths or wavespeeds it requires. See
“Expanded Run Dialog Box” on page 2-59 for more information.

2.4.3 Expanded Run Dialog Box

Click Time Step in the Run dialog to display an expanded version of the dialog, which
shows the time step suggested by HAMMER and the adjustments to lengths or
wavespeeds it requires. You can use the following dialog to select your own time step:

Update: Click Update to lauch the HAMMER engine and

obtain the adjustment statistics described below.
Default: Click Default to reset the time step and adjustment
method to the one initially suggested by HAMMER.
XXX Adjustment: Statistics showing the (XXX) Maximum, Mean and
Root-Mean-Square (RMS) adjustments to length or
wavespeed for the time step displayed above.
Adjust Length or Wave Speed: Select one or the other as indicated by your modeling
objectives. Length is the default method. Wave speed
may result in faster but accurate simulations of mass
oscillation (slow transients).
Type of Adjustment: Select Absolute (e.g. length or wave speed) or
relative (e.g. percentage) reporting method.
HAMMER will use this setting to display the
adjustments that correspond to the selected time step.
Max. Adjustment to YY: Select the maximum adjustment to YY (L or a), over
which a message will be printed in the top of the first
page of the output log.

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2.4.4 WaterCAD/WaterGEMS Import Dialog Box

Use this dialog box to import model data and steady-state results from WaterCAD or
WaterGEMS into HAMMER. For more information, see “Part 1—Importing and Veri-
fying the Initial Steady-States” on page 3-143.

File > Open: Click File > Open or click the Ellipsis (…) button to
select the WaterCAD or WaterGEMS database
(.mdb) file you want to import. The path and
filename of what you import displays in the Project
field.
Scenario: If the project you are importing has more than one
scenario, use the drop-down menu to select the
scenario that you want to analyze in HAMMER.
Units: Select the units you want to use for the project.
(Permissible units are cfs, ft. and cms, m.)
Time Step: Select the time step you want to use.
Create HAMMER Input File: Click Create HAMMER Input File to create a
HAMMER file from your WaterCAD/GEMS project.
After you click Create HAMMER Input File, the
Save dialog box opens to let you save an .hif file. The
default file name is created as:
ProjectName_Scenario_TimeStep.inp. If the file
already exists in the destination directory, you are

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asked if you want to overwrite the file. If you do not

want to overwrite the file, a save dialog box appears
in which you can specify a file name to save. You can
type any filename you want to use and you can later
rename this file, if you want, either in Windows
explorer or by using File > Save as from within
HAMMER.
Steady State/Extended Period: If you have selected Extended Period, a set of
extended period options become available for
editing. These are Start Time, Duration, and
Hydraulic Time Step. Otherwise, HAMMER uses
steady-state for the basis of calculations.
Start Time: Set the beginning time for the analysis.
Duration: Set how long the analysis lasts.
Hydraulic Time Step: Set the increments over which the model will be
measured.
Run Simulation: Click Run Simulation to run the Steady State or
Extended Period scenario that you imported.

Table 2-1: Element Conversions from WaterObjects to HAMMER

WaterCAD/WaterGEMS HAMMER Equivalence

Junctions
Junction with positive demand Consumption

Junction with negative demand Reservoir

Junction with zero demand (0 or 1 branches) Dead end

Junction with zero demand (2+ branches) Junction

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Table 2-1: Element Conversions from WaterObjects to HAMMER (Cont’d)

WaterCAD/WaterGEMS HAMMER Equivalence

Tanksa
Tank (variable-area) Variable-area surge tank

Tank (constant-area) Simple surge tank

Pipes
Pipe Pipe

Reservoirs
Reservoir Reservoir

Pumps
Constant-speed, between 2 pipes – no pump
Pump (constant-power pump curve)
curve

Constant-speed, between 2 pipes – pump

Pump (design-point – 1 point)
curve

Constant-speed, between 2 pipes – pump

Pump (standard – 3 point)
curve

Constant-speed, between 2 pipes – pump

Pump (standard-extended)
curve

Constant-speed, between 2 pipes – pump

Pump (custom-extended)
curve

Constant-speed, between 2 pipes – pump

Pump (multiple-point)
curve

Valves
PRV (pressure-reducer valve) Valve of various types between 2 pipes

PSV (pressure-sustaining valve) Valve of various types between 2 pipes

PBV (pressure-breaker valve) Orifice between 2 pipes

FCV (flow-control valve) Valve of various types between 2 pipes

TCV (throttle-control valve) Orifice between 2 pipes

GPV (general-purpose valve) Orifice between 2 pipes

a. You can convert any surge tank to a reservoir (either representation is hydraulically correct) if
the liquid level of the surge tank will not change due to transient inflows or outflows.

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2.4.5 Import EPANET File Dialog Box

The Import EPANET File dialog box lets you to choose the EPANET input and report
files you import into an existing or a new HAMMER file. Because HAMMER needs
steady-state run results, including flow values, to calculate transients, the EPANET
report file is required. For more information, see “Importing/Exporting EPANET
v.2.0” on page 4-174.

• EPANET Report File—Browse to select an .rpt file. The .rpt file is generated by
developing a report on an EPANET model run in the EPANET editor.
• EPANET Network File—Browse to select an .inp file. The .inp file is generated
by exporting an EPANET .net file to a network .inp file.
• Output HAMMER File—Browse to select the name of the new hammer file
(*.hif) to which the data is transferred from the EPANET files.
• Mode—Lets you select whether the file to which EPANET data is being written is
a new file or existing file that you want to update.
• Existing Hammer File—Browse to select the name of the existing hammer file
(.hif) to which the data is transferred from the EPANET files. To enable this selec-
tion, you must first set Mode to Update.
• Recent Imports—Lists the files recently imported from EPANET.
• Import—Imports the file chosen.
• Close—Closes the dialog box without importing any files.

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2.4.6 Import Surge 2000 File Dialog Box

The Import Surge 2000 File dialog box lets you to choose the Surge files you import
into a HAMMER file. For more information, see “Surge to HAMMER Field-to-Field
Conversion” on page 2-65 and “Importing PIPE2000 or Surge2000” on page 4-176.

• Surge Output File—Browse to select the output file generated by Surge (.OT2).
• Surge Input File—Browse to select the input file generated by Surge (.DT2).
• Output Hammer File—Browse to select the name of the HAMMER file (.hif) to
which surge information will be written.
• Import—Imports the file into HAMMER.
• Close—Closes the dialog box without importing anything.

Surge to HAMMER Field-to-Field Conversion

Consider the following when converting to HAMMER from Surge 2000.

• “Bladder Surge Tank (Surge) to Gas Vessel (HAMMER)” on page 2-65

• “Closed Surge Tank (Surge) to Gas Vessel (HAMMER)” on page 2-67
• “One-Way Open-Surge Tank (Surge) to Simple-Surge Tank (HAMMER)” on
page 2-68
• “Open-Surge Tank (Surge) to Simple Surge Tank (HAMMER)” on page 2-69
• “Pressure Valve (Surge) to SAV/SRV (HAMMER)” on page 2-70
• “Rupture Disk (Surge) to Rupture Disk (HAMMER)” on page 2-72
• “Single-Stage Air-Vacuum Valve (Surge) to Air Valve (HAMMER)” on page 2-73
• “Surge-Anticipation Valve (Surge) to SAV/SRV (HAMMER)” on page 2-74
• “Two-Stage Air-Vacuum Valve (Surge) to Air Valve (HAMMER)” on page 2-76
• “Three-Stage Air-Vacuum Valve (Surge) to Air Valve (HAMMER)” on page 2-77

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Bladder Surge Tank (Surge) to Gas Vessel (HAMMER)

Table 2-2: Surge—Bladder Surge Tank

Code Description Units

x1 Diameter m, ft

x2 Initial fluid level m, ft

x3 Initial gas volume m3, ft3

x4 Expansion constant none

x5 Set pressure or head m, ft

x6 Inflow resistance none

x7 Outflow resistance none

Table 2-3: HAMMER—Gas Vessel

Code Description Units

y1 Diameter of orifice or throat mm, in

y2 Initial volume of gas or tank volume m3, ft3

y3 Exponent of gas law none

y4 Ratio of losses none

y5 Headloss coefficient (outflow) none

y6 Bladder yes/no

y7 Tank volume m3, ft3

y8 Preset pressure m, ft

Table 2-4: Mappings

Code Map

y1 x1

y2 x3

y3 x4

y4 x6 / x7

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Table 2-4: Mappings

Code Map

y5 x7

y6 Yes

y7 x3

y8 x5

• X2 is not used, since HAMMER does not track tank geometry of liquid level.

Closed Surge Tank (Surge) to Gas Vessel (HAMMER)

Table 2-5: Surge—Closed Surge Tank

Code Description Units

x1 Diameter m, ft

x2 Initial fluid level m, ft

x3 Initial gas volume m3,ft3

x4 Gas expansion constant none

x5 Inflow resistance m, ft

x6 Outflow resistance none

Table 2-6: HAMMER—Gas Vessel

Code Description Units

y1 Diameter of orifice or throat mm, in

y2 Initial volume of gas or tank volume m3, ft3

y3 Exponent of gas law none

y4 Ratio of losses none

y5 Headloss coefficient (outflow) none

y6 Bladder yes/no

y7 Tank volume m3, ft3

y8 Preset pressure m, ft

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Hammer Dialog Boxes

Table 2-7: Mappings

Code Map

y1 x1

y2 x3

y3 x4

y4 x5 / x6

y5 x6

y6 No

y7 n/a

y8 n/a

• X2 is not used, since HAMMER does not track tank geometry of liquid level.

One-Way Open-Surge Tank (Surge) to Simple-Surge Tank (HAMMER)

Table 2-8: Surge—One-Way Open Surge Tank

Code Description Units

x1 Diameter m, ft

x2 Maximum fluid level m, ft

x3 Inflow resistance none

x4 Outflow resistance none

x5 Check-valve resistance N, lb

x6 Check-valve time sec.

Table 2-9: HAMMER—Simple Surge Tank

Code Description Units

y1 Initial water level m, ft

y2 Diameter mm, in

y3 Diameter of orifice mm, in

y4 Elevation of top of tank m, ft

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Table 2-9: HAMMER—Simple Surge Tank

Code Description Units

y5 Check valve installed yes/no

y6 Ratio of losses none

y7 Headloss coefficient (outflow) none

y8 Weir coefficient n/a

Table 2-10: Mappings

Code Map

y1 n/a x2

y2 x1

y3 n/a

y4 n/a x2

y5 Yes

y6 x3 / x4

y7 x4

y8 n/a

• X5 and X6 are not used, since HAMMER does not account for check-valve resistance.

Open-Surge Tank (Surge) to Simple Surge Tank (HAMMER)

Table 2-11: Surge—Open Surge Tank

Code Description Units

x1 Diameter m, ft

x2 Maximum fluid level m, ft

x3 Inflow resistance none

x4 Outflow resistance none

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Table 2-12: HAMMER—Simple Surge Tank

Code Description Units

y1 Initial water level m, ft

y2 Diameter mm, in

y3 Diameter of orifice mm, in

y4 Elevation of top of tank m, ft

y5 Check valve installed yes/no

y6 Ratio of losses none

y7 Headloss coefficient (outflow) none

y8 Weir coefficient n/a

Table 2-13: Mappings

Code Map

y1 n/a

y2 x1

y3 n/a

y4 x2

y5 No

y6 x3 / x4

y7 x4

y8 n/a

• HAMMER can track tank-overflow rate using y4 and y8, but Surge does not.

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Pressure Valve (Surge) to SAV/SRV (HAMMER)

Table 2-14: Surge—Pressure-Relief Valve

Code Description Units

x1 Opening pressure kPa, psi

x2 Opening time sec.

x3 Closing pressure kPa, psi

x4 Closing time sec.

x5 External head m, ft

x6 Sensing node none

x7 Inflow resistance none

x8 Outflow resistance none

Table 2-15: HAMMER—SAV/SRV

Code Description Units

y1 Type of valve SAV/SRV…

y2 SAV Diameter mm, in

y3 SRV Diameter mm, in

y4 SAV threshold pressure m, ft

y5 SRV threshold pressure m, ft

y6 SAV open time sec.

y7 SAV fully-open time sec.

y8 SAV closing time sec.

y9 Type of SAV needle …

y10 SAV Cv at full opening n/a

y11 SRV spring constant n/a

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Table 2-16: Mappings

Code Map

y1 SRV

y2 n/a

y3 n/a

y4 n/a

y5 x1

y6 n/a

y7 n/a

y8 n/a

y9 n/a

y10 n/a

y11 n/a

• HAMMER SRV uses a spring constant, y11, not a pre-set opening time, x2. For the same
reason, there is no need for x3 and x4; the spring closes the valve.

• x5, external head, is not used in HAMMER. Instead, connect SRV to suction piping (the default
connection is to atmosphere).

• x6, x7, and x8 are not used in HAMMER. HAMMER assumes the valve is piloted locally, so
there is no need to describe losses in a sensing line.

Rupture Disk (Surge) to Rupture Disk (HAMMER)

Table 2-17: Surge—Rupture Disk

Code Description Units

x1 Opening pressure kPa, psi

x2 Inflow resistance none

x3 Outflow resistance none

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Table 2-18: HAMMER—Rupture Disk

Code Description Units

y1 Typical flow m3/sec., cfs

y2 Pressure m, ft

y3 Threshold pressure m, ft

Table 2-19: Mappings

Code Map

y1 n/a

y2 n/a

y3 x1

• x2 and x3 are not used because HAMMER assumes connecting lines are not limiting, unless
you model them as such using small diameter pipes. HAMMER has y1 and y2 that can be used
to account for the orifice and those two connecting pipes, if any.

• Surge does not appear to have a Cv or other flow-versus-pressure-drop coefficient.

Single-Stage Air-Vacuum Valve (Surge) to Air Valve (HAMMER)

Table 2-20: Surge—Single-Stage Air-Vacuum Valve

Code Description Units

x1 Outflow diameter mm, in

x2 Outflow diameter mm, in

x3 Initial air volume m3, ft3

Table 2-21: HAMMER—Air Valve

Code Description Units

y1 Initial air volume m3, ft3

y2 Outflow diameter (< TV) mm, in

y3 Transition volume m3, ft3

y4 Outflow diameter (≥ TV) mm, in

y5 Inflow diameter mm, in

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Table 2-22: Mappings

Code Map

y1 x3

y2 x1 (=x2)

y3 n/a

y4 x1 (=x2)

y5 x1 (=x2)

Surge-Anticipation Valve (Surge) to SAV/SRV (HAMMER)

Table 2-23: Surge—Surge-Anticipation Valve

Code Description Units

x1 Opening pressure kPa, psi

x2 Opening time sec.

x3 Full-open time sec.

x4 Closing time sec.

x5 External head m, ft

x6 Sensing node none

x7 Inflow resistance none

x8 Outflow resistance none

Table 2-24: HAMMER—SAV/SRV

Code Description Units

y1 Type of valve SAV/SRV…

y2 SAV Diameter mm, in

y3 SRV Diameter mm, in

y4 SAV threshold pressure m, ft

y5 SRV threshold pressure m, ft

y6 SAV open time sec.

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Table 2-24: HAMMER—SAV/SRV

Code Description Units

y7 SAV fully-open time sec.

y8 SAV closing time sec.

y9 Type of SAV needle …

y10 SAV Cv at full opening n/a

y11 SRV spring constant n/a

Table 2-25: Mappings

Code Map

y1 SAV

y2 n/a

y3 n/a

y4 x1

y5 n/a

y6 x2

y7 x3

y8 x4

y9 n/a

y10 n/a

y11 n/a

• x5, external head, is not used in HAMMER. Instead, SAV is‘connected‘to atmosphere) by
default. This is often similar to the head in the suction system at a reservoir.
• x6, sensing node, is not used in HAMMER. Instead, HAMMER assumes that the valve is
piloted locally. Note that SAV pilots are rarely more than 10 m away, so the wave travel time of
0.01 seconds may be less than a simulation time step.

• x7 and x8, inflow and outflow resistance, are not used in HAMMER, but these can probably be
converted to y10, SAV Cv at full opening.

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Two-Stage Air-Vacuum Valve (Surge) to Air Valve (HAMMER)

Table 2-26: Surge—Two-Stage Air-Vacuum Valve

Code Description Units

x1 Outflow diameter mm, in

x2 Outflow diameter mm, in

x3 Initial air volume m3, ft3

Table 2-27: HAMMER—Air Valve

Code Description Units

y1 Initial air volume m3, ft3

y2 Outflow diameter (< TV) mm, in

y3 Transition volume m3, ft3

y4 Outflow diameter (≥ TV) mm, in

y5 Inflow diameter mm, in

Table 2-28: Mappings

Code Map

y1 x3

y2 x2

y3 n/a

y4 x2

y5 x1

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Three-Stage Air-Vacuum Valve (Surge) to Air Valve (HAMMER)

Table 2-29: Surge—Two-Stage Air-Vacuum Valve

Code Description Units

x1 Inflow diameter mm, in

x2 First outflow diameter mm, in

x3 Second outflow diameter mm, in

x4 Switch value depends on

x5 Switch flag flow/pr./vol.

x6 Initial air volume m3, ft3

Table 2-30: HAMMER—Air Valve

Code Description Units

y1 Initial air volume m3, ft3

y2 Outflow diameter (< TV) mm, in

y3 Transition volume m3, ft3

y4 Outflow diameter (≥ TV) mm, in

y5 Inflow diameter mm, in

Table 2-31: Mappings

Code Map

y1 x6

y2 x3

y3 x4 (volume)

y4 x2

y5 x1

• x5 is not used in HAMMER. Instead, you must convert flow or pressure (possibly obtained from
a trial HAMMER simulation) to an equivalent y3 transition volume.

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2.4.7 Search Dialog Box

Use the Search dialog box to quickly locate any element in the drawing by its label.
For more information, see “Finding Elements” on page 5-201.

Enter the Label: Type the element name for which you are searching.
Search for Node/Pipe: Select whether the element that you are searching for
is a node or a pipe.
By Label/Node: Select whether you want to search for the pipe by its
label name or by the node name.
Find: Click Find to being the search for the item you
specified.

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2.4.8 FlexUnits Dialog Box

Select the units, system, precision, and scientific notation displayed for each attribute.
Click in a cell to change an attribute or setting. For example, to change the Unit for
Flow, click the Unit cell in row 6 and select the unit you want to use from the drop-
down list. For more information, see “FlexUnits” on page 4-187.

System: SI: If System: SI displays, then HAMMER is using the

metric system. Click System: SI if you want to
change the units to U.S. customary.
System: US: If System: US displays, then HAMMER is using the
U.S. customary system. Click System: US if you
want to change the units to SI.

2.4.9 Merge Pipes Dialog Box

Displays the average and shortest pipe lengths in the model. To merge pipes, select the
length, or fraction of the average length, below which pipes will be merged with a
neighbor. HAMMER will merge any two pipes with the same wave speed, diameter
and material (if defined) that connect at a junction and satisfy the length criterion.
Pipes will not be merged if:

• pipes connect at a different type of node, e.g. consumption or valve.

• more than two pipes connect at the junction that would be eliminated.
• there is a local high point or knee at the junction that would be eliminated.

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Warning! This operation cannot be undone. You may want to save

your model before the Pipe Merge operation.

Merge if length <=: Merge criterion is a length. All pipes equal to or

shorter than this length will be merged with a
neighboring pipe.
...or if <= 1/ : Merge criterion is a fraction of the average length.
Number of Iterations: After each pipe merge, the average length increases.
It is therefore possible to repeat the operation several
times using a fraction of the average length as the
criterion each time.
Navigation:

2.4.10 Color Mapping Box

The Color Mapping box is only available after you click Go and run your model. This
option lets you color code items. The color coding is available for pipes and nodes.
For more information, see “Part 4—Color-Coding Maps, Profiles, and Point Histo-
ries” on page 3-155.

The following are the attributes available for color coding of pipes:

• Off—Select this if you do not want to color code your pipes based on any
attribute.
• Maximum/Minimum Head—Color codes the maximum or minimum transient
head experienced at any point in the pipe throughout the simulation period.
• Maximum/Minimum Pressure—Color codes the maximum or minimum tran-
sient pressure experienced at any point in the pipe throughout the simulation
period.
• Maximum/Minimum Flow—Color codes the maximum or minimum transient
flow experienced at any point in the pipe throughout the simulation period. Note
that the initial flow direction at time zero is considered as positive flow.

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• Maximum Vapor Volume—Color codes the maximum vapor volume, if any, that
occurred at all locations in the pipe at any time during the simulation.
• Maximum Air Volume—Color codes the maximum air volume, if any, that
occurred at all locations in the pipe at any time during the simulation.
• Wave Speed Adjustment—Color codes the percent HAMMER has adjusted each
pipe’s wave speed based on the selected time step.
• Length Adjustment—Color codes the percent HAMMER has adjusted each
pipe’s length based on the selected time step.

The following are the attributes available for color coding of nodes:

• Off—Select this if you do not want to color code your nodes based on any
attribute.
• Maximum/Minimum Head—Color codes the maximum or minimum transient
head experienced at nodes, e.g. in any pipe linked with that node.
• Maximum/Minimum Pressure—Color codes the maximum or minimum tran-
sient pressure experienced at nodes, e.g. in any pipe linked with that node.
• Maximum Vapor Volume—Color codes the maximum vapor volume, if any, that
occurred at a node at any time during the simulation.
• Maximum Air Volume—Color codes the maximum air volume, if any, that
occurred at a node at any time during the simulation.

Click Scales to open the Color Map Settings dialog box to select the color ramps and
scale for your color map. Click Legend and then click the Drawing Pane to place a
legend that describes the color coding.

2.4.11 Color Map Settings Dialog Box

Color Map Settings Dialog Box lets you set the color coding for pipes or nodes. The
title bar shows the name of the attribute for which color coding settings are displayed.
You can view the changes instantly (check Live Preview) or after clicking OK.

Color Setting:

• %—Percentage value of the attribute being color coded. 100% is maximum value
among all elements during the period of simulation or the Maximum Value and
Minimum Value you enter.
• Color—The color that corresponds to the percentage and value associated with an
attribute. This color is displayed for the selected percentage. Click a color to
display the Choose Color dialog (see “Choose Color Dialog Box” on page 2-83).
• Value—Absolute value of the attribute being color coded.

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Buttons:

• Add—Adds a new set point for the range of color.

• Delete—Deletes an existing set point and color.
• Presets—Lets you select an existing, previously saved color-code range.
• Save Preset—Lets you save the current color coding as a preset for use later on.
• Delete Preset—Lets you delete any existing preset. Click Delete Preset and you
are prompted to select the preset you want to delete.

Scale Type:

• Quartile, Quintile, Decile, and Percentile correspond to upper and lower range
limits of 25, 20, 10 and 1 percent, respectively—a quick way to assign limits for
extreme values based on ranked statistics.
• You can also click Custom (Percent) to use the Low Percent and High Percent
sliders or Custom (Value) to enter the limiting values directly.

Scale Limits:

• Default Minimum—Displays the minimum value from the entire simulation.

• Default Maximum—Displays the maximum value from the entire simulation.
• Minimum Value—User-specified minimum value that is available if you choose
Custom (Value) as the Scale Type.
• Maximum Value—User-specified maximum value that is available if you choose
Custom (Value) as the Scale Type.
• Low Percent/High Percent—A visual representation of the scale chosen based
on scale type and limits.

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2.4.12 Choose Color Dialog Box

The Choose Color dialog box lets you select a color for use in the color map.

• Swatches—Comprise predefined colors. Click one of the color squares to select it

• HSB—Lets you define a color based on hue, saturation, and brightness. Hue is the
value of the pure color (such as orange) based on 360 degrees of a standard color
wheel (values are from 0 to 359 inclusive), saturation is them amount of gray in
the color (0% is gray and 100% is pure color), and brightness is the amount of
light in the color (zero brightness is black and 100% is white).
• RGB—Lets you define a color based on the amount of transmitted red, green, and
blue light it contains (values for each range from 0 to 255 inclusive). For example,
255, 255, 255 is white and 0, 0, 0 is black.

Click OK to apply that color to your color map. Click Cancel to close the dialog box
without making a change and click Reset to set the color options to their defaults.

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2.4.13 Global HAMMER Options Dialog Box

The Global HAMMER Options include:

• “Colors” on page 2-84

• “Tooltips” on page 2-86
• “Tabs” on page 2-86
• “File I/O” on page 2-87
• “Other Options” on page 2-88

For more information, see “Global HAMMER Options” on page 4-177.

Colors
To change colors, click the color you want to change, or click the Ellipsis (…) button
that corresponds to the item whose color you want to change.

Rubber Band: This is the color of the border of the bounding box
that you draw when you click and drag to select
elements in the Drawing Pane.
Handle: This is the color for the rectangle that goes around a
selected element.
Highlight: The color for selected pipes.
Background: The color for the main display.
Node: The color for all of the individual nodes in the model

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Line: The color of the lines in the model

Text: The color of the text in the model.

When changing colors, you can choose a predefined color from a drop-down list or
enter the RGB values for the color. After you change a color, click the Close button in
the top-right of the Color Editor dialog box to save your change.

Click the Close

button to save
your changes
Set an RGB
value Pick a
color

Tooltips
Use the Tooltips tab to control how tooltips display in HAMMER.

Initial Delay: Set the time it takes for the tooltips to open after you
move the mouse over an element in a dialog box.
(Unit is milliseconds.)

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Enable Tooltips: Set this to True if you want to use tooltips or False if
you want tooltips turned off and not to display in
HAMMER.

Tabs
Show Properties On Create: Shows the property pane or tabs at the right of the
Drawing Pane when you're creating an element. This
has no effect if the tabs are already shown.
Show Properties On Select: Shows the property pane or tabs at the right Drawing
Pane when you're selecting an element. Similarly, it
has no effect if the tabs are already shown.

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File I/O
This tab lets you set default directories used by HAMMER for Data Path, Output Path,
and Report Path. Specify a default path and directory by clicking Browse, navigating
to and selecting the location you want to use.

• Microsoft Access .exe, Epanet .exe, and Text Editor .exe let you set the location of
these program files that HAMMER can use.
• The location of the Microsoft Access database allows you to open tabular reports
generated by HAMMER, and the default text editor is used when you open ASCII
.rpt or .out files. Wordpad and Notepad are examples of text editors.
• Epanet .exe must display the path to the EPANET directory on your computer
before you can import or export EPANET files.

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Other Options
Default Font: Select a font to be used for all projects using the
Default Font drop down menu. A range of font types
are available.
Anti-Alias: Set this to True to enhance the appearance of straight
lines in the HAMMER Drawing Pane.
Show Startup Dialog: Set this to True to display the Welcome to
HAMMER dialog box when you open HAMMER.
Optimized Anim. Performance: Set this to True to minimize the amount of RAM
required for animations or set this to False to
maximize the speed with which the animation can be
made ready.

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2.4.14 HAMMER Viewer Dialog Box

For more information on the HAMMER Viewer, see “Output Windows: HAMMER
Viewer” on page 2-32.

File > Open: Select a HAMMER output (.hof), graph (.grp), or

animation (.ani) file you want to use.
Settings: The settings menu lets you anti-alias plots and
animations for smoother lines and show (or not) a
company logo and name on the plots and animations.
For more information about logos and company
names, see “Using Your Organization’s Name and
Logo” on page 8-293.
Tools: The tools menu lets you select the logo and company
name that is called from the Settings menu. The logo
must be a .gif file.
Path Profile: Select the path profile you want to plot or animate.
Time History: Select the element where the profile ends.
Graph Type: Select the output variables you want plotted in the
graph.
Animate: Creates a graph that can be animated to visualize
model results.

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Plot: Makes a static graph suitable for reports.

2.4.15 Animation Control Dialog Box

Use the animation control buttons (reverse, forward, stop, fast reverse, and fast
forward) to control the animation.

File > Save Animation/As: Saves the location and size of every HAMMER
graph window currently shown on the screen in a
HAMMER animation file (.ani). You may be
prompted to save all active graphs first. It is faster to
open an animation file from the HAMMER Viewer
than to open each graph file and reposition each one
manually.
View Menu: Use the View menu to set whether you want the full
or compact version of the Animation Control dialog
box.
Speed: Set the number of frames shown per second.
Frame: Set the current frame in your animation.

Animation control
buttons

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2.4.16 Font Dialog Box

Set the font family, style, and size you want to use in a HAMMER graph. (To open a
HAMMER graph, click Tools > Viewer > Graphics.) You should use font families
that are installed on your computer. These are installed in your Winnt\Fonts or
\Windows\Fonts directories (and perhaps in other locations if you purchased fonts or
font software).

2.4.17 Copy Paths Dialog Box

If two HAMMER project files share pipes, you can copy the path information from
one project file to the other. For more information, see “How Do I Copy a Path from
One HAMMER Project to Another?” on page A-330.

Source: The HAMMER project file where the path you want
to copy is defined.
Target: The HAMMER project file to which you want to
copy the path information.
Browse: Click Browse to select the Source and Target
HAMMER files.
New Paths: Select the check boxes of paths that you want to copy
from the source project.
Existing Paths: Paths that already exist in the destination project are
listed.

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2.4.18 Image Settings Dialog Box

The Image Settings dialog box lets you define setting for HAMMER Screen Captures
using the Capture Screen utility. You can use the Capture Screen toolbar icon to
save the contents of the current Drawing Pane view to a .jpeg or .gif graphic
file. You can paste this graphic in reports and figures.

The Image Settings dialog box contains the following controls:

File Setting

• File Type—Lets you set the screen capture file type to .JPEG. If you don’t set this
option, you can save screen captures as .GIF files.
• File—Lets you enter a file name and location for the screen capture. Click the
Browse button to navigate to the folder on your computer in which you want to
save the screen capture.

Image Setting

• Content—Select Complete Map to capture the entire network, or Current View

to capture only the current view of your network.
• Width—Lets you enter the width of the screen capture in pixels. If the aspect ratio
is locked, the height value will be automatically calculated and displayed in the
Height field when you enter a width.
• Height—Lets you enter the height of the screen capture in pixels. If the aspect
ratio is locked, the width value will be automatically calculated and displayed in
the Width field when you enter a height.
• Aspect Ratio—Displays the current aspect ratio of the screen capture. This field
is not editable.
• Lock—Clear this checkbox to be able to change the aspect ratio. You change the
aspect ratio by entering different values for Height and Width. You cannot edit the
Aspect Ratio field directly. This box is checked by default.
• Override Colors—When this box is checked, the screen capture file will not use
the same colors as in the Drawing Pane. When this box is cleared, the screen
capture file will use the same colors as in the Drawing Pane. When checked, the
background colors (black by default) will appear white in the screen capture.
Nodes, pipes, and label colors (white by default) will appear black in the screen
capture.

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2.5 Adding and Resizing Text and Symbols

You can add and size text and symbols in the profile or time history plot. In these
plots, move your mouse cursor to either the vertical axis (y-axis) or horizontal axis (x-
axis). The cross-hair cursor changes to a different one (cross-hair with arrow heads at
the ends). Right-click to select Draw Text or Draw Symbols. If you draw text, the
word text appears in the center of the graph. Double-click the text or symbol to format
or move it.

2.5.1 Format Text Dialog Box

Use the Format Text dialog box to:

• Select a font, style, size, and color for the selected text
• Type the text you want to display (this is “text” by default)
• Show or hide the selected text by selecting or deselecting the Show check box

2.5.2 Format Graphic Dialog Box

Use the Format Graphic dialog box to:

• Set the X and Y location of the center of a symbol

• Set the size of the selected symbol, where 1.0 is the default value and numbers
lower than 1.0 make the symbol smaller and numbers larger than 1.0 increase the
size of the symbol
• Set the line style for the symbol
• Show or hide the selected text by selecting or deselecting the Show check box

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2.6 HAMMER Toolbars

There are two tool panes in HAMMER: utility and element. The utility tool pane
contains buttons to manage projects, work with data, and present results.

2.6.1 File Tools (Modeler Only)

• New (Ctrl + N)—Creates a new project.

• Open (Ctrl + O)—Opens an existing project.

• Save (Ctrl + S)—Saves the current project.

2.6.2 Edit Tools (Modeler Only)

• Cut (Ctrl + X)—Deletes the selected item or group of items and places it
on the Windows clipboard. This item can be pasted back into HAMMER or
other programs.
• Copy (Ctrl + C)—Copies the selected item or group of items and places it
on the Windows clipboard. This items can be pasted back into HAMMER
or other programs.
• Paste (Ctrl + V)—Inserts the item on the Windows Clipboard into the
Drawing Pane at the current cursor position and selects them. The same
items can be pasted repeatedly to replicate similar pump suction and
discharge piping, for example.

2.6.3 Run Control (Modeler Only)

• Go (Ctrl + R)—Runs the currently open HAMMER project file. A

dialog box opens so you can choose the name and location of the output
files and whether you want to generate an output database or animation data.
• Project Options—Displays the Project Options dialog box. This includes
the project title, units, and other useful information.

2.6.4 Display Tools (Modeler Only)

• Select—After clicking this toolbar icon, move the cursor over any
hydraulic element in the Drawing Pane and click to select it.

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• Pan—After clicking this toolbar icon, hold down the left mouse button and
move the mouse to reposition the Drawing Pane window.
• Zoom In—Magnifies an area of the Drawing Pane centered on the cursor
(left click).
• Zoom Out—Reduces the magnification of an area of the Drawing Pane
centered on the cursor (left click) so you can see more of a large drawing.
• Normalize Window—Resizes all symbols and text in the Drawing Pane to
a convenient size for the current window. These symbol sizes persist when
the zoom level changes.
• Zoom To Area—Magnify an area of the drawing by holding down the left
mouse button, moving the cursor, and releasing it to define the Zoom
Window.
• Zoom Extents—Zooms to the full extent of the workspace so that every
hydraulic element is contained in the Drawing Pane.

2.6.5 Output Graphics and FlexTables (Modeler Only)

• Sticky—Toggle sticky mode. While in sticky mode, the current mouse

function remains active until you change it by clicking a toolbar button.
• Capture—Captures the contents of the Drawing Pane and copies it to the
Windows clipboard. You can paste various views into a graphical editor to
generate compound figures, such as a large-scale view with a small-scale
inset showing the overall location in the network.
• FlexTables—Opens the FlexTable Table Manager which allows you to
open FlexTables to work with input or results. You can also modify the
contents of each FlexTable or create new ones.
• Map Selection—Provides a choice of the maximum
or minimum hydraulic transient heads or flows, or
the maximum vapor or air volumes, and automati-
cally produces a customizable color-coded map in the Drawing Pane. You can
color-code pipes, nodes, or both.

2.6.6 Help (Modeler Only)

Haestad Online—Provides instant access to a wealth of information on

Haestad’s Web sites and forums using your internet connection.

HAMMER Help—Opens the HAMMER Help utility.

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2.7 Hydraulic Elements (Modeler Only)

The hydraulic element toolbar has two fundamental icons (node and link) followed
by four types of elements grouped together:

• “Boundaries” on page 2-99

• “Control Equipment” on page 2-100
• “Protection Equipment” on page 2-101
• “Rotating Equipment” on page 2-102

2.7.1 Boundaries

• Junction—Junctions can be located at system boundaries or between

other hydraulic elements.
• Consumption—Consumption nodes can be located at system boundaries
or between other hydraulic elements.
• Dead End—A dead end can be used to represent a permanently closed
valve or a blind flange end connection in the system.
• Periodic Head/Flow—A versatile hydraulic boundary condition which
allows you to specify a constant head (pressure), flow, or any time-depen-
dent variation, including periodic changes that repeat indefinitely until
the end of the simulation.
• Manhole—A pressurized pipe connected to atmosphere that can accept
any user-defined inflow pattern or hydrograph. Useful in representing
surcharged sewer systems.
• Reservoir—A reservoir is assumed to have a very large surface area such
that it maintains a constant hydraulic grade line while supplying or
accepting any amount of flow to or from the system, respectively.

2.7.2 Control Equipment

These hydraulic elements are selected from the drop-down menu.

• Orifice to Atmosphere—A constant-diameter orifice which releases

flow from the system to atmospheric pressure in proportion to the tran-
sient head at the orifice location.
• Orifice at Branch End—A Y-shaped pipe fitting with a branch at the
end of which is an orifice discharging flow from the system to atmo-
spheric pressure in proportion to the transient head at the orifice location.

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• Orifice between 2 Pipes—A fixed-diameter orifice which breaks pres-

sure, useful for representing choke stations on high-head pipelines.
• Rating Curve—A boundary element which releases flow from the
system to atmosphere based on a custom-defined rating curve relating
head (pressure) and flow.
• Valve to Atmosphere—A valve which releases flow from the system to
atmospheric pressure based on its Cv curve and position (if open).
• Valve of Check Type between 2 Pipes—A check valve only allows flow
in one direction. This element is useful to simulate a by-pass line with
check valve.
• Valve of Check Type at Wye Branch—A Y-shaped pipe fitting with a
check valve in one of the branches.
• Valve of Various Types between 2 Pipes—A versatile element which
can represent a wide range of common valves complete with detailed
stroke data and Cv relationships.
• Valve with Linear Area Change between 2 Pipes—An ideal valve
useful for verifying best-case assumptions or representing motorized
valves.

2.7.3 Protection Equipment

These hydraulic elements are selected from the drop-down menu.

• Air Valve—An air-release valve which allows air to exit the system to
atmospheric pressure (but prevents fluid from escaping).
• Air Valve (Slow-Closing) between 2 Pipes—An air-release valve with a
damped closure mechanism to minimize valve slam–related transient
pressures.
• SAV/SRV at End of 1 Pipe—A surge-anticipator valve (SAV) or surge-
relief valve (SRV) at the end of a pipe releases fluid from the system to
atmospheric pressure.
• SAV/SRV between 2 Pipes—A surge-anticipator valve (SAV) or surge-
relief valve (SRV) at the end of a pipe releases fluid from the system to
another part of the system, such as a reservoir or suction piping system.
• Surge Tank (Simple)—A cylindrical tank which allows fluid to enter the
pipeline when pressures drop and returns fluid to the tank when pressures
increase.
• Surge Tank (Differential) between 2 Pipes—A specialized surge tank
within a larger tank which provides a fast response.

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• Surge Tank (Variable Area)—A tank with user-specified geometry

which allows fluid to enter the pipeline when pressures drop and to return
to the tank when pressures increase.
• Gas Vessel—A pressure vessel connected to the system and containing
fluid in its lower portion and a pressurized gas, usually air, in the top
portion. A flexible and expandable bladder is sometimes used to keep the
gas and fluid separate.
• Rupture Disk between 2 Pipes—A plate which blocks the entire cross-
sectional area of a pipe, forming a dead end in the system unless a speci-
fied pressure is exceeded, in which case it bursts and allows fluid to exit
the system via the second pipe segment.

2.7.4 Rotating Equipment

These hydraulic elements are selected from the drop-down menu.

• Shut After Time Delay, between 2 Pipes—A pump between two pipe
segments which shuts down after a user-specified time delay. Useful to
simulate a power failure.
• Constant Speed between 2 Pipes - No Pump Curve—A simplified
constant-speed pump element between two pipe segments.
• Constant Speed at Reservoir - Pump Curve—A constant-speed pump
directly connected to a reservoir of fluid, which supports user-defined
pump curves.
• Constant Speed, between 2 Pipes - Pump Curve—A constant-speed
pump between two pipes, which supports user-defined pump curves.
• Variable Speed, between 2 Pipes—A variable-speed (or torque) pump
between two pipes. Also known as a variable-frequency drive or VFD.
• Turbine between 2 Pipes—A turbine between two pipes.

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2.8 HAMMER Status Bar

The HAMMER status bar, at the bottom of the program’s Main Window, displays
useful information about the current state of the Drawing Pane and HAMMER model
file. Its several useful components are described separately below.

General Status Information: General status information includes messages that

relate to your current activities. These messages
contain such information as menu command
descriptions and indications regarding the progress of
an executing command.
Cursor Location and Zoom: The status bar displays the current X and Y
coordinates for the cursor’s position within the
Drawing pane, complete with their current unit of
measurement. A list box next to the coordinates
allows you to select a particular zoom level for the
Drawing pane.
Show Tab Button: The Show Tab button toggles the Properties tab on or
off (to maximize the amount of screen space
available to the Drawing Pane).
Unit System Status: The unit system button on the task bar indicates the
unit system that is currently active: Système
International (S.I. metric) or U.S. customary
(English). It does not indicate changes to units of
individual variable fields. If you use this box to
change the unit system, the dimension of every
variable in HAMMER is converted automatically.
Calculation Results Status: In Modeler mode, if the current calculation results
are out of date or otherwise invalid, an indicator
appears in the status bar signifying that the results no
longer match the state of your input data. If the
results are currently valid, no such indicator appears.
File Status: If changes have been made since the last time the
project file was saved, an image of a diskette appears
in the status pane. If the file is currently in a saved
state, no image appears.

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 Chapter

Quick Start Lessons 3

Note: You can perform these lessons in sequence, since each lesson
uses what you learned in the previous ones, or do the lessons in
any order using the catch-up files located in the
\Haestad\HAMR\Lesson#\Catch-up folder, where # is the lesson
number.

HAMMER is a very efficient and powerful tool for simulating hydraulic transients in
pipelines and networks. The quick-start lessons give you hands-on experience with
many of HAMMER’s features and capabilities. These detailed lessons will help you to
explore and understand the following topics:

1. Pipeline Protection using HAMMER—by assembling a pipeline using the

graphical editor and performing two hydraulic transient analyses; without protec-
tion and with protection. In Lesson 2, you will also be able to import the same
pipeline data from an EPANET file.
2. Working with Data from External Sources—by importing hydraulic model data
from EPANET, PIPE2000/Surge2000, WaterCAD/WaterGEMS using WaterOb-
jects technology, or GIS and databases using the HAMMER Datastore.
3. Network Risk Reduction using HAMMER—by importing a water distribution
network model from WaterCAD/WaterGEMS and performing a hydraulic tran-
sient analysis using advanced surge protection and presentation methods.

Another way to become acquainted with HAMMER is to run and experiment with the
sample files, located in the \Haestad\HAMR\Samples folder. Remember, you can
press the F1 key to access the context-sensitive help at any time.

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3.1 Lesson 1: Pipeline Protection

In this lesson, you will use HAMMER to perform a numerical simulation of hydraulic
transients in a water transmission main and, based on the results of your analysis,
recommend suitable surge-protection equipment to protect this system from damage.
You can do this in three steps:

1. You need to analyze the system as it was designed (without any surge-protection
equipment) to determine its vulnerability to transient events.
2. You can select and model different surge-protection equipment to control transient
pressures and predict the time required for friction to attenuate the transient
energy.
3. You can present your results graphically to explain your surge-control strategy
and recommendations for detailed design.

3.1.1 Part 1—Creating or Importing a Steady-State Model

You can create an initial steady-state model of your system within HAMMER directly,
using the advanced HAMMER Modeler interface, or import one from an existing
steady-state model created using other software. In this lesson, you will assemble a
hydraulic transient model using both methods to learn their respective advantages and
note the similarities between them.

Creating a Model
HAMMER is an extremely efficient tool for laying out a water-transmission pipeline
or even an entire distribution network. It is easy to prepare a schematic model and let
HAMMER take care of the link-node connectivity and element labels, which are
assigned automatically. Only pipe lengths must be entered manually to complete the
layout. You may need to input additional data for some hydraulic elements prior to a
run.

Note: Regardless of the screen coordinates entered or displayed in the

element editor, HAMMER analyzes the system using the pipe
lengths entered. If you import data from another model,
HAMMER uses and displays the lengths from the corresponding
field, not the XYZ coordinates (if any).

The water system is described as follows: a water-pumping station draws water from a
nearby reservoir (383 m normal water level) and conveys 468 L/s along a dedicated
transmission pipeline to a reservoir (456 m normal water level) for a total static lift of
456 – 383 = 73 m. The elevation of the constant-speed pump is 363 m and its speed is

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1760 rpm. Transmission main data are given in “Table 3-1: Nodes and Elevations”on
page 3-109 and “Table 3-2: Link (Pipe) Properties and Steady State HGL”on page 3-
110. Other data will be discussed below, as you add or modify each hydraulic element
in this system.

To create a hydraulic model using the HAMMER Modeler interface:

1. Start HAMMER from the Windows start menu using Start > Programs >
Haestad Methods > HAMMER > HAMMER or double-click the HAMMER
desktop icon (if any).
2. Click File > New to start a new project. This starts HAMMER’s graphical element
editor, so you can draw the system by inserting hydraulic elements.
3. Set the default unit system for this project to SI.
Click the button labeled U.S., which is displayed near the right end of the status
bar (to the right of the Show Tabs button), so that it displays: SI.

If this button
displays U.S.,
click it so that SI
displays

4. Add a node.
a. Click Add Node.
b. Move the cursor over the drawing pane and click to insert a node.
HAMMER automatically names this node J1.

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c. Select the node and rename it by entering Res1 in the label field of the
element editor pane.

Enter the name of

the node

d. Click Select Object.

e. Right-click this node and select Convert Type > Boundaries >
Reservoir.

5. Add three more nodes to the right of Res1 and rename them PJ1, PMP1, and PJ2.
6. Convert PMP1 to a pump by selecting right-clicking it and selecting Convert
Type > Rotating Equipment > Constant Speed between 2 Pipes - No Pump
Curve.
Table 3-1: Nodes and Elevations

Node Name Elevation (m) Description (Optional)

Res1 383 Source reservoir

PJ1 363 Suction

PMP1 363 Pump

PJ2 363 Pump discharge

J1 408 Feedermain

J2 395 Feedermain

J3 395 Feedermain

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Table 3-1: Nodes and Elevations (Cont’d)

Node Name Elevation (m) Description (Optional)

J4 386 Feedermain

J5 380 Feedermain

J6 420 Feedermain

Res2 456 Receiving reservoir

Note: You can create nodes and link them together automatically
using the Add Pipe button. Just click the location where you
want the first node, move the cursor, click again and repeat the
procedure until done. The majority of nodes in the system can
be entered in this way.

7. Add a pipe connecting Res1 to PJ1, and PJ1 to PMP1.

a. Click Add Pipe.
b. Then, click Res1.
c. Then, click PJ1.
d. Then, click PMP1.
e. Right-click to finish adding pipe.

8. Complete the schematic of the entire transmission pipeline by adding all the nodes
and pipes shown in “Table 3-1: Nodes and Elevations”on page 3-109 and “Table
3-2: Link (Pipe) Properties and Steady State HGL”on page 3-110.

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Lesson 1: Pipeline Protection

Note: If the steady-state HGL was not provided, you could calculate it
manually using the Hazen-Williams or Darcy-Weisbach formula
or obtain it by running a steady-state model such as WaterCAD/
WaterGEMS, EPANET, or PIPE2000.

If you have trouble entering decimals for any values (for

example, if the value is automatically rounded), then use Tools >
FlexUnits to set the precision for the attribute in question.

Table 3-2: Link (Pipe) Properties and Steady State HGL

Darcy-
Node Node Length Diameter F. Node T. Node Weisbach
Pipe ID
From To (m) (mm) Hd (m) Hd (m) Friction
Factor (f)

PS1 Res1 PJ1 50 600 383.00 382.78 0.0191

PMP1S PJ1 PMP1 40 600 382.78 382.78 0.0191

PMP1D PMP1 PJ2 10 600 464.23 464.23 0.0191

P1 PJ2 J1 20 600 464.23 464.14 0.0191

P2 J1 J2 380 600 464.14 462.46 0.0191

P3 J2 J3 300 600 462.46 461.13 0.0191

P4 J3 J4 250 600 461.13 460.02 0.0191

P5 J4 J5 400 600 460.02 458.24 0.0191

P6 J5 J6 250 600 458.24 457.14 0.0191

P7 J6 Res2 175 600 457.14 456.36 0.0191

9. Set the Init. Flow for all pipes (Q) to 467.996 L/s.
10. Set the Wave Speed for all pipes to 1,200 m/s.
Once you have finished adding these hydraulic elements to the system, your sche-
matic should look like the following figure.

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Add pipe

Add node

Specify units
for this project

a. Select individual nodes from the drawing pane and set their names and eleva-
tions as shown in “Table 3-1: Nodes and Elevations”on page 3-109. Alterna-
tively, you can select All Nodes from the drop-down menu at the top of the
element selector in the Properties tab, as shown below, to display them.
Again, you must set the name and provide the correct elevation for each node.

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Select element type

Use shortcut menu

for FlexUnits

Click to open the

FlexUnit menu

b. Similarly, select each pipe and set its label and other properties as shown in
“Table 3-2: Link (Pipe) Properties and Steady State HGL”on page 3-110.

Transient Tip: Elevations are extremely important in hydraulic transient

modeling. This is because slopes determine how fast
water columns will slow own (or speed up) as their
momentum changes during a transient event. Therefore,
defining the profile of a pipeline is a key requirement
prior to undertaking any hydraulic transient analysis
using HAMMER.

11. Click File > Save As to select a directory and save your file with a name such as
Lesson1.hif (HAMMER file names are not case sensitive).

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Wave speed
for this pipe
Steady-state flow

Steady-state head at node J3

Steady-state head at node J4

Results display after a run

Importing a Steady-State Model from EPANET

Note: The results of the imported EPANET model will not match those
of the model for which you entered data manually unless you
change the lengths of pipes PMP1S and PMP1D as shown in
“Table 3-2: Link (Pipe) Properties and Steady State HGL”on page 3-
110.

For a detailed description of the procedure to import a steady-state model into

HAMMER from EPANET, see “Importing from EPANET” on page 3-141. You can
do this and return to Part 2 afterwards, or continue directly to Part 2 now.

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3.1.2 Part 2—Selecting the Transient Events to Model

Any change in flow or pressure, at any point in the system, can trigger hydraulic tran-
sients. If the change is gradual, the resulting transient pressures may not be severe.
However, if the change of flow is rapid or sudden, the resulting transient pressure can
cause surges or water hammer (see “HAMMER Theory and Practice” on page B-333).
Since each system has a different characteristic time, the qualitative adjectives
gradual and rapid correspond to different quantitative time intervals for each system.

There are many possible causes for rapid or sudden changes in a pipe system,
including power failures, pipe breaks, or a rapid valve opening or closure. These can
result from natural causes, equipment malfunction, or even operator error. It is there-
fore important to consider the several ways in which hydraulic transients can occur in
a system and to model them using HAMMER.

Transient Tip: If identifying, modeling, and protecting against several

possible hydraulic transient events seems to take a lot of
time and resources, remember that it is far safer and less
expensive to learn about your system’s vulnerabilities by
“breaking pipes” in a computer model—and far easier to
clean up—than from expensive service interruptions and
field repairs.

In this lesson, you will simulate the impact of a power failure lasting several minutes.
It is assumed that power was interrupted suddenly and without warning (i.e., you did
not have time to start any diesel generators or pumps, if any, prior to the power
failure). The purpose of this type of transient analysis is to ensure the system and its
components can withstand the resulting transient pressures and determine how long
you must wait for the transient energy to dissipate.

For many systems, starting backup pumps before the transient energy has decayed
sufficiently can cause worse surge pressures than those caused by the initial power
failure. Conversely, relying on rapid backup systems to prevent transient pressures
may not be realistic given that most transient events occur within seconds of the
power failure while isolating the electrical load, bringing the generator on-line, and re-
starting pumps (if they have not timed out) can take several minutes.

3.1.3 Part 3—Configuring the HAMMER Project

Before running the HAMMER model you have created, you need to set certain run-
time parameters such as the fluid properties, piping system properties, run duration,
and output requirements.

1. Click Tools > Project Options or click the Project Options icon in the toolbar.
2. Select the Summary (default) tab and set the following parameters:

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– Run Duration = 140

– Time = Seconds
– Pressure Wave Speed = 1250 m/s
– Vapor Pressure = –10 m-Hd (default value).

Specify run
duration in
seconds or steps

Global wave speed

Default vapor
pressure

Transient Tip: Wave speed is a key parameter in transient analysis.

Entering a pressure wave speed as a global parameter in
the System tab overrides all wave speeds assigned to
individual pipes. This is fine if all pipes in the system are
made of the same material, otherwise it is preferable to
leave the global wave speed field blank (not zero).

3. Click the Report Points tab and click Specific Points from the Report drop-down
list.
4. Select the following points to report on: PMP1D:PMP1, P1:J1, and P2:J1 to
output the transient history (or temporal variation of flow, head, and air or vapor
volumes) at the pump and nearby nodes (you can also add other points of interest,
such as P7:Res2).

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Specify selection
type for report
points

Nodes added
for reporting

Remaining
Click to add or
points (nodes)
remove report
in the system
points

Note: Ctrl+click and Shift+click only work for removing elements from
the Report list; you cannot use Ctrl+click and Shift+Click to
select multiple pipes in the System list.

5. Click the Report Paths tab and then click Add Path to create a new path, then
name it Main.
6. Select the pipes PMP1D, P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, P6 and P7 in the System pane and
add them to the Main path by clicking the > button.
7. Click OK to close the window.

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Click to add
more paths

Click to show
path in the
drawing pane

Pipes in the
path: Main

Click to add or
remove pipes

8. Save the file with the same name (Lesson1.hif) using File > Save. You are now
ready to run your HAMMER model.

3.1.4 Part 4—Performing a Transient Analysis

In this section, you will first simulate transient pressures in the system due to an emer-
gency power failure without any protective equipment in service. After a careful
examination of your results, you will select protective equipment and simulate the
system again using HAMMER to assess the effectiveness of the devices you selected
to control transient pressures.

Analysis Without Surge Protection Equipment

To perform a hydraulic transient analysis of the system after a sudden power failure
without surge protection (other than the pump’s check valve):

1. Right-click the pump node (PMP1) and select Convert Type > Rotating Equip-
ment > Shut After Time Delay, between 2 Pipes.
You can also change this pump’s type from the toolbar by selecting it from the
Rotating Equipment menu on the toolbar.

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Lesson 1: Pipeline Protection

Time delay
before shutdown

Time to close
check valve (no
delay)

Note: Do not set the X- and Y-coordinate values.

2. Set the pump parameters:

a. Time Delay: Set this to 5 seconds. For convenience, it is assumed that the
power failure occurs after 5 seconds, so that point histories will show the
initial steady state during this period.
b. Time to Close: Set this to 0 seconds. The power failure is assumed to be
instantaneous and the check valve is allowed to close without any delay (zero)
to protect the pump from damage.
c. Diameter: Set the inside diameter of the pump’s intake flange to 600 mm.
d. Specific Speed: Set this to U.S. 1280 - metric 25, based on the pump’s rota-
tion speed (1760 rpm). See Appendix B for an explanation of how to deter-
mine a pump’s specific speed.
e. Reverse Spin: Set this to Not Allowed. Not allowing reverse spin assumes
there is a check valve on the discharge side of the pump or that the pump has a
nonreverse ratchet mechanism.
f. Percent Eff.: Set this to 85 percent.

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g. Inertia of Pump: This is the combined pump, shaft, and motor inertia: set it
to 169 nm2. This can be obtained from the manufacturer or estimated from its
power rating (see “HAMMER Theory and Practice” on page B-333).
h. Rotational Speed: Set this to 1760.0.

3. Save your changes.

4. Click GO (on the HAMMER toolbar) to display the Run Control
dialog box.
5. Select the Generate Animation Data check box. (For more information on pump
properties, see “Hydraulic Element Reference” on page 6-205.)

Note: If you do not have Microsoft Access®, or if its path is undefined,

you will not be able to click Generate Output Database to get
formatted reports. You can set the executable path for Microsoft
Access using Tools > Global HAMMER Options, selecting the
File I/O tab, and clicking Browse to locate the msaccess.exe file
on your computer.

6. Click Run; a HAMMER run status window opens and displays the progress of the
elapsed run.
If you suspect that a data-entry error may have occurred, you can select Data
Check before clicking Run, to perform a short run that detects errors before a
(much longer) full run.
7. When the run is completed, the HAMMER Viewer opens automatically to let you
view graphs and animate the hydraulic transient heads and flows.

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Click to plot
profile

Select parameter
to plot

Select path
Select point Select parameter to plot
to plot to plot

Reviewing your Results

By default, HAMMER does not generate output for every location or every time step,
since this would result in very large file sizes (tens or hundreds of megabytes). For the
specific points or paths (e.g., profiles) you specified prior to the run, you can generate
several types of graphs or animations to visualize the results:

1. HGL Profile: HAMMER can plot the steady-state hydraulic grade line (HGL) as
well as the maximum and minimum transient head envelopes along the Main
path.
2. Time History: HAMMER can plot the time-dependent changes in transient flow,
and head and display the volume of vapor or air at any point of interest.
3. Animations: You can click Animate to visualize how system variables change
over time after the power failure. Every path and history on the screen is synchro-
nized and animated simultaneously. Note how transient pressures stabilize after a
while.

It is important to take the time to carefully review the results of each HAMMER run to
check for errors and, if none are found, learn something about the dynamic nature of
the water system (either experiment or see “Part 5—Animating Transient Results at
Points and along Profiles” on page 3-125 for instructions on how to do the following).

• The graph for the Main path shows that a significant vapor cavity forms at the
local high point at the knee of the pipeline (i.e., the location where the steep pipe
section leaving the pumps turns about 90 degrees to the horizontal in the pump
station).

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• Viewing the animation a few times shows that a vapor pocket grows at node J1 (as
the water column separates) and subsequently collapses due to return flow from
the receiving reservoir Res2. The resulting transient pressures are very sudden
and they propagate away from this impact zone, sending a shock wave throughout
the pipeline.
• The time history at the pump shows that the check valve closes before these pres-
sure waves reach the pump (zero flow), effectively isolating it from the system
and protecting it against damage.

Vapor pocket at high point

Max. transient head

Steady-state head

Pipe elevation
Min. transient head

Analysis with Surge-Protection Equipment

Certain protective equipment such as a gas vessel (also known as a hydropneumatic

tank or air chamber), combination air valve CAV; also known as a vacuum-breaker
and air-release valve, or a one-way surge tank can be installed at local high points to
control hydraulic transients.

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Note: Adding surge-control equipment or modifying the operating

procedures may significantly change the dynamic behavior of
the water system, possibly even its characteristic time. Selecting
appropriate protection equipment requires a good
understanding of its effect, for which HAMMER is a great tool, as
well as the good judgment and experience you supply.

It is clear that high pressures are caused by the sudden collapse of a vapor pocket at
node J1. You could install a Gas Vessel at junction J1 to supply flow into the pipeline
upon the power failure, keeping the upstream water column moving and minimizing
the size of the vapor pocket at the high point (or even preventing it from forming).
You can test this theory by simulating the system again using HAMMER and
comparing the results with those of the unprotected run:

1. Right-click node J1 and select Convert Type > Protective Equipment > Gas
Vessel.

2. Click Yes when prompted to reset the computed results.

3. Set the Gas Vessel properties:
a. Set the Elevation to 408.000 m.
b. Set the Diam. of Ori./Thrt. to 300 m.
c. Set the Ratio of Loss to 2.5.

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d. Set the Head Loss Coefficient to 1.0.

e. Set the Bladder to Yes.
f. Set the Tank Vol. to 20.0,
g. Set the Preset Press. to 0.0.
h. Do not change the X- and Y- coordinate values.

4. Select File > Save As and save the file with a new name:
Lesson1_Protection.hif.
5. Click GO, check Generate Animation Data and click Run to run this model.
6. If you have done everything correctly, the maximum transient head envelopes
with gas vessel protection should look as follows.

No significant air pocket

Max. transient head

Steady-state head
Min. transient head

Pipe elevation

Installing a Gas Vessel at node J1 has significantly reduced transient pressures in the
entire pipeline system. Due to this protection equipment, no significant vapor pocket
forms at the local high point. However, it is possible that a smaller Gas Vessel could
provide similar protection.

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Lesson 1: Pipeline Protection

It is also possible that other protection equipment could control transient heads and
perhaps be more cost-effective as well. Before undertaking additional HAMMER
simulations, it is worthwhile to compare and contrast the results with or without the
Gas Vessel.

In “Part 6—Adding Comments to Generate Report-Ready Graphs” on page 3-128,

you will learn how to change the appearance of HAMMER graphs. In “Lesson 3:
Network Risk Reduction” on page 3-142, you will learn how to add your organiza-
tion’s logo and many other useful presentation skills.

3.1.5 Part 5—Animating Transient Results at Points and along

Profiles

HAMMER provides many ways to visualize the simulated results using a variety of
graphs and animation layouts. You must specify which points and paths (profiles) are
of interest, as well as the frequency to output prior to a run, or HAMMER will not
generate this output to avoid creating excessively large output files (.hof). For small
systems, you can specify each point and every time step, but this is not advisable for
large water networks.

For the same reason, HAMMER only generates the Animation Data (for on-screen
animations) or Output Database (for tabular reports in Access) if you select this
option in the Run dialog box.

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Note: To achieve shorter run times and conserve disk space, try to
avoid generating voluminous output, such as Animation Data or
Output Databases, at an early stage of your hydraulic transient
analysis. Fast turnaround makes your evaluation of different
alternatives more interactive and challenges you to apply good
judgement as you compare your mental model of the system
with HAMMER’s results—a good habit which is like estimating
an answer in your head when using a calculator.

While you are still evaluating many different types or sizes of surge-protection equip-
ment, you can often compare their effectiveness just by plotting the maximum tran-
sient head envelopes for most of your HAMMER runs. At any time, or once you feel
you are close to a definitive surge-control solution, you can generate animation data in
one of two ways:

• Use HAMMER to generate the animation data files before you run the program by
clicking Generate Animation Data in the run dialog box (as you have already
done this for the two previous runs). After the run, HAMMER automatically starts
the HAMMER Viewer.
• Immediately after a run (i.e., prior to the next run), you can generate animation
data using Tools > Generate Animations. You will need to load this animation
data using Tools > Viewer > Graphics and selecting the correct HAMMER
output file (.hof) prior to animating the results on screen.

Once you have generated the animation data files, you will be able to display anima-
tions without running HAMMER again. This saves a lot of time when comparing the
results of several surge-control alternatives.

You can load the animation data files using the HAMMER Viewer:

1. Click Tools > Viewer > Graphics.

2. Select the .hof file you created previously.
3. In the HAMMER Viewer, select:
– Path: Main
– Graph Type: Path & Volume

4. Click the Animate button. This loads the animation data and Animation Control.

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Lesson 1: Pipeline Protection

Select path to animate Select parameter

to animate Click to animate

5. On the Animation Controller, click the play button to start the animation.
At a certain time (19.5000 s), the animation window should look similar to the
following figure.

Max. vapor pocket

Animated vapor pocket

Max. transient head

Animated profile

Pipe elevation
Min. transient head

6. Right-click on the graph and click Save as to save the result displayed on screen
as a HAMMER graph (.grp) or Windows bitmap (.bmp). You can reload
HAMMER graphs later.

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Save the animated

results in a
HAMMER .grp file

3.1.6 Part 6—Adding Comments to Generate Report-Ready

Graphs

1. Using the HAMMER Viewer, you can plot a transient history at any point in the
system to display the temporal variation of selected parameters (such as pressures
and flow). You can also plot a profile of selected variables along a particular path
to display the spatial extent of transient phenomena. Finally you can compare the
results of two similar graphs generated with or without protection, for example.
Let’s start with the simulated results without protection.
2. Select Tools > Viewer> Graphics and load Lesson1.hof file to start the
HAMMER Viewer.
3. Select:
– History: P1:J1
– Graph Type: Flow & Head

4. Click Plot to display this transient history.

5. Select:
– Path: Main
– Graph Type: Path

6. Click Plot to display it.

7. To format a graph:
a. Click the graph’s frame to select it (this will display square handles on the
frame outline)
b. Right-click the frame to open the graph’s shortcut menu.

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c. Select a shortcut menu item, such as Draw Symbol.

d. In the shortcut menu, you can select Format Graph to open the Format
Graph dialog box and set the graph’s properties.

8. To change the figure number, title, date, and project number, double-click them
and make the changes.

Change axis settings

Add hydraulic elements

on the pipeline

Double-click to
change the plot title

3.2 Lesson 2: Working with Data from External

Sources
Transient Tip: It is good engineering practice to run a HAMMER model
without modifying any of its parameters after importing it
from another steady-state model (i.e., EPANET). Since no
transient event has been selected, HAMMER’s results
should show no change in head and flow for any time
and at any point in the system. If so, the initial steady-
state can be considered correct. Otherwise, input
parameters or solution tolerances need to be checked
and likely corrected in the steady-state model.

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HAMMER makes it easy to import hydraulic model data from other hydraulic models
or database-enabled application software such as GIS (or to export HAMMER results
to such software). In this Lesson, you will learn how to

• Import steady-state hydraulic model results from WaterCAD or WaterGEMS,

EPANET, or PIPE2000/Surge2000 into HAMMER.
• Export and import database files (in Microsoft Access .mdb format) for data
sharing, result postprocessing, and interfacing with external data sources such as
AutoCAD or GIS.

Importing a model saves time and reduces transcription errors because HAMMER
automatically converts the majority of the data, but you still need to check the model
and enter information specific to hydraulic transient analysis.

3.2.1 Part 1—Exporting an Input or Output File to a HAMMER

Datastore

A HAMMER datastore is a special database format (see “Starting a HAMMER

Project” on page 4-165) that can be used to obtain input data or create output tables.
This section discusses techniques to create, modify, and use the HAMMER datastore
to run HAMMER.

Creating a HAMMER Input Datastore

From any HAMMER input file (.hif), you can create a HAMMER input datastore as
follows:

1. Double-click the HAMMER desktop icon, or select HAMMER from the

Windows Start menu: Start > All Programs > Haestad Methods > HAMMER >
HAMMER to start HAMMER.

Note: You can use the Zoom Full Extent and Reset Zoom buttons to
scale the network in the HAMMER window.

2. Click File > Open, and open Lesson2.hif (in the \HAMR\Tutorials\Lesson2
folder).
3. Click File > Export > Database > Input to create the HAMMER input datastore
in .mdb format.
4. Name the file, Lesson2_Input.mdb.
5. HAMMER will create database tables and display the a message that the tables
were successfully created. Click OK to continue.
6. A control window opens, letting you Create ASCII File, open the Database
Window, or Exit Access.

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Click Database Window and an Access database window opens.

Note: You can make changes directly to the HAMMER input datastore
or you can import data from external sources to any of its tables.
Following this, you can import the modified HAMMER input
datastore to perform another transient analysis.

7. Double-click an individual table, for example Pipes, to view and edit an element.
For your hydraulic system, the Pipes Table should appear as follows.

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8. Experiment with other database tables (such as nodes, system, or path), make any
changes you need, and save the file with the same name.

Creating an Output Datastore

1. You must run a HAMMER model prior to creating a HAMMER output datastore.
a. Click GO in HAMMER Modeler.
b. Select Generate Output Database.
c. Click Run.

Even if you did not select Generate Output Database, you can click File > Export
> Database > Output to create a HAMMER output datastore. HAMMER creates
an output database using the same name as the HAMMER input file (in this case
Lesson2.mdb) and opens a control window:

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Note: By default, HAMMER creates an output database template file

(.mdb) and saves it with the same name as the HAMMER input
file (.hif) during each run. When you create the output datastore
using the exporter, HAMMER populates that database template.

2. Select Extremes and click Display… to view the tabulated results in Access. The
table should look appear as shown below. You can also view reports for vapor
pockets, nodes, pipes, or the system summary.

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3.2.2 Part 2—Importing a HAMMER Datastore

HAMMER cannot currently import a HAMMER input datastore directly using File >
Import. However, you can import an input datastore into HAMMER using the
following procedure:

1. From Windows Explorer or your favorite Windows file manager, locate the file
Lesson2-input.mdb and double-click it to open Access and automatically load
the input datastore you have just created.
2. Click Database Window to display the list of tables for this pipe system.
3. Make any changes to the datastore; for example, connect two pipes to node J2 and
modify the Access database tables for Pipes, Nodes, and NodeDataSmall as the
highlighted rows in the following figures show:

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Newly added pipes

Newly added nodes

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Newly added nodes

4. Save the database file with the same or a new name (same name is the default) and
close the database.
5. Open Lesson2-input.mdb in Access.
6. When prompted, click Create ASCII File to create a HAMMER input file in a
temporary .inp format.
7. Save this file with the name Lesson2-InputFromDatabase.inp and click OK.
HAMMER displays the status of the creation of the file.
8. In HAMMER Modeler, click File > Open and select the HAMMER input file you
have just created. You will see the modified pipe network with the two new pipes
you just added to the HAMMER datastore’s database tables.
9. HAMMER automatically converts .inp files to the HAMMER input file format
(.hif). If a file with the same name exists, HAMMER prompts you to overwrite it
or provide a different file name.

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New pipes added in

the datastore

Using this technique, you can also modify an existing HAMMER input database by
linking it to other pipe-system database files from external sources, such as Access
databases created by AutoCAD or GIS software.

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3.2.3 Part 3—Importing Haestad Methods Models Using

WaterObjects

You can import system data from Haestad Methods’ WaterCAD or WaterGEMS
hydraulic models directly into HAMMER using WaterObjects technology.

1. Select File > Import > Network > WaterCAD/WaterGEMS to open the
WaterCAD/WaterGEMS Import dialog box.

Select units for

exported model
Select timestep to
export (for extended Click to generate
period simulation) steady-state results
to export

2. Use File > Open or the Ellipsis (…) button to select a WaterCAD or WaterGEMS
file. The path of the file is listed in the project field.
3. Select a Scenario, Units, and Calculation Options (Steady-State or Extended-
Period Simulation time step).
4. Click Run Simulation to generate steady-state hydraulic results.
5. Click Create HAMMER Input File to generate an .hif file (HAMMER will
prompt you for the file name).
After the input file is created, a message box will display any notes about the
creation.

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3.2.4 Part 4—Importing from Other Models

Importing from other models includes:

• “Importing from EPANET” on page 3-141

• “Importing from PIPE2000 or Surge2000” on page 3-142

Importing from EPANET

You can compare the model you are about to import from EPANET with the one you
assembled in Part 1 of Lesson 1. To import data and steady-state results from the
EPANET 2.0 hydraulic model:

1. Click File > Import > Network > Epanet 2.0. The Import EPANET File dialog
box opens.

2. Click the EPANET Report File Browse button to select the EPANET Report File,
Lesson2_Epanet.rpt, from the \Haestad \HAMR\Tutorials\Lesson2\EPANET
folder.
3. Select the EPANET Network File Browse button to select Lesson2_Epanet.inp
from the same folder.
4. Click the Output HAMMER File Browse button, and name the HAMMER input
file Lesson2.hif.
5. Leaving the import Mode setting set to New.
6. Click Import. A dialog box will indicate the status of the import process.

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7. Select File > Open to load the HAMMER input file, Lesson2.hif, from the folder
you specified during the import operation.
8. Compare this imported pipeline with the one you created using the HAMMER
Modeler interface (see “Part 1—Creating or Importing a Steady-State Model” on
page 3-106).

Importing from PIPE2000 or Surge2000

The procedure and interface for importing from PIPE2000 or Surge2000 is similar to
that for EPANET. The import dialog for PIPE2000/Surge2000 is shown below.

3.3 Lesson 3: Network Risk Reduction

In Lesson 1, you learned how to create and run a simple pipeline model and explored
its different characteristics using HAMMER Modeler and HAMMER Viewer. In
Lesson 2, you imported this same pipeline from EPANET into HAMMER. In Lesson
3, you will import a simple water-distribution network connected to the same pipeline
introduced in Lesson 1, using WaterObject technology. You will then perform a more
advanced hydraulic transient analysis, again in three steps:

1. Import the steady-state WaterCAD model into HAMMER and verify it.
2. Select a transient event to analyze and run the HAMMER model.
3. Annotate and color-code the resulting map, profiles, and histories using
HAMMER’s powerful, built-in visualization capabilities.

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3.3.1 Part 1—Importing and Verifying the Initial Steady-States

Follow these steps to import model data and steady-state results from WaterCAD or
WaterGEMS into HAMMER (see “Part 3—Importing Haestad Methods Models
Using WaterObjects” on page 3-139):

1. Start HAMMER from the Windows Start menu using Start > All Programs >
Haestad Methods > HAMMER > HAMMER or double-click the HAMMER
desktop icon (if any).
2. Click File > Import > Network > WaterCAD/WaterGEMS to open the Water-
Object importer.
3. Browse your system to locate and open the file Lesson3-WtrGems.mdb from the
folder Haestad\HAMR\Tutorials\Lesson3\WaterGEMS.
4. Click Steady-state, then click Run Simulation. Select cms, m in the Units drop-
down list. Click Create HAMMER Input File and save the HAMMER input file
as Lesson3.hif.

Note: Set the Control Status of valve VLV1 to Throttled or Wide Open.
Click Operating Rule and set the Relative Closure to 0 at 0 s and
0 at 1000 s (for example), so that the valve will remain fully open
throughout the simulation.

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Inspecting the steady-state model results using HAMMER Modeler reveals that
the water transmission main now carries only 207 L/s of water from the pumping
station to reservoir Res2 at elevation 456 m. A local main takes water from the
transmission main at a tee located about 400 m from the pumping station, distrib-
uting 265 L/s to a nearby subdivision. The part of the subdivision close to the
pumping station has lower ground (and therefore water main) elevations, while
the far end has higher ground elevations. Your goal is to identify transient issues
for this system and recommend surge protection alternatives.
5. By default, HAMMER selects a Constant speed pump (with no pump curve) to
represent the imported pump. Prior to running the HAMMER model of this
system, you need to select some profiles and points of interest.
6. Click Tools > Project Options and select the Report Points tab. Add nodes
PMP1D:PMP1, P1:J1, P2:J1, P2:J2, P8:J2, P27:J19, P28:J19, P47:J34, and
P50:J37 to the report points (you learned how to do this in Lesson 1).

Note: HAMMER plots time histories at a pipe’s end points, defined as

the point on a pipe closest to a node and labeled
Pipe_End_Point:Node. To obtain a complete picture of what is
occurring at any given node, you must inspect every end point
connected to that node (e.g., in this example, plot histories at
end points P1:J1 and P2:J1 for node J1).

7. Click the Report Paths tab and create three paths as follows:
– Create Path1 and add pipes PMP1D, P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, P6, and P7 to it.
– Create Path2 and add pipes PMP1D, P1, P2, P8, VLV1U, VLV1D, P9, P10,
P14, P48, P49, and P50 to it.
– Create Path3 and add pipes PMP1D, P1, P2, P8, VLV1U, VLV1D, P9, P15,
P22, P24, P28, P30, P46, and P47 to it.

8. Click VLV1 and set the Disch. Coeff. to 0.9.

9. Click the Summary and set Run Duration = 160 s, Time = seconds, Wave
Speed = 1250 m/s, and Vapor Pressure = -10 m-Hd (default value).
10. Click File > Save to save this HAMMER input file with the same name,
Lesson3.hif.
11. Click File > Run and click Run to run the HAMMER model.
12. The HAMMER Viewer will open automatically after the run completes. Click
Plot to generate a plot of the maximum and minimum head envelopes along
Path1, Path2, and Path 3. The envelopes along Path1 should look like the
following figure.

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13. Click Plot to generate a plot of the hydraulic transient history of Flow & Head at
the pumping station. There should be no significant change in the steady-state
conditions with time.

Transient Tip: When you import a steady-state model using

WaterObject, the Friction Coef. and Wave Vel. fields of
individual pipes are left empty (not zero). This does not
affect the results, since HAMMER calculates the friction
factor prior to every run and because it uses the global
Wave Velocity (in the System tab of the Model Settings
dialog). If the pressure wave speed differs for individual
pipes, you must enter a Wave Vel. value for each pipe in
your system.

Results from the HAMMER run you have just completed do not show any change in
the steady-state heads and flows throughout the water network as time passes. This
indicates the imported steady-state model can be considered as correct. You are now
ready to proceed with the hydraulic transient analysis for this network.

If the solution tolerance of a steady-state model is too coarse, HAMMER’s highly

accurate model engine may report transients at time zero in the .out file. This can
usually be handled by running the steady-state model again with a much smaller error
tolerance.

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3.3.2 Part 2—Selecting the Key Transient Events to Model

In Lesson 1, you simulated the transient pressures resulting from a sudden power
failure. In this lesson you will learn how to simulate transient pressures in a water
distribution network triggered by an emergency pump shutdown and restart.
Although a power failure often results in the worst-case conditions, restarting before
friction has dissipated the transient energy can cause higher extreme pressures than the
initial power failure.

3.3.3 Part 3—Performing a Transient Analysis

In order to generate transient events for a rapid but controlled emergency pump shut-
down and restart, you need to set appropriate pump characteristics to control the speed
at which this pump can shut down and restart. One of the ways to do this is to install a
variable-frequency drive (VFD), also known as a variable-speed pump.

Analysis without Surge Protection

1. Right-click node PMP1 and select Convert Type > Rotating Equipment > Vari-
able Speed, between 2 Pipes. You can also select a different pump type in the
Element Property pane.

Note: You will be prompted to reset the computed results. Click Yes.

2. You can use either Speed or Torque to control the VFD pump ramp times. In this
lesson, you will learn how to control the pump using Speed. The property window
for Variable Speed, between 2 Pipes appears as follows.

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Note: HAMMER saves your data automatically when you exit a dialog
box by clicking Close.

3. Click the drop-down list next to the Operating Rule. A data table for the pump’s
Speed and operating Time appears. Fill the table as indicated and click Close to
leave the table.

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4. Click Go to open the Run dialog box. Check Generate Animation Data and
click Run to start the simulation. You will need the animation data later to
animate the results on screen. When the run completes, it automatically loads the
HAMMER Viewer, from which you can plot and animate your results.
5. Plot the transient history at end point PMP1D:PMP1 (i.e., the discharge side of
the pump). It should look like the following figure and have these characteristics:
– After the emergency pump shutdown, pressure and flow drop rapidly,
followed by a large upsurge pressure (at about 15 s) after flow returning to the
pumping station collapses the vapor pockets at the high points. The check
valve on the discharge side of the pump keeps the flow at zero during the
initial and subsequent pressure oscillations (until the pump restarts).
– The maximum transient head resulting from the pump restart does not exceed
the maximum head reached about ten seconds after the initial power failure.
This is because flow supplied by the pump prevents vapor pockets from re-
forming and collapsing again.
– The system approaches a new steady state after 50 seconds and it has essen-
tially stabilized to a new steady state by 90 seconds.
– As expected, the final steady state is similar to the initial steady state.

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6. Plot the maximum and minimum transient head envelopes along the Paths Path1,
Path2, and Path3. The Path3 envelopes should look like the following figure:

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In these figures,
– Subatmospheric transient pressures occur in almost half of the pipeline. Full
vacuum pressure (–10 m) occurs at the knee of the pipeline (near the pump
station) and at the local high point in the distribution network.
– Maximum transient pressure heads are of the order of 100% above steady-
state pressures along the majority of Path3. This is likely very significant
compared to the pipes’ surge-tolerance limit, especially if the network
contains older pipes. It would be useful to show the pipe’s working pressure
and surge-tolerance limit on the paths to assess whether it can withstand these
high pressures.

7. Experiment to learn the sensitivity of this system to an automatic, emergency

shutdown and restart:
– Set different shutdown and restart ramp times for the pump. For example, try
10 s ramp times for the pump. How fast does the flow decrease to zero? Why?
– Select different time delays between the pump shutdown and restart. What
happens if you try to restart the pump when pressure is at its lowest, rising, or
highest?

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8. Identify the fastest ramp times and shortest time delay which do not result in unac-
ceptable transient pressures anywhere in the system. Since the maximum transient
envelopes depend on these two variables, several valid solutions are possible. You
can document your solution in the operations manuals for the pumping station and
verify its accuracy upon commissioning.

Note: The volume of vapor or air reported at a node is the sum of the
volumes at every end point of all connected nodes. Since a pipe
may have volumes elsewhere than at its end point, node and
pipe volumes may not match. If more than two pipes connect to
a node, the volume reported on a path (or profile) plot may not
match the volume reported for that node’s history, or in the
Drawing Pane, because a path can only include two of the pipes
connecting to that node.

9. The results indicate that significant pressures occur in the system. After viewing
the animations, it becomes even more clear that:
– High pressures result from the collapse of significant vapor pockets at local
high points. Inspection of the transient histories at end-points P2:J1 and
P27:J19 confirms that vapor pockets collapse at around these times.
– The pump restarts at 25 s or 20 s after the start of the emergency pump shut-
down, just as the high-pressure pulse from the collapse of a vapor pocket at
node J1 is reaching the pump station. This pulse closes the check valve
against the pump for a while, until it reaches its full speed and power at
around 30 s.
– Transient pressure waves travel throughout the system, reflecting at reser-
voirs, dead-ends, and tanks. This results in complex but essentially periodic
disturbances to the pump as it attempts to re-establish a steady state.
– As expected, the final steady-state head and flow are similar to the initial
steady state.

Analysis with Surge-Protection Equipment

You can select from an array of protective equipment to control high and low transient
pressures in the pipeline (Path1) and distribution network (Path2 and Path3). Using
HAMMER, you can assess the efficiency of alternative protection equipment, noting
how protection for the pipeline affects conditions in the network and vice versa. In this
example you will try to protect this entire system with two surge-control devices:

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• A gas vessel or air chamber at node J1 similar to the protection used in Lesson
1. Due to the connected pipe network, transient pressure pulses fragment and
attenuate more rapidly and there is much less flow in the pipeline; therefore a 5 m3
gas vessel is adequate. This is a significant reduction compared with the 20 m3 gas
vessel in Lesson 1.
• A simple flow-through surge tank or standpipe at the node J19. A combination
air valve could also be considered for this location if freezing or land-acquisition
costs are a concern.

To protect the system:

1. Right-click node J1 and select Convert Type > Protective Equipment > Gas
Vessel.
2. Enter the following Gas Vessel parameters:

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3. Right-click node J19 and select Convert Type > Protective Equipment > Surge
Tank (Simple).
4. Enter the following simple surge tank’s parameters:

5. Select File > Save As to save the file with the name Lesson3-Protection.hif.
6. Click Go to run the model (check the option Generate Animation Data).
7. Once the run completes and HAMMER Viewer opens, select Path1, Path2, and
Path3 in sequence and click Plot to generate graphs of their transient head enve-
lopes. The envelope along Path3 with surge protection should look like the
following figure:
– No subatmospheric pressures occur anywhere in the distribution network
(along Path3).
– High transient pressures are comparable to the steady-state pressures for the
downstream half of Path3. Keeping transient water pressures within a narrow
band reduces complaints and it could be important for certain industries.

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8. Compare the transient head envelopes and transient histories for HAMMER runs
with different parameters, without and with protection:
– You may be able to reduce the size (and cost) of the Gas Vessel and Surge
Tank (Simple) by changing their parameters until surge pressures are unac-
ceptable.
– Instead of the Gas Vessel and Surge Tank, you can also try installing a two-
way or “combination” Air Valve at nodes J1 and J19.

9. Before recommending a surge-protection strategy for this system, you need to

perform a transient analysis of an emergency power failure and other possible
transient events.
10. Use HAMMER’s animation capabilities to prepare a presentation explaining the
pros and cons of each protection alternative, as you did in Part 5 of Lesson 1. You
will learn more advanced techniques in the next parts of this lesson.

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3.3.4 Part 4—Color-Coding Maps, Profiles, and Point Histories

In the design of a surge-control strategy for a water distribution network, the extreme
states are usually of the greatest interest. HAMMER has built-in capabilities to visu-
alize maximum and minimum simulated flows, heads, pressures, and volumes (vapor
or air) throughout the pipe system. You can color-code nodes and pipes according to
these different parameters. HAMMER Modeler also displays line thicknesses in
proportion to the pipes’ diameter.

In this part of the lesson, you will learn how to use HAMMER’s color-coding features
to make your presentation more intuitive and compelling to your audiences.

1. In HAMMER Modeler, click File > Open and load the file Lesson3.hif.
2. Click the Go button on the HAMMER toolbar and click Run to generate output to
be displayed with the color-coding. When the run is completed, you will see that
the entire pipe network, including the nodes, is now shown in color. By default,
HAMMER uses Maximum Head for both the pipes and nodes for color-coding.
3. Select any node on the map and set maximum and minimum pressures in the
network to psi using FlexUnit. You can do this by clicking on the unit indicator in
the Element Editor; for example, m-head or ft-head.
4. Use the Map Selection drop-down box on the HAMMER toolbar (left of the
Globe icon) to select the parameters you want to display for pipes and nodes. The
following screen prompts you for a selection. Keep Maximum Head (for pipes)
and select Maximum Pressure (for the nodes).

5. Click on the Scales button at the bottom of the Map Selection choice list. The
color settings correspond either to the Maximum Head or Maximum Pressure,
if these are currently displayed in the Map Selection drop-down list. Select a
Percentile scale.

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HAMMER’s Color Map Settings dialog for the variable Maximum Pressure
(for nodes) shows the maximum and minimum values of this variable using the
units you selected with the FlexUnits manager. The appearance of the resulting
map depends on how skillfully you divide the total range into intervals and how
you set colors corresponding to each of the interval boundaries:
– Select equal intervals by clicking on the Quartile, Quintile, Decile, and
Percentile Scale Type. These correspond to upper and lower range limits of
25, 20, 10, and 1 percent, respectively.
– You can also click Custom (Percent) to use the Low Percent and High
Percent sliders or Custom (Value) to enter the limiting values directly.

Throughout this process, you can press Preview to update the map color and see
the result of your changes as you make them. This saves a lot of time compared to
repeatedly opening the Color Map Settings dialog, making a selection, and
closing it again to view the resulting map.
6. In the Color Setting control, click the Add button to insert a new setpoint value,
in percent, and its corresponding color using the Color Bar. Set the values and
colors shown in the previous screen shot and click OK to return to HAMMER
Modeler.
7. Similarly, set the values and colors for pipes as indicated in the next screen
capture and click OK to return to HAMMER Modeler.

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8. The resulting color-coded map for Maximum Head (for pipes) and Maximum
Pressure (for nodes) should look like the following figure:

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9. Another way to obtain the above map using the Map Color Settings dialog is to
click Presets and select Lesson3-Pipes (for pipes) and Lesson3-Nodes (for
nodes) from the drop-down box. This will result in the same color map displayed
above.
10. Try different ways to set the Scale Type and Color Setting values for different
variables at pipes and nodes to try to make your presentation more descriptive.
For example, you could try the following:
– In the Map Color Settings dialog, select the Color Setting preset System:
Max. Head. Since suction line pressures are much lower than those in the
pipeline and distribution network, you can alter the Minimum Value by
clicking on Custom (Value) and entering 400 m. More of the pipes are now
colored green, indicating normal to high heads in this system.
– For pipes, set the percentage corresponding to the dark blue color so that
subatmospheric pressures are displayed in this color, alerting you to potential
pathogen intrusion and heavy pipe or joint pressure cycling.
– For nodes, experiment with the percentages corresponding to yellow and
orange until they correspond to the pipe’s working pressure or surge-tolerance
limit.

Color-coding a map for selected variables provides an overview of extreme conditions

in the entire system. This map can be compared with profiles and histories (or their
corresponding animations).

Some parts in the subdivision also experience high pressures. For example, the color-
coded map and the Results section of the Element Editor indicate that the point with
the highest elevation in the subdivision, node J34, experiences the lowest minimum
transient pressure, while the lowest point in the network, node J37, experiences the
largest maximum transient pressure.

3.3.5 Part 5—Adding Comments to Generate Report-Ready

Graphs

In Lesson 1 you learned how to add comments and change the graph’s title and figure
number using HAMMER Viewer. In this part of the lesson, you will learn more
advanced graphing features, such as FlexUnits, and how to add your organization’s
name and logo to the figures.

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You will also learn how to add lines showing pipes’ working pressure or surge-
tolerance limits, to check which parts of your pipe system are more vulnerable to
surges and to help decide whether or not you need surge-protection equipment. Let’s
start with your results for the transient analysis without surge protection and follow
these steps:

1. In HAMMER Modeler, click Tools > Viewer > Graphics to start the HAMMER
Viewer and load Lesson3.hof.
2. You can insert your company’s name and logo using the Tools > Set Logo and
Tools > Set Company Name menu commands in the HAMMER Viewer.
3. Select the Time History PMP1D:PMP1 and Graph Type Flow & Head and click
on Plot to generate the transient history at the pumping station. The head will be
plotted in m and the flow will be plotted in cms (SI units).
4. Right-click anywhere outside the graph to open the menu. Click FlexUnits to
open the FlexUnit Manager.

Note: HAMMER’s FlexUnits Manager allows you to select and plot your
results in different units, such as pressure head in U.S. units and
flow in SI units. You can select the display precision and use
scientific notation. Choices you make in the FlexUnits Manager
will not affect the accuracy of the solution or the underlying data
stored by HAMMER.

5. For plotting purposes, you can change the units for some variables using the Flex-
Units Manager by:

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– Click SI for the Attribute Type row Elevation or Head under the column
System. This drop-down menu allows you to convert this variable to U.S.
units. As in other Haestad Methods software, FlexUnits automatically selects
a corresponding unit with a similar size: m in SI units converts to ft. in U.S.
units, in this case.
– If your results were either very large or small, you could also change the unit
to in., yd., mile, etc.
– Similarly, change the unit for Flow from cms to l/s by clicking on the
Attribute Type row Flow under the column Units. Change Display Precision
to zero for Flow.

6. Click OK to save these settings and leave the FlexUnits Manager. From now on,
Head will be displayed in ft. and Flow will be displayed in l/s, as shown in the
figure below.

7. To help interpret the maximum transient head envelope along the profiles, you can
add lines corresponding to the pipes’ working pressure or surge-tolerance limit. In
HAMMER Viewer, select Path (Profile) Path1 and Graph Type Path and click
Plot to view the graph.

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8. Let’s assume that the working pressure of pipes in your network is 142 psi (100
m). Click on the graph frame and then right-click to display the menu. Click
Format Data to open the following dialog box:

9. Select Current Line: Lesson3: Path1: Elevation and click on the Add Segment.
A new segment is added parallel to the pipe. The offset is zero by default. Enter
100 in the Set Offset field and make sure there is a check in the Show box. You
can add another line segment with an offset of about 140 m to represent a typical
surge tolerance limit. This incorporates a safety factor for older pipes. You can
also change the line segments’ type, thickness, and color.

Note: If your current FlexUnits settings for pressure are psi or kPa, you
must convert the pipe’s working pressure and surge-tolerance
limits to their equivalent heads and draw a line this distance
above, and parallel to, your pipeline.

10. Click on the graph frame and then right-click to display the shortcut menu. Select
Format Graph > Draw > Text to add the labels “Maximum Transient Head”,
“Minimum Transient Head”, “Steady-state Head”, and “Pipe Elevation” to your
graphs. Double-click the text to select a font and size for this text. The graph
should now look like the following screen capture.:

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11. Plot transient pressures envelopes along Path2 and Path3 and add the working
pressures in a similar way as you did for Path1 to check which part of your
network may need additional surge protection.
12. To visualize the system interactively, do the following:
a. Click Animate for Path3 and again for histories at end-points P27:J19 and
P2:J1 (only P27:J19 is shown in the next figure).
b. Rearrange the graphs on your desktop to look like the next figure. After
adding suitable annotations and titles, right-click each one and select Save As
> HAMMER Graph to save the to HAMMER graph files (.grp) for subse-
quent recall.
c. You can right-click any graph and turn its title bar off to maximize the propor-
tion of area available for graphs.
d. In the Animation Controller, click File > Save Animation As to save this
layout in a HAMMER animation layout file (.ani).

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You can use the HAMMER Viewer to open a HAMMER output file (.hof),
then open its animation files (.ani) to re-create your screen layout automati-
cally. This simplifies the preparations required for later discussions.

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Starting a HAMMER 4
Project

In this section, you will learn how HAMMER manages files and project data and the
ways in which you can import model data from other models or databases. You will
also learn how to enter project-specific information, including fundamental fluid and
pipe properties. Finally, you will learn how to use the powerful FlexUnit and
FlexTable features to select a global or variable-specific unit system, choose display
precision settings or globally edit parameter values.

• “File Management and Formats” on page 4-165

• “Import and Export Commands” on page 4-173
• “Project Management and Options” on page 4-176

4.1 File Management and Formats

HAMMER lets you use several file formats.

4.1.1 HAMMER Input and Output Files

HAMMER uses binary files with the extension .hif to store model-specific informa-
tion, including project option settings, color-coding, and annotations. Using the File >
New menu command creates a HAMMER input file in .hif format.

HAMMER results are saved to an output file which uses the .hof extension. Using the
File > Run menu command creates a HAMMER output file in .hof format (after the
run is completed). Clicking Generate Animation Data adds animation data to the
.hof file for each selected point and profile.

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4.1.2 HAMMER Datastore and Access Connections

In addition to the .hif file format, network information and output results can also be
stored in (or retrieved from) the HAMMER datastore. A HAMMER datastore is saved
as a Microsoft Access .mdb file. Export your work to apply changes to a HAMMER
datastore using File > Export > Database > Input or File > Export > Database >
Output. For an example of how to do this, see “Part 1—Exporting an Input or Output
File to a HAMMER Datastore” on page 3-131.

Note: A HAMMER output datastore (.mdb) file contains most of the

input data you specified prior to running HAMMER, as well as
the output data. Consequently, this file can be very large.

The HAMMER datastore consists of several tables whose entries can be edited using
Access. You can create new entries in the datastore to add new hydraulic elements to a
model. The first step to import this data into HAMMER is to click Create ASCII File
(.inp) in the HAMMER database Control Window. This Control Window starts auto-
matically when you export a HAMMER input file to a datastore using File > Export >
Database > Input. Then, use File > Open to import the temporary ASCII .inp file
into a standard binary HAMMER input file (.hif).

For an example of how to do this, see “Part 2—Importing a HAMMER Datastore” on

page 3-135.

4.1.3 WaterObjects Connections

For an example of how to use WaterObjects connections, see “Part 3—Importing

Haestad Methods Models Using WaterObjects” on page 3-139.

4.1.4 Additional Files

Note: Use a separate folder for every HAMMER project to facilitate

project management and backup. At this time, each HAMMER
project requires a separate input file name.

HAMMER output graphs are saved in .grp files and HAMMER animation layouts are
saved in .ani files. For typical users and projects, it can take anywhere from a few
minutes to a half hour to create graph annotations and animation layouts. It is highly
recommended that you backup all .grp and .ani files in your project folder.

HAMMER also creates an empty output database template whether or not this option
is selected in the Run dialog. HAMMER does not need this .mdb to function but
Access scripts provided with HAMMER require it to generate tables and custom
reports. You can delete any .mdb file created by HAMMER, if you no longer require
it, or compress it using a third-party utility program.

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HAMMER stores your Global HAMMER Options in files named: config.ini (an
ASCII text file that can be edited), and preferences.cfg. HAMMER stores your param-
eter Presets in a file named: Presets.lib. All these files are located in the main applica-
tion folder (typically ..\\Program Files\Haestad\HAMR). Copy them to the
corresponding folders other computers to make your defaults and libraries available.

Parameter libraries stored in the \Data sub-folder include: liquids.xml, valves.xml,

pumps.xml and turbines.xml—all are editable but must obey formatting rules (see
“Using Presets and Parameter Libraries” on page B-432). Use these to enter your own
four-quadrant pump and turbine characteristic data for use in HAMMER.

Note: Bentley Systems software such as WaterCAD or WaterGEMS can

also store data in .mdb files. If you are saving files from these
programs to the same folder as your HAMMER project, be
careful to give them different names to prevent loss of data.

HAMMER creates additional files in the same directory as your .hof file to save the
calculation results (.rpt, .out, .mdb). Since recomputing the input file can regenerate
these results, these files do not necessarily need to be included when backing up your
important model data. However, if you are unsure, back up all files present in your
project directory.

4.1.5 Multiple Sessions and Submodels

Note: If your computer has sufficient RAM, it is possible to open more

than one instance of HAMMER to copy and paste results
between similar projects, but this is not recommended, as it may
result in data loss. It is more efficient to copy and paste results
between the .grp files generated by each project.

HAMMER does not support either multiple sessions or submodels. HAMMER uses a
single-document model. To compare results between different HAMMER project
files, you can:

• save each graph as a separate HAMMER graph file in .grp format, then cut and
paste the results between graphs using the HAMMER Viewer. Memory require-
ments vary with project size, but .grp files are quite compact.
• generate an output database for each database for each project to be compared.
• export specific FlexTables containing input and results to comma-delimited text
files, or copy table contents to the Windows clipboard and past into a spreadsheet.

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4.2 Considerations for ProjectWise Users

Bentley ProjectWise provides managed access to HAMMER content within a work-
group, across a distributed organization, or among collaborating professionals. When
ProjectWise is integrated with HAMMER, project files can be accessed quickly,
checked out for use, and checked back in directly from within HAMMER.

If ProjectWise is installed on your system, HAMMER automatically installs all the

components necessary for you to use ProjectWise to store and share your HAMMER
projects.

To learn more about ProjectWise, refer to the ProjectWise online help.

To learn more about using ProjectWise with HAMMER, see the following topics:

• “General Guidelines for using ProjectWise with HAMMER” on page 4-169

• “Performing ProjectWise Operations from within HAMMER” on page 4-170

4.2.1 General Guidelines for using ProjectWise with HAMMER

Follow these guidelines when using HAMMER with ProjectWise:

• Use the File > ProjectWise commands to perform ProjectWise file operations,
such as Save, Open, and Change Datasource.
• The first time you choose one of the File > ProjectWise menu commands in your
current HAMMER session, you are prompted to log into a ProjectWise data-
source. The datasource you log into remains the current datasource until you
change it using the File > ProjectWise > Change Datasource command.
• Use HAMMER’s File > New command to create a new project. The project is not
stored in ProjectWise until you select File > ProjectWise > Save As.
• Use HAMMER’s File > Open command to open a local copy of the current
project.
• Use HAMMER’s File > Save command to save a copy of the current project to
your local computer.
• When you Close a project already stored in ProjectWise using File > Close, you
are prompted to select one of the following options:
– Check In—Updates the project in ProjectWise with your latest changes and
unlocks the project so other ProjectWise users can edit it.
– Unlock—Unlocks the project so other ProjectWise users can edit it but does
not update the project in ProjectWise. Note that this will abandon any changes
you have made since the last server update.

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– Leave Out—Leaves the project checked out so others cannot edit it and
retains any changes you have made since the last server update to the files on
your local computer. Select this option if you want to exit HAMMER but
continue working on the project later.
• In the HAMMER Options dialog box, there is an Update server on Save check
box. This option, when turned on, can significantly affect performance, especially
for large, complex projects. When this is checked, any time you save your
HAMMER project locally using the File > Save menu command, the files on your
ProjectWise server will also be updated and all changes to the files will immedi-
ately become visible to other ProjectWise users. This option is turned off by
default.
• In this release of HAMMER, calculation result files are not managed inside
ProjectWise. A local copy of reulsts is maintained on your computer, but to ensure
accurate results you should recalculate projects when you first open them from
ProjectWise.
• HAMMER projects associated with ProjectWise appear in the Most Recently
Used Files list (at the bottom of the File menu) in the following format:
pwname://PointServer:_TestDatasource/Documents/TestFolder/Test1.prj

4.2.2 ProjectWise Options Dialog Box

This dialog contains the following controls:

• Default Data Source—This field displays the default ProjectWise data source. To
change the default datasource, click the ellipsis button to open a browse dialog,
which will allow you to specify the new data source.
• Update server on Save—When this box is checked, any time you save your
HAMMER project locally using the File > Save menu command, the files on your
ProjectWise server will also be updated and all changes to the files will immedi-
ately become visible to other ProjectWise users.

4.2.3 Performing ProjectWise Operations from within

HAMMER

You can quickly tell whether or not the current HAMMER project is in ProjectWise or
not by looking at the title bar and the status bar of the HAMMER window. If the
current project is in ProjectWise, “pwname://” will appear in front of the file name in
the title bar, and a ProjectWise icon will appear on the far right side of the status bar,
as shown below.

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Considerations for ProjectWise Users

You can perform the following ProjectWise operations from within HAMMER:

To save an open HAMMER project to ProjectWise:

1. In HAMMER, select File > ProjectWise > Save As.

2. If you haven’t already logged into ProjectWise, you are prompted to do so. Select
a ProjectWise datasource, type your ProjectWise user name and password, then
click Log in.
3. In the ProjectWise Save Document dialog box, enter the following information:
a. Click Change next to the Folder field, then select a folder in the current
ProjectWise datasource in which to store your project.
b. Type the name of your HAMMER project in the Name field. We recommend
that you keep the ProjectWise name the same as or as close to the HAMMER
project name as possible.
c. Keep the default entries for the rest of the fields in the dialog box
d. Click OK.

To open a HAMMER project from a ProjectWise datasource:

1. Select File > ProjectWise > Open.

2. If you haven’t already logged into ProjectWise, you are prompted to do so. Select
a ProjectWise datasource, type your ProjectWise user name and password, then
click Log in.
3. In the ProjectWise Select Document dialog box, perform these steps:
a. From the Folder drop-down menu, select a folder that contains HAMMER
projects.
b. In the Document list box, select a HAMMER project.
c. Keep the default entries for the rest of the fields in the dialog box
d. Click Open.

To copy an open HAMMER project from one ProjectWise datasource to another:

1. Select File > ProjectWise > Open to open a project stored in ProjectWise.
2. Select File > ProjectWise > Change Datasource.
3. In the ProjectWise Log in dialog box, select a different ProjectWise datasource,
then click Log in.

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4. Select File > ProjectWise > Save As.

5. In the ProjectWise Save Document dialog box, change information about the
project as required, then click OK.

To make a local copy of a HAMMER project stored in a ProjectWise datasource:

1. Select File > ProjectWise > Open.

2. If you haven’t already logged into ProjectWise, you are prompted to do so. Select
a ProjectWise datasource, type your ProjectWise user name and password, then
click Log in.
3. Select File > Save As.
4. Save the HAMMER project to a folder on your local computer.

To change the default ProjectWise datasource:

1. Start HAMMER.
2. Select File > ProjectWise > Options.
3. In the ProjectWise Options dialog, click the ellipsis button and browse to the
ProjectWise datasource you want to use as the default, then click OK.

To use background layer files with ProjectWise:

• Using File > ProjectWise > Save As—If there are background files, you are
prompted with two options: you can copy the background layer files to the project
folder for use by the project, or you can remove the background references and
manually reassign them once the project is in ProjectWise to other existing
ProjectWise documents.
• Using File > ProjectWise > Open—This works the same as the normal Project-
Wise > Open command, except that background layer files are not locked in
ProjectWise for the current user to edit. The files are intended to be shared with
other users at the same time.
• To add a background layer file reference to a project that exists in Project Wise—
The ProjectWise Select Document dialog box opens, and you can choose any
existing ProjectWise document. You must have previously added these back-
ground layer files as described in the first bullet above, or by using the Project-
Wise Explorer.
• When you remove a background layer file reference from a project that exists in
ProjectWise, the reference to the file is removed but the file itself is not deleted
from ProjectWise.

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Import and Export Commands

• Using File > Save As—When you use File > Save As on a project that is
already in ProjectWise and there are background layer files, you are prompted
with two options: you can copy all the files to the local project folder for use
by the project, or you can remove the background references and manually
reassign them after you have saved the project locally.

4.3 Import and Export Commands

The File > Import > Network menu command lets you import model data and
steady-state results from EPANET version 2.0, WaterCAD/WaterGEMS using Water-
Object technology or PIPE2000/Surge2000. You will then be able to save these data as
a HAMMER project.

Data can be imported into a new project or an existing project, for example to update
the steady-state heads at the beginning of a transient analysis. PIPE2000/SURGE2000
data can only be imported into a new HAMMER project file.

Note: We have made every effort to prevent the loss of data during
imports. However, all imported data should be checked for
accuracy. WaterCAD or WaterGEMS projects should open and
run in HAMMER after using the Import command, but additional
data is usually required before a hydraulic transient analysis
(e.g., pump and motor inertia).

Once you save the project in HAMMER file format, either .hif or
.mdb (datastore), the HAMMER project files can no longer be
opened in WaterCAD or WaterGEMS, but the original WaterCAD
and WaterGEMS files are not lost.

You can also use the File > Export menu command to export HAMMER output to
EPANET version 2.0 or to a Microsoft Access database in HAMMER datastore
format. If you intend to run an EPANET file exported from HAMMER, make sure the
HAMMER output represents a final steady state.

4.3.1 Importing/Exporting EPANET v.2.0

Note: In Global HAMMER Options, Epanet exe must display the path to
your EPANET directory before you can import or export EPANET
files (see “File I/O” on page 2-87).

In EPANET version 2.0, you will need to save the steady-state results to an EPANET
report (.rpt) file prior to importing them into HAMMER. For an extended-period
simulation (EPS), you must first select which time step you want to export from
EPANET.

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Importing steady-state results from EPANET saves time and eliminates transcription
errors, but additional information is required prior to running a HAMMER model.
After importing your data into HAMMER, you will need to add data specific to
hydraulic transients.

To import EPANET model data and steady-state results into HAMMER, use the menu
command File > Import > Network > Epanet 2.0 and either import it into a new
HAMMER project file (set the import Mode to New) or use it to update an existing
HAMMER project file (set the import Mode to Update). For more information, see
“Importing from EPANET” on page 3-141.

After the transient energy has attenuated and a new steady state has been achieved or
if you created a steady-state model using HAMMER, you can also export some
HAMMER results to EPANET 2.0 using the menu command File > Export >
Network > Epanet 2.0.

4.3.2 Importing/Exporting to a GIS or Database Using the

HAMMER Datastore

By default, HAMMER uses its own input and output file formats. The HAMMER
datastore is an alternative method for creating and using input and output files to
analyze any pipe system whose data can be output to a Microsoft Access .mdb file.
HAMMER datastores can be used to create HAMMER input files from information
contained in your GIS (i.e., network data) or other databases (e.g., water demands
from meters).

For example, you can obtain system data and topology from a GIS and export it to an
.mdb connection file (e.g., HAMMER datastore). The process is described in “Part
2—Importing a HAMMER Datastore” on page 3-135. After importing a HAMMER
datastore, you will typically need to add data specific to hydraulic transients, such as a
pressure wave speed for each pipe, then save this input file as a HAMMER .hif.

After running HAMMER, the results can be exported to an .mdb connection file if
you want to transfer data back to the GIS for postprocessing or visualization. Use the
command File > Export > Database > Output.

When new water-demand forecasts become available, you can export a new .mdb
connection file from your database or GIS, copy it to the HAMMER datastore and
import it. To do this, select Export ASCII from within Access and open the resulting
file in HAMMER (see “Part 2—Importing a HAMMER Datastore” on page 3-135).

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4.3.3 Importing from WaterGEMS/WaterCAD Using

WaterObjects

Note: If you are saving a HAMMER file or database and are prompted
that the file already exists, save using a different name than the
one you have chosen, or make sure you are not overwriting an
existing WaterGEMS/WaterCAD file that you need.

If you import a file from WaterGEMS or WaterCAD, and then save

the HAMMER database (*.mdb) file the same as your
WaterGEMS/WaterCAD file, you will overwrite your WaterGEMS/
WaterCAD file.

You will need to select the scenario and alternative prior to using WaterObject tech-
nology to export model data and steady-state results from WaterCAD/WaterGEMS to
HAMMER. For an extended-period simulation (EPS) file, you must first select which
time step to export from WaterCAD or WaterGEMS to HAMMER.

To import WaterCAD or WaterGEMS model data and its steady-state results into
HAMMER, use the menu command File > Import > Network > WaterCAD/Water-
GEMS. For more information, see “Part 3—Importing Haestad Methods Models
Using WaterObjects” on page 3-139.

Importing steady-state results using WaterObject technology saves time and elimi-
nates transcription errors, but additional information is required prior to running a
HAMMER model.

4.3.4 Importing PIPE2000 or Surge2000

You can import model data and steady-state results for a single time step into
HAMMER. If you are working from an extended-period simulation (EPS) file, you
must first select which time step to use.

To import PIPE2000 or Surge2000 model data and its steady-state results into
HAMMER, use the menu command File > Import > Network > Surge2000 and
import it into a new HAMMER project file. For more information, see “Importing
from PIPE2000 or Surge2000” on page 3-142.

Importing steady state results saves time and eliminates transcription errors, but addi-
tional information is required prior to running a HAMMER model.

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4.4 Project Management and Options

At the beginning of a project, you need to set some parameters using the Global
HAMMER Options and Project Options windows. You can specify the units, the fric-
tion formulas to be used, and whether you want to use tooltips.

Note: Options can be viewed or edited using the Tools > Global
HAMMER Options or Tools > Project Options menu commands.

You can also access the FlexUnit Manager using the Tools > FlexUnits menu
command (see “FlexUnits” on page 4-187) in order to globally specify the units and
number of decimal places for displaying each model parameter.

4.4.1 Global HAMMER Options

Colors Tab: You can specify the background and foreground

colors of the Main Window and Drawing Pane in
HAMMER Modeler. You can specify individual
foreground colors for handles, lines, text, rubber
band, and highlighted elements.
These color settings do not apply to the HAMMER
Viewer, Profile, or History windows.
Tooltips Tab: Tooltips are short messages which pop up
automatically whenever you pause over a HAMMER
feature or icon. You can set a convenient time delay
(in milliseconds) to prevent them from appearing
most of the time or you can turn them off altogether.
Don’t confuse tooltips with Sticky Tools.
File I/O Tab: This tab allows you to specify default directories and
the location of useful tools, such as:
• The default text editor (to open ASCII .rpt or
.out files)
• The location of the Microsoft Access database
(to open tabular reports generated by
HAMMER)
• The location of the EPANET version 2.0
executable file (if available)
Other Options Tab: This tab allows you to specify the default font and
anti-aliasing. It also allows you to set preferences as
to when animation data is loaded into memory and
whether to prompt you for this (or not), or whether to
show the startup dialog.

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Sticky Tools: The Sticky Tools option is not part of the

Global HAMMER Options dialog box. Sticky
Tools can be turned on or off in HAMMER
Modeler mode using the Push Pin button.
With Sticky Tools disabled, the drawing pane cursor
returns to the Select tool after a hydraulic element is
inserted onto the Drawing Pane or a pipe run is
finished. With Sticky Tools enabled, the tool does not
reset to the Select tool, allowing you to continue
dropping new elements into the drawing without
reselecting the same hydraulic element from the
toolbar menu.

4.4.2 Project Setup

Set the following essential information about your HAMMER project:

• “Project Summary” on page 4-179

• “Unit System” on page 4-181
• “Liquid Properties” on page 4-182
• “Selecting the Friction Method” on page 4-183

Project Summary
In the Summary tab of the Project Options window (Tools > Project Options), you
can enter the Project Title and describe the source of your model data. If the
HAMMER data were imported from another model, you can use the title label to enter
information such as the Source File, scenario and Alternative, and Time Step (if it
came from an EPS run). You can change any of this information at any time.

This tab is also where you specify the default pressure wave speed, specific gravity,
and vapor pressure for the liquid or slurry being simulated. If you are not sure which
specific gravity and vapor pressure parameters to use, click on the ellipsis button to
the right of either field to display a list: selecting one of these will automatically enter
this data as well as the kinematic viscosity (shown on the Preferences Tab).

You can also specify the run duration for the project, either in seconds or as a number
of time steps. This is discussed at length below.

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Determining Pressure Wave Speed

HAMMER uses a default pressure wave speed of 1,000 m/s (3,280 ft./sec.). If your
system includes pipes with different materials, you can specify a default pressure
wave speed corresponding to the majority of pipes. To enter a different pressure wave
speed for each pipe, select that pipe and use the Element Editor to enter a specific
value. For more information, see “Celerity and Pipe Elasticity” on page B-359.

Determining the Run Duration

Run duration is measured either in seconds or as a number of time steps. HAMMER

determines the length of each time step automatically. Time steps typically range from
a few hundredths of a second to a few seconds, depending on the system and the pres-
sure wave speeds. The run duration has a direct effect on the modeling computation
time, along with the time step selected for the simulation.

For simple systems or if the time required to compute the HAMMER model is not a
concern, it is ideal (but not always necessary) to set run durations long enough to
allow a final steady state to be achieved once all transient energy attenuates. This is
quite manageable in many cases, such as for the sample file hamsam02.hif, which
requires about 30 to 40 seconds to reach a final steady state. Each system requires a
different amount of time to reach a final steady state.

Transient Tip: Every pipe system has a characteristic time period, T = 2

L/a, where L is the longest possible path through the
system and a is the pressure wave speed. This period is
the time it takes for a pressure wave to travel the pipe
system’s greatest length two times. It is recommended
that the run duration equal or exceed T. Another factor to
consider when determining run duration is to allow
enough time for friction to significantly dampen the
transient energy. If in doubt, run HAMMER for a longer
duration and examine the resulting graphs and time
histories.

For larger systems, you can use the following guidelines to decide on the most appro-
priate run duration:

1. First run HAMMER for only a few time steps to identify the sources of transients
(remember to output every time step in the Report Times tab of the Project
Options dialog box—see “Report Times” on page 2-53). You can also check for

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input errors by clicking GO and Data Check in the run window. Finally, click
GO and Full to run the model, and then look for errors in the steady-state model
or other initial transients in the comments at the end of the output file (.out).
2. Run HAMMER again for a duration of T=4 L/a (or greater) to verify that your
simulation includes the maximum and minimum transient heads. These normally
occur within this time frame. A longer run duration may be required if air pockets
form or if a gas vessel or surge tank is installed, due to the persistence of oscilla-
tions in the system.
3. Run HAMMER again for a duration of T=20 L/a or greater, whatever is enough to
allow friction to attenuate the transient energy and, consequently, to let the system
approach or achieve a final steady state. Use the following friction method:
– If the cause of transients is a sudden valve closure or pipe break, select the
unsteady (transient) friction mode in the Preferences tab (see “Preferences”
on page 2-55) of the Project Options window.
– If the system includes a gas vessel, surge tank, or air pocket, the quasi-steady
friction mode may be sufficient.
– The most extreme transient pressures (typically the first maximum and
minimum reached) are often of primary interest because of the need to check
if pipes will break. In such cases, or for the early runs, steady-state friction is
often sufficient.

The preceding procedure increases the likelihood that you will correctly simulate the
key aspects of the hydraulic transient event for your system. However, remember that
L is only a characteristic length which may not be directly applicable to branched or
looped networks or plants. Always use sound engineering judgment in reviewing
HAMMER results and interpreting the output.

Unit System

Note: If the file you are editing in HAMMER Modeler is already

associated with a WaterCAD/WaterGEMS file, changing the unit
system may make it difficult to compare results between models.

Although units for individual variables can be controlled throughout HAMMER, you
may find it useful to change your entire unit system at once to either the Système
International (SI) unit system or the U.S. customary (English) system. You can do this
using Tools > FlexUnits, and click the System SI or System U.S. button.

Liquid Properties
You can specify the type of liquid in Tools > Project Options > Summary. By default,
HAMMER assumes the liquid is water at 15.6 degrees Celsius (60 degrees Fahren-
heit), with a specific gravity of 1.0 and one atmosphere of ambient pressure. If the
temperature changes or another liquid is being conveyed, specific gravity may be
smaller or greater than 1.

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Click the ellipsis button to the right of the specific gravity or vapor pressure fields to
access a menu showing liquids at different temperatures. Selecting any entry from this
menu automatically fills-in both fields as well as kinematic viscosity (shown on the
Preferences Tab). You can add your own liquid properties to this menu by editing the
liquids.xml file in the \Data sub-folder, provided you obey the formatting rules
described in the Readme_liquids.xml file.

Note: The kinematic viscosity for water may be used in determining

the friction coefficient in the Darcy-Weisbach Friction Method
(see “Darcy-Weisbach Equation” on page B-383). but it is a default
for HAMMER (not entered here).

Vapor Pressure
A liquid’s vapor pressure limit is defined as the absolute pressure below which it
flashes into its gas phase (vapor or steam for water) for the fluid temperature at which
the system is operating. Vapor pressure is a fundamental parameter for any hydraulic
transient analysis. Low transient pressures can cause a liquid to vaporize and, once
one or more of these vapor pockets collapse later on, result in very large transient
pressures, which may break pipes or other system components.

Transient Tip: For drinking-water systems at typical temperatures and

pressures, HAMMER uses an approximate vapor
pressure of –10.0 m or –14.2 psi (gauge) or –32.8 ft. by
default, depending on the unit system in use. Typically, a
liquid’s vapor pressure can be obtained from tables
(steam tables for water) given its temperature and
absolute (not gauge) pressure. You might consider
adjusting the vapor pressure if the elevation of your
system is significantly different from mean sea level.

The vapor pocket collapse process is analogous to the well-known tip-cavitation

phenomenon, which causes pitting damage at pump impellers; however, vapor
pockets can be orders of magnitude larger than cavitation bubbles and can result in
system-wide transients.

Transient Tip: To determine the impact of collapsing vapor pockets on

your system, set the vapor pressure to a large negative
value which you do not expect to occur, such as –1000
m, and run HAMMER with a different file name. Then
reset the vapor pressure to its true value and run
HAMMER again. The difference between these results is
due to the effect of vapor pressure.

Heating or pressurizing a fluid increases its vapor pressure—an important consider-

ation in industrial applications. Consider both operating temperature and pressure
when determining a liquid’s vapor pressure limit. (For example, water boils at a lower
temperature at high altitudes due to the lower atmospheric pressure and lower absolute

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Project Management and Options

vapor pressure. Similarly, water boils at a higher temperature in a pressure cooker and
this increased steam temperature accelerates the cooking process.) This is why the
parameter library provided with HAMMER often provides values for liquids at
different temperatures.

Selecting the Friction Method

The Friction Method option enables you to select the methodology for determining
flow resistance and friction losses during calculations. This can be accessed from the
menu using Tools > Project Options > Preferences. Available methodologies
include:

• Steady-State Friction, including: Darcy-Weisbach, Hazen-Williams, and Manning

• Quasi-steady Friction
• Transient Friction, also known as unsteady friction

For more information on the theory for each of these friction models, see “Friction and
Minor Losses” on page B-381.

Steady-State Friction Methods

The most widely used steady-state friction-loss calculation methods include:

• The Hazen-Williams method, in which friction losses are proportional to relative

pipe roughness but not to changes in flow.
• The Manning’s equation, in which friction losses are proportional to relative pipe
roughness but not to changes in flow.
• The Darcy-Weisbach method, in which friction losses are proportional to relative
pipe roughness and to changes in flow. If you entered either roughness height in
WaterCAD/GEMS, importing the model into HAMMER will automatically
convert it to the corresponding value of f.

In HAMMER, a hydraulic transient analysis usually begins with an initial steady state
for which the heads and flows are known for every pipe in the system. Prior to begin-
ning the transient calculations, HAMMER automatically determines the friction factor
based on this information:

• If a pipe has zero flow at the initial steady-state, HAMMER assumes the pipe is
frictionless and it leaves the Friction Coefficient field blank. Refer to the
following table if you want to specify a Darcy-Weisbach coefficient, f. HAMMER
will use the friction coefficient you specify (if any) in the transient simulation.

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Approximate Darcy-
Hazen-Williams Friction
Weisbach Friction
Coefficient, C
Coefficient, f

70 0.050

100 0.025

140 0.015

• If a pipe has a nonzero flow at the initial steady-state, HAMMER automatically

calculates a Darcy-Weisbach friction factor, f, based on the heads at each end of
the pipe, the pipe length and diameter, and the flow in the pipe. It uses this calcu-
lated value in the transient simulation (even if you enter a value in this field).
• HAMMER always uses the Darcy-Weisbach friction method in performing the
hydraulic transient calculations.

Note: If your steady-state model used another method to calculate

friction losses, the friction coefficients may be imported into
HAMMER, but they will not be used directly. Instead, HAMMER
automatically uses the steady-state flow and heads (resulting
from the other method) to calculate an equivalent Darcy-
Weisbach friction factor, f.

Quasi-Steady Friction

The quasi-steady friction method uses variable Darcy-Weisbach friction factors, f, at

each point along the system, so that friction losses for an instantaneous velocity match
the friction losses which would occur for fully developed steady flows with the same
cross-sectional average velocity. For more information, see “Quasi-Steady Friction”
on page B-389.

Transient Tip: Quasi-steady and unsteady friction models are the result
of current research by others. Results should be
compared with those obtained with a steady friction
model. Always use engineering judgement when
interpreting transient simulation results.

Transient or Unsteady Friction

Compared to a steady state, fluid friction increases during hydraulic transient events
because rapid changes in transient pressure increase turbulent shear. HAMMER can
track the effect of fluid accelerations to estimate the attenuation of transient energy
more closely than would be possible with quasi-steady friction.

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Project Management and Options

Computational effort increases significantly if transient friction must be calculated for

each time step. This can result in long model calculation times for large systems with
hundreds of pipes or more. Typically, transient friction has little or no impact on the
initial low and high pressures, and these are usually the largest ever reached in the
system (provided the simulation does not involve a vapor pocket collapse).

Transient Tip: The steady-state friction method yields conservative

estimates of the extreme high and low pressures which
usually govern the selection of pipe class and surge-
protection equipment. However, if cyclic loading is an
important design consideration, the unsteady friction
method can yield less-conservative but rigorous
estimates of recurring and decaying extremes.

For more information on the implementation of the transient friction method in

HAMMER, see “Unsteady or Transient Friction” on page B-391.

4.4.3 Drawing Setup

Several commands are available from the View menu or the Drawing Options tab of
the Project Options dialog to set up the graphical display of elements in the drawing
pane, including:

Lock Drawing Pane: Use View > Lock Drawing Pane to disable the drag-
and-drop components of the Drawing Pane, but still
be able to enter or modify data in the Element Editor
and to pan, zoom, and otherwise reconfigure your
view of the model schematic.
Anti-Alias: Use View > Anti-Alias to enhance the appearance of
straight lines in the HAMMER Drawing Pane.
Normalize Window: Use View > Normalize Window to resize all
hydraulic element symbols to a convenient size at the
current zoom level. This setting persists as the zoom
changes. Experiment with zooming in, clicking
Normalize Window, and zooming out again to see
how this feature allows you to set any desired line
thickness and symbol size.
Symbol Visibility: Turn on or off the display of pipe or node labels in
Tools > Project Options > Display Options. You
can also specify the size of text labels, pipes or
symbols on this tab. Toggle Show Interior Points to
display the computational pipe reaches used in the
preceding HAMMER simulation.
Selection Set Options: You can pick (but not name or recall) element sets in
the Drawing Pane and copy/paste them.

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4.5 FlexUnits
FlexUnits (the ability to control units, display precision, and scientific notation) are
available from almost anywhere within Bentley SystemsBentley SELECT’ software,
including the Element Editor, most windows, and the FlexUnits Manager.

Note: The units and formatting used to display numeric values can be
changed from several other areas in the program, and any
changes are project wide. For example, if the unit for length is
changed from feet to meters, all windows, tables, and graphs
display length in meters. If you change the units in a window
from meters to yards, the FlexUnits Manager indicates that
length is displayed in yards.

Click Tools > FlexUnits to open the FlexUnits Manager. The FlexUnits Manager lets
you set the parameters for all the units used. It consists of the following columns:

• Attribute Type—Model parameter measured by the unit.

• Unit—Type of measurement displayed. To change the unit of an attribute type,
click the unit and select an alternate from the drop-down menu. This option also
allows you to mix U.S. customary and SI units in the same project.
• System—Sets the units to be used in the current project for each variable. Click to
select a unit in the system column for the desired Attribute Type (row), and a
choice list appears. Click to set the unit system to U.S. or S.I. as required.
Click the System: U.S. (or System: SI) button to change the unit of every
Attribute Type in the current HAMMER project file.
• Display Precision—Controls rounding of numeric values or the number of digits
to be displayed after the decimal point.
– Enter a number from 0 to 15 to indicate the number of digits to be displayed
after the decimal point.
– Enter a negative number to specify rounding to the nearest power of 10: –1
rounds to 10, –2 rounds to 100, –3 rounds to 1000, and so on. This feature
works the same whether scientific notation is on or off.

• Scientific Notation—Displays numbers using scientific notation. Click the check

box to turn scientific notation on or off. If it is turned on, a check mark appears in
the box.

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FlexUnits

4.5.1 Units

Units are the method of measurement for the attribute or numeric variable. To change
units, right-click the unit displayed next to the field to bring up the choice list, then
click the desired unit. The list includes both SI metric and U.S. customary units, so
you can mix unit systems within the same project.

FlexUnits are intelligent—when you change units, the displayed value is converted to
the new unit so the underlying magnitude of the attribute or numeric value remains the
same. For example, a length of 100.0 ft. is not converted to a length of 100.0 m or
100.0 in. It is correctly converted to 30.49 m or 1200.0 in.

4.5.2 Display Precision

Note: Changing the display precision or rounding numbers only

formats numeric values. It does not affect calculation accuracy.

The precision setting can be used to control:

• “Number of Digits Displayed After Decimal Point” on page 4-189

• “Rounding” on page 4-190

Number of Digits Displayed After Decimal Point

Enter 0 or a positive number to specify the number of digits to be displayed after the
decimal point.

For example, if the display precision is set to 3, a value of 123.456789 displays as

123.457.

Rounding
Enter a negative number to specify rounding to the nearest power of 10. Entering –1
rounds to the nearest 10, –2 rounds to the nearest 100, and so on. For example, if the
display precision is set to –3, a value of 1234567.89 displays as 1235000.

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4.5.3 Scientific Notation

Note: Displaying numbers using scientific notation only formats

numeric values. It does not affect calculation accuracy.

Scientific notation displays any numeric value as a real number beginning with an
integer or real value, followed by the capital letter E and an integer (possibly preceded
by a sign). In the FlexUnits Manager, click Scientific Notation to turn scientific nota-
tion on or off. A check appears in the corresponding box to indicate that this setting is
turned on.

4.5.4 Minimum and Maximum Allowed Value

Note: Allowable or recommended minimums and maximums are only

available for certain parameters.

Minimum and maximum values are used to control the allowable range for an
attribute or numeric value and to validate input. For example, some coefficient values
might typically range between 0.09 and 0.20. A frequent input error is to misplace the
decimal point when entering a value. If you enter a number that is less than the
minimum allowed value, a warning message is displayed. This helps reduce the
number of input errors.

You may override these values in cases where you find the default limits too restric-
tive. The default limits are stored internally in the program and cannot be modified.

Some attributes do not have theoretical minimum or maximum values, and others may
have an acceptable range governed by calculation restrictions or physical impossibili-
ties. For these attributes, minimum and maximum allowable values may not be appli-
cable.

4.6 Getting Ready to Run HAMMER

If you imported a model from other hydraulic software or from a HAMMER data
store, you are now almost ready to run HAMMER. Prior to running transient simula-
tion(s), it is good practice to:

• Verify the data’s topology and completeness using a check run. Either use File >
Run or click GO, select the Check Run radio button, then click Run.
• Ensure no spurious initial transients are generated due to input errors or coarse
convergence tolerances in the original steady-state model. Set a short run duration
(in Tools > Project Options), select the Transient radio button, then click Run.
Review the output graphics or FlexTables to verfiy that the HGL remains
unchanged over time, as the case should be for a steady-state.

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Once the data and initial steady-state have been checked, you must define the cause of
the transient event and select a time step for the simulation. Depending on the cause of
the transient and system characteristics, a different time step may be appropriate:

• A time step that is too long may result in the model not capturing the propagation
of transient pressure waves in sufficient detail.
• A very short time step could result in an excessively long simulation time.

You have the option of either letting HAMMER select the time step automatically or
picking a suitable one yourself:

1. Click Run to launch a transient simulation using the time step selected by
HAMMER: a big time-saver during exploratory simulations early-on in a project.
You can also select this option if you are unsure how to select the time step.
2. Click Time Step to display options in an expanded Run Dialog. You must select
whether to adjust pipes’ lengths or travel times. Enter your time-step and click
Update to obtain adjustment statistics. You can display the adjustments that result
from your time-step selection as percentages (relative) or in the same units (abso-
lute). You can also specify a Maximum Adjustment beyond which adjustments
will be listed in the output log.

If you select a shorter time-step, HAMMER will prompt you to re-examine the
Report Times setting to avoid generating excessively large output files. For short
time-steps, it is usually a good idea to output transient results Periodically, e.g. every
10 to 50 time steps, resulting in animation intervals of 0.1 to 1 s and about 100 to 300
frames (if possible). Other ways to reduce computation time and disk space require-
ments include:

• Do not check Generate Animation Data until your inspection of the histories and
profiles indicates you are close to a surge control solution.
• Toggle text reports off in the Report Options tab of Project Options.
• Set the output to begin after a certain time (Report History after Time) in the Pref-
erences tab of Project Options.
• Open a Pipe FlexTable and sort them by length. Consider merging or eliminating
the shortest pipes. This will enable HAMMER to suggest a larger time-step. This
is done using the Tools > Merge Pipes dialog.

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Getting Ready to Run HAMMER

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 Chapter

Layout and Editing 5

Tools

The layout and editing tools allow you to select hydraulic elements in the Drawing
Pane of the HAMMER Modeler to perform various graphical or editing operations,
locate particular elements, review the network for potential problems, add labels, and
review your input data and results.

5.1 HAMMER Modeler

One of the most powerful features of the HAMMER Modeler is the ability to create,
move, edit, and delete network elements graphically. With these capabilities, working
with your model becomes a simple point-and-click exercise.

For more information, see “Lesson 1: Pipeline Protection” on page 3-106 and “Lesson
3: Network Risk Reduction” on page 3-142.

Note: If you move the mouse over a feature or hydraulic element and
then stop moving it for a little while, a tooltip will display useful
information about that feature or element, including its label.
This feature is useful when the element labels have been turned
off or when the drawing view is zoomed out.

Most network editing tasks can be performed using the mouse:

• “Creating New Elements” on page 5-196

• “Morphing Elements” on page 5-197
• “Selecting Hydraulic Elements” on page 5-198
• “Editing Hydraulic Elements” on page 5-199
• “Moving Hydraulic Elements” on page 5-199
• “Copying/Cutting/Pasting/Deleting Elements” on page 5-200

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HAMMER Modeler

5.1.1 Creating New Elements

The hydraulic element toolbar buttons displayed to the extreme right of the screen
contain all of the tools necessary for adding network elements to the Drawing Pane.
From left to right, these tools include:

• Pressure Junction Tool—In WaterCAD or WaterGEMS, Junctions are

nonstorage nodes where water can leave the network to satisfy consumer demands
or enter the network as an inflow. These are called Consumption nodes in
HAMMER and are categorized as a system boundary since flow can only enter or
leave a system at a boundary.
• Pipe Layout Tool—Pipes are link elements that connect junction nodes, bound-
aries, rotating equipment, flow controls, and protection equipment. You can lay
out a series of connected elements without stopping (a pipe run) and morph some
of them into other element types later. When the Pipe Layout tool is active, the
cursor appears as a plus (“+”) sign. You enter Pipe Layout mode by clicking on
the Pipe icon and you exit it by pressing the Escape key, or by clicking the Select
(arrow) icon from the Display Tools toolbar.
• Boundaries Tools—Boundaries are system end points such as tanks, reservoirs,
or dead ends. The water surface elevation of a tank changes as water flows into or
out of it. The water surface elevation of a reservoir never changes during a
HAMMER simulation, because it is assumed that its surface area and volume are
large compared to the net transient volume change.
• Flow Control Tools—Flow-control elements include orifices and control valves.
Valves can open, throttle, or close during a hydraulic transient simulation and a
rapid or sudden valve operation may cause the transient to occur. A valve is repre-
sented as a node between two pipes, unless stated otherwise.
• Protective Equipment Tools—Protective equipment includes gas vessels, surge
tanks, surge-control valves of various types, and rupture disks. Protective equip-
ment is represented as a node between two pipes, unless stated otherwise.
• Rotating Equipment Tools—Rotating equipment includes various types of
pumps and turbines, which are represented as nodes in HAMMER. A pump adds
head to the fluid as it passes through, whereas a turbine removes head from the
fluid. Rotating equipment is represented as a node between two pipes, unless
stated otherwise.

Although elements can be inserted individually, the most rapid method of network
creation is through the Pipe Layout tool. You can use the Pipe Layout tool to connect
existing nodes with new pipes and to create new nodes as you lay out the pipes.

For example, when the Pipe Layout tool is active, clicking within the drawing pane
inserts a node. Clicking again at another location inserts another node and connects
the two with a pipe.

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5.1.2 Morphing Elements

Occasionally, you may find that you need to replace a node with a different type of
node. You can make this change through a process called morphing.

With morphing, you change the type of a hydraulic element node without having to
delete and recreate the node and its connecting links. Parameters that are common
between the existing and new elements are copied into the new element (i.e., coordi-
nates, elevations, etc.). To morph an existing hydraulic element into a different type of
hydraulic element:

1. In the Drawing Pane, place the cursor over the element and right-click it.
2. Click Convert Type to open the submenu and display lists of available hydraulic
elements.
3. Select the new hydraulic element from the available lists.

5.1.3 Selecting Hydraulic Elements

You need to select one or more elements from the Drawing Pane before performing
various operations, such as moving, deleting, and editing. When an element is selected
in the Modeler Drawing Pane, it is displayed with a box around it. To select one or
more hydraulic elements directly in the HAMMER Modeler Drawing Pane:

• Click on the Select tool (arrow icon), then move the cursor over the hydraulic
element, and click once.
• To select a group of hydraulic elements, click the Select tool, click anywhere in
the Drawing Pane, and drag the mouse to form a selection box around the
elements you want to select. All elements that are fully enclosed within the selec-
tion box are selected.
• To select all elements in the system, select Edit > Select All or simply press
Ctrl+A.
• To toggle the selected status of one or more elements, you can click on each
element while holding down Shift. You can also select a group of elements this
way.

You can also use the Element Selector tool on the Properties pane:

• Select a single element by clicking one of the labels displayed in the list. This list
can be resized horizontally or vertically if more space is required.

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HAMMER Modeler

Note: Limiting the type of elements displayed in the Element Selector

does not hide any elements in the Drawing Pane.

• You can filter the selection list by clicking the choice list at the top of the Element
Selector and selecting one of the following:
– All Elements to display every type of hydraulic element (full listing)
– All Pipes to limit the Element Selector display to pipes only
– All Nodes to limit the display to nodes
– Boundaries to limit the display to system boundaries. Note that this includes
consumption nodes.
– Flow Controls to limit the display to orifices and valves
– Protective Equipment to limit the display to surge-control equipment
– Rotating Equipment to display only pumps and turbines

Another way to select a hydraulic element is to locate it using the search command
Edit > Find or F3, as described in “Finding Elements” on page 5-201. It will be
selected automatically.

5.1.4 Editing Hydraulic Elements

Click any element and the Element Editor displays its properties and lets you edit
them. You can also edit the parameters of many similar hydraulic elements by opening
their FlexTable.

5.1.5 Moving Hydraulic Elements

You can change the location of elements easily. The first step is to select the elements
to be moved. Next, click to drag the element and release the mouse button to drop the
element at its new location. When a node is moved to a new location, all connected
pipes remain attached, and the pipes’ data remains unchanged (except for z and y coor-
dinates).

A hydraulic element can also be moved by editing its coordinates in the Element
Editor pane.

5.1.6 Copying/Cutting/Pasting/Deleting Elements

HAMMER offers a full range of intuitive on-screen editing features to allow you to
rapidly duplicate individual hydraulic elements or groups of elements:

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• Copy—You can duplicate an element or a set of elements (with all data preserved)
using the copy feature. Select the elements to duplicate and then select Edit >
Copy from the menu or press Ctrl+C. You can also right-click any element and
select Copy.
• Cut—The cut feature is a combination of the copy and delete commands. It
copies the selected elements to the Windows clipboard and deletes them from the
Drawing Pane immediately. Select the elements to cut and then select Edit > Cut
from the menu or press Ctrl+X. You can also right-click any element and select
Cut.

Note: The integrity of the network is automatically maintained during

deletions. This means that when a node is deleted, any
connecting pipes are also deleted to prevent dangling pipes that
would cause the network to be invalid.

• Paste—Hydraulic elements previously copied or cut are retrieved from the

Windows clipboard and placed on the Drawing Pane using the Edit > Paste menu
command or by pressing Ctrl+V. You can also right-click anywhere in the
Drawing Pane and select Paste.
• Delete—To delete elements, select the elements to be deleted and then select Edit
> Delete from the menu or press the Delete key. You can also right-click any
element and select Delete.

5.2 Finding Elements

This powerful feature allows you to quickly locate any element in the drawing by its
label. It performs a case-insensitive search. To find an element:

1. Select Edit > Find or press: Ctrl+F or F3.

2. Choose the element type to search for: node or pipe.
3. Type the full label or substring of the label of the element you wish to find in the
system.
4. If pipe is selected, you must define how this pipe should be located. Selecting by
label will locate the pipe based on its label while selecting by node will locate the
pipe by the label of the nodes attached to it. If both options are checked, both
criteria will be used for the search.
5. Click Find to find the element.

Selecting Edit > Find Next or pressing F3 repeats a search using the previous search
criteria.

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View Menu

5.3 View Menu

The View menu includes:

• “Pan” on page 5-202

• “Zoom” on page 5-202
• “Drawing Pane” on page 5-202

5.3.1 Pan

Using the pan feature, you can change your current view without changing the size,
proportion, or zoom level of the current view. Select View > Pan and use the arrow
keys, or click the Pan tool (hand icon), click and hold anywhere in the Drawing Pane,
and drag the cursor to navigate around.

5.3.2 Zoom

Zooming controls how large or small a drawing appears on the Drawing Pane. This is
helpful when you want to enlarge the display to see local details or reduce it to see an
entire system or network. Zooming does not change the actual size of the drawing,
only the extent of the current view.

From the View menu or the toolbars, you can perform the following zoom operations:

Zoom In—Enlarge the level of detail shown on the Drawing Pane by clicking at the
desired location. Using the mouse, you can use the same tool to define a selection box
to zoom in to this area (called Zoom Window in WaterCAD or WaterGEMS).

Zoom Out—Decrease the level of detail displayed in the Drawing Pane.

Normalize Window—Adjust the size of all elements in the current zoom with respect
to 100% zoom.

Zoom Extents—Bring all elements in the drawing into view.

5.3.3 Drawing Pane

Select View > Lock Drawing Pane to turn the Drawing Pane lock on and off. When
the Drawing Pane is locked, you can select hydraulic elements to modify their param-
eters or inspect their results, but you cannot change their coordinates using the mouse.
This avoids accidentally moving or deleting hydraulic elements.

Select View > Anti-alias to improve the appearance of lines in the Drawing Pane.

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5.4 Screen Layout (Format Display) Menu

These menu commands are only available from within the HAMMER Viewer. They
can be invoked by right-clicking anywhere except a graph pane.

Show Frame—Toggles the display of the frames which convert an on-screen plot to a
report-ready figure, complete with your organization’s logo, project number, date, and
a title block. For more information, see “Using Your Organization’s Name and Logo”
on page 8-293.

Page View—Toggles the display of the page outline to help you visualize how it will
look after printing. With HAMMER figures, what you see is what you get
(WYSIWYG), so there is no need for a print preview command.

Lock Aspect Ratio—Toggles the display of the frames between figure format, in
which the length and width are scaled to the paper size, and on-screen format for
which you can set the length and width by dragging the corner of the graph window.

Show Title Bar—Toggles the display of the graph window’s title bar. Turn title bars
off to maximize the use of your display area when, for example, showing animations.

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 Chapter

Hydraulic Element 6
Reference

This reference provides a detailed description of the purpose, parameters, and proper
use of the various hydraulic elements available in HAMMER. Using these hydraulic
elements, virtually any system and surge-protection strategy can be modeled.

6.1 Overview of Hydraulic Element Properties

Element Editor: The primary component of a HAMMER project is
the system model displayed in the Drawing Pane.
Using the Select tool (arrow toolbar icon) and
clicking on any hydraulic element in the Drawing
Pane, or clicking on its label in the Element Selector
list, automatically displays the element’s properties
and results (if applicable) in the Element Editor.
Results are displayed after each HAMMER run and
they cannot be modified.
Element Type: You will learn about the input data requirements for
each element and the way results are displayed in the
Modeler and Viewer interfaces. Hydraulic elements
are grouped into two general categories: pipes and
nodes. Nodes are further classified into four types:
• Boundaries of the system—Includes
consumption at a node, dead ends, reservoirs,
maintenance hole with user-defined inflow
hydrograph, and custom (periodic) head or flow
at a system boundary.
• Flow-control equipment—Includes valves of
various types, orifices, and custom (rating curve)
head-discharge relationships.

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Overview of Hydraulic Element Properties

• Surge-control equipment—Includes orifices,

rupture disks, check valves, pressure-relief
valves, surge-anticipator valves, vacuum
breakers, combination air valves, surge tanks of
various types, and gas vessels (standard or
bladder type).
• Rotating equipment—Includes pumps of
various types and turbines.
Each of these element types and their members are
described separately in the following sections. The
fields describing each particular hydraulic element
are also discussed, except for fields common to all,
which are discussed in the next section.
General Properties: Every hydraulic element has several general
properties and these are listed at the top of the
Element Editor:
• Type—Displays the type of each element such as
pump, reservoir, and junction, when the
particular element is selected.
• Preset—Displays the current preset in use for the
hydraulic element (if any). You can also use the
New Preset option to create a preset that can be
applied to mutliple elements; or Delete Preset to
remove any preset. Presets to all HAMMER
projects on a PC (presets.lib).
• Label—All elements inserted into HAMMER
Drawing Pane have unit labels. HAMMER
automatically assigns labels to the elements and
you can change or edit labels at any time.
• Coordinates—Except for pipes, every hydraulic
element displayed on the HAMMER Drawing
Pane has x and y coordinates.
• Elevation—Except for pipes, every element has
an elevation with respect to a certain datum, such
as mean sea level. The elevations of the nodes at
each end of a pipe determine the elevations along
the top of the pipe, also known as obvert or
crown. HAMMER assumes that all pipes are
straight.

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• Report Period—The number of time steps

between successive output data; overridden by
the Report Times tab of the Project Options
window. By default this printout is suppressed
unless a report period is defined.
• Description—A place to enter additional
information about the element. By default,
HAMMER leaves this field blank.

6.2 Pipes
Pipes link two nodes together and convey fluid between them. In HAMMER, all pipes
flow full unless stated otherwise. Pipes have the following characteristics:

• Length—The length of the pipe is used in HAMMER calculations regardless of

the x, y and elevation coordinates of the two nodes it connects.
• Diameter—Inside diameter of the pipe (often abbreviated as I.D.). The pipe mate-
rial and pressure rating class can significantly affect the actual inside diameter.

Transient Tip: Entering an I.D. that is 5% too big increases the pipe’s
area (and velocity) by about 10% and reduces friction
loss predictions by about 20%, since losses are
proportional to V2/2g. The effect may be even greater
with a quasi-steady or unsteady friction method. Always
consult manufacturer’s tables to enter the correct I.D. or,
for older pipe, try to verify its I.D. in the field (it may have
been reduced due to deposits or tuberculation).

• Check Valve—When this box is checked, flow can only travel in the same direc-
tion as the flow at the initial time step (i.e., time zero).
• From Node—The first of two nodes bounding a pipe, as displayed in the Element
Selector.
• To Node—The second of two nodes bounding a pipe, as displayed in the Element
Selector.
• Material—The material that the pipe is made of determines the value of Friction
Coefficient and Roughness Height according to the friction method chosen in the
Steady State tab of the Project Options dialog.
• Roughness Height—Roughness height is used only for steady state computa-
tions, together with Kinematic Viscosity. It is equivalent to the sand grain rough-
ness height first published by Nikuradse.

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Nodes

• Friction Coefficient—Pipe roughness coefficient or value associated with the

roughness method selected during the project setup for the selected material:
either a Hazen-Williams C or a Darcy-Weisbach f. You can also enter roughness
height in WaterCAD/GEMS, convert to f and import into HAMMER. Whether a
value is entered or not, HAMMER automatically calculates the initial value of f
based on the flow, diameter, and heads at the steady-state—prior to the start of the
transient simulation. A value of friction coefficient is only mandatory if flow in
the pipe is initially zero (at the initial steady-state).
• Wave Speed—The pressure wave speed for the liquid being conveyed, the pipe
material selected, the working pressure rating (determined by its dimension ratio
or DR), the bedding, and other factors. Pipe manufacturers often provide this
parameter for water, assuming standard bedding and construction techniques.
• Initial Flow—The flow in the pipe at time zero. If positive, the flow direction is
towards the To Node.
• From Node Head—The head at From Node at time zero.
• To Node Head—The head at To Node at time zero.
After a HAMMER run completes successfully, the following results will be displayed
in the Drawing Pane:

• Max and Min Head—The maximum and minimum transient head experienced at
any point in the pipe throughout the simulation period.
• Max and Min Presseure—The maximum and minimum transient pressure expe-
rienced at any point in the pipe throughout the simulation period.
• Max and Min Flow—The maximum and minimum transient flow experienced at
any point in the pipe throughout the simulation period. Please note that the initial
flow direction is taken as positive.
• Max and Min Velocity—The maximum and minimum transient velocity experi-
enced at any point in the pipe throughout the simulation period.
• Max Vapor Volume—The maximum vapor volume, if any, that occurred at all
locations in the pipe at any time during the simulation period.
• Max Air Volume—The maximum air volume, if any, that occurred at all loca-
tions in the pipe at any time during the simulation period.

6.3 Nodes
All nodes are pressurized in HAMMER, unless otherwise stated.

Nodes are further classified into Boundaries, Flow Controls, Surge Protection, and
Rotating Equipment. The simplest and most widely used node is called a junction.

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Junction—the meeting point of two or more pipes in the system. A junction

does not open to atmosphere and it does not satisfy any water demand. The
general properties of all hydraulic elements describe it completely.

After a HAMMER run completes successfully, the following results are displayed in
Drawing Pane:

• Max and Min Head—The maximum and minimum transient head experienced
throughout the simulation period. This value is the same as the endpoint of every
pipe that connects to this node.
• Max and Min Pressure—The maximum and minimum transient pressure experi-
enced throughout the simulation period.
• Max Vapor Volume—The maximum vapor volume, if any, that occurred at all
locations in the pipe at any time during the simulation period.
• Max Air Volume—The maximum air volume, if any, that occurred at all loca-
tions in the pipe at any time during the simulation period.

6.4 System Boundaries

System boundaries are nodes at which transient pressure waves are typically reflected
back to the system and where inflows or outflows may occur. HAMMER incorporates
a rigorous mathematical formulation of each of these boundary conditions based on
physics. Each of these hydraulic elements and their parameters are described below.

• Consumption—represents an opening to atmosphere at the junction of

two or more pipes or the end of a single pipe. Water demands from many
houses or users are typically aggregated and represented as a Consump-
tion node, consequently there can be no inflow of air from this node into the
system. A Consumption node has the following parameters:
– Pressure required to deliver the Initial / Typical Flow from the system.
– Initial/ Typical Flow is either the initial steady-state flow under a certain
Pressure or the typical flow when the Pressure is zero.

• Dead End—the end point of a closed pipe. A pipe with a Dead End
should not have any flow, therefore the steady-state HGL should be the
same at both ends of the pipe at time zero. A cavity can form at a Dead
End, which has the following parameter:
– Initial Vapor Volume is the volume of vapor at the Dead End at the begin-
ning of the simulation (i.e., time zero). The default value is zero.

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System Boundaries

• Periodic Head/Flow—used to prescribe a boundary condition at a

hydraulic element where flow can either enter or leave the system as a
function of time. It can be defined either in terms of Head (for example,
the water level of a clear well or process tank) or Flow (for example, a time-
varying industrial demand). The periodic nature of variation of head/flow can be
of sinusoidal or of any other shape that can be approximated as a series of straight
lines. It has the following four attributes:
– Prescribed Quantity is either flow or head, with either a known periodicity
or according to a user-defined repeatable pattern.
– Mean Value is required only if the variation of flow or head is sinusoidal.
– Amplitude is the maximum value of head or flow above the mean value.
– Period is the oscillation period.
– Phase in radians, ranging from zero to a maximum value of 2Π.

• Maintenance Hole—represents a system boundary initially at atmo-

spheric pressure, which can accept user-defined inflow patterns or hydro-
graphs. The pipe connecting the system to the maintenance hole (MH) is
assumed to be flowing full (i.e., pressurized). The parameters required to describe
a MH are as follows:
– Diameter of the MH itself (default 48 in.).
– Orifice Diameter controlling flow from the MH to the exit pipe connected to
the system. This can be equal to but not greater than Diameter.
– Cover Opening Diameter has a default value of 1.5 in. (38.1 mm), such as
lift holes. If the MH is sealed, then the value of this parameter should be zero.
For values greater than or equal to the diameter of the manhole, the air above
the water surface is considered to be at atmospheric pressure.
– Threshold Pressure has a default value of 300 lb. (136.1 kg) for any cover
not fastened to the manhole. If the cover is firmly bolted or welded to the
manhole, then enter a larger value, such as 100,000 lb. (45,367 kg), which
HAMMER treats as infinite.
– Ratio of Losses is the ratio of inflow head loss to outflow loss (for the same
flow). The default value is 2.5.
– Head Loss Coefficient is a dimensionless quantity.
– Ground Elevation has a default value of 9,999 ft. (3,048 m).
– Initial Water Level is the initial setting of the water level.
– Operating Rule defines the functional relationship between flow and time, if
any.

• Reservoir—a source of water that maintains a constant water level

throughout the simulation.

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– Water Level is the setting of the water level.

6.5 Control Equipment

Consider the following control equipment information:

• “Flow-Control Valve Fundamentals” on page 6-212

• “Flow-Control Valves as Sources of Hydraulic Transients” on page 6-213
• “Flow-Control Valve Reference” on page 6-215
• “Orifice Reference” on page 6-217

6.5.1 Flow-Control Valve Fundamentals

A valve is an element that opens, throttles, or closes to satisfy a condition you specify.
Like WaterCAD, HAMMER can model several different types of valves. The
behavior of a valve is determined by the upstream and downstream conditions.
Supported valve types include:

• Pressure-Reducer Valve (PRV)—PRVs throttle to prevent the downstream

hydraulic grade from exceeding a set value. If the downstream grade rises above
the set value, the PRV closes. If the head upstream is lower than the valve setting,
the valve opens fully.
• Pressure-Sustaining Valve (PSV)—PSVs throttle to prevent the upstream
hydraulic grade from dropping below a set value. If the upstream grade is lower
than the set grade, the valve closes completely.
• Pressure-Breaker Valve (PBV)—PBVs are used to force a specified pressure
(head) drop across the valve. These valves do not automatically check flow and
actually boost the pressure in the direction of reverse flow to achieve a down-
stream grade that is lower than the upstream grade by a set amount.
• Flow-Control Valve (FCV)—FCVs are used to limit the maximum flow rate
through the valve from upstream to downstream. FCVs do not limit the minimum
flow rate or negative flow rate.
• Throttle-Control Valve (TCV)—TCVs are used as controlled minor losses. A
TCV is a valve that has an associated minor loss that can change in magnitude
according to the controls that are implemented for the valve.
• General-Purpose Valve (GPV)—GPVs are used to model situations and devices
for which the flow-to-headloss relationship is specified by you rather than using
the standard hydraulic formulas. GPVs represent reduced-pressure backflow-
prevention (RPBP) valves or well draw-down behavior.

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Control Equipment

Note: You can change a valve from one type to another by a process
called morphing. Just click the new valve-type button on the
toolbar and drag the new valve on top of the old one.

Because the reaction time of the above valve types is too slow to react to fast and often
cyclical hydraulic transient pressure wave fronts, HAMMER converts these to an
equivalent orifice that remains fixed throughout the simulation.

6.5.2 Flow-Control Valves as Sources of Hydraulic Transients

Flow-control stations typically include a flow meter, flow-control valve, and valves to
isolate the station during maintenance activities. Flow-control stations are sometimes
equipped with a remote terminal unit (RTU), which communicates with a Supervisory
Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system, to monitor and control the station
remotely. For more information about SCADA systems, see Advanced Water Distri-
bution Modeling and Management, by Haestad Press.

The transient pressures that result from the operation of flow-control valves depend on
the design of the flow-control station, particularly the following parameters:

• The time period of the valve position change

• The valve type and its hydraulic characteristics
• The system hydraulic characteristics (for example, head loss in the piping relative
to head loss through the valve)

When considering valve position change, it is important to consider that the reduction
in flow due to valve closure is not proportional to the valve travel distance (stroke). In
fact, with most valves (including hydrants), most of the change in velocity occurs
when the valve is barely open. It is at this time that a quick turn of the valve can lead
to a significant water hammer event.

For example, if it takes 20 turns to close a valve and the initial velocity through the
valve is 16 ft./sec. (5 m/s), the velocity may change to 6.6 ft./sec. (2 m/s) over the first
19 turns. The velocity is then reduced from 6.6 ft./sec. to zero over the last turn
(known as the “effective stroke” of the valve). The change of velocity over the last
interval having a duration equal to the characteristic time (2L/a) determines the
magnitude of the transient.

One of the most important considerations when selecting the flow-control valve type
is cavitation. Cavitation occurs when the minimum pressure at critical points within
the valve reaches the vapor pressure of the liquid, so that vapor bubbles form. If the
differential pressure across the valve is excessive or if the pressure downstream of the

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valve is minimal, cavitation can occur during steady-state flow. Cavitation can
damage the valve and cause excessive noise, especially if an inappropriate valve is
selected. Control valves specifically designed to minimize the potential for cavitation
should be selected for these cases.

Depending on its severity, cavitation can also affect the hydraulic capacity of the
valve. When the flow stream expands immediately downstream of the valve, the pres-
sure increases, causing the vapor bubbles to collapse. This dynamic vaporization and
collapse phenomenon causes noise and vibration and can erode the interior of the
valve. This type of local cavitation should not be confused with large-scale vapor
pocket formation and collapse due to system-wide hydraulic transients, such as a
power failure.

The valve coefficient (Cv) is defined in ANSI/ISA Standards S75.01 as:

Cv = Flow ( specific gravity / pressure drop)1/2

where flow is in US gallons per minute and pressure drop is in pounds per square inch
(psi) at 60oF (16oC).

6.5.3 Flow-Control Valve Reference

Each type of flow-control valve is described separately below.

• Valve to Atmosphere—discharges water from the system at a pipe end

open to atmospheric pressure. It has the following parameters:
– Initial Typical Flow is either the initial steady-state flow at a certain
pressure or the typical flow when the pressure is zero.
– Time Delay before the valve begins to open or close.
– Time of Operation is a period of time required to open or close the valve.
– Corresponding Pressures refers to the pressure at the initial or typical flow
through the valve.
– Initial Open refers to the initial Open/Close status of this valve.

• Valve of Check Type between 2 Pipes—a check valve between two pipes
that closes instantaneously upon flow reversal. This assumes that no
dampers or electrical controls modify the check valve’s closure time.
When the pressure differential required to reopen the valve is exceeded, the valve
opens again instantaneously. This valve can be closed initially. It has the
following parameters:
– Initial Flow should be zero if the valve is initially closed. If the valve is open,
then enter the flow initially passing through the valve.

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Control Equipment

– Upstream Pipe whose end point denotes the upstream side of the valve and
indirectly defines the direction of flow through the valve.
– Threshold Pressure is the pressure difference between upstream and down-
stream sides of the valve required to open or reopen the valve. If a zero value
is entered, the valve opens when the upstream pressure exceeds the down-
stream pressure.

• Valve of Check Type at Wye Branch—this is similar to the Valve of

Check Type between 2 Pipes, except that it is located on one of the three
pipe branches connecting to a single junction node. When the pressure
differential required to reopen the valve is exceeded, the valve opens instanta-
neously. This valve can be initially closed. It has following parameters:
– Initial Flow should be zero if the valve is initially closed. If the valve is open,
then enter the initial value of flow through the valve.
– Pipe with Check denotes the location of the valve (e.g., in which of three
branches?). When the valve is closed, this pipe acts as a dead end.
– Flow Direction represents either the flow towards the wye branch or the flow
away from the wye branch.
– Threshold Pressure is the pressure differential between the upstream and
downstream sides of the valve required to open or reopen the valve. If a zero
value is entered, the valve opens when the upstream pressure exceeds the
downstream pressure.

• Valve of Various Types between 2 Pipes—an extremely versatile

hydraulic element able to model six or more different types of valves. For
the first five types of valves, the characteristics for fractional openings are
hard-coded in HAMMER; however, you can enter a customized curve in the user-
specified valve. It has the following parameters:
– Diameter is the size of the opening that can pass flow through the valve.
– Discharge Coefficient is usually calculated from the relation between flow
through the valve and the corresponding pressure drop across the valve at
time zero. If there is no initial flow, the discharge coefficient can be obtained
from the manufacturer or calculated.
– Upstream Pipe denotes the pipe where the flow originates.
– Type of Valve can be one of several possible types: User-Specified, Needle,
Circular Gate, Globe, Ball, or Butterfly. Any of these can function as a
PRV, PSV, or FCV, depending on the Control Type.
– Operating Rule defines the time-dependent opening (partial or full stroke)
and closure (partial or full stroke) of the valve in a tabular form. The valve can
be opened, paused, or closed partially or fully several times during the numer-
ical simulation.

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– Control Type defines the four possible ways of operating modes of the valve:
PRV (pressure-reducing valve), PSV (pressure-sustaining valve), FCV (flow-
control valve), and none.
– PRV/SRV Head option is necessary only for a PRV and PSV. It denotes the
head to be maintained by the PRV or SRV at the downstream side of the valve.
When the Control Type is set to FCV, enter the flow intended to pass through
the FCV.
– Control Status represents the state of the valve at time zero: Throttled, Wide
Open, or Closed.

• Valve with Linear Area Change between 2 Pipes—functions either as a

check valve that closes instantaneously and remains closed when reverse
flow occurs, or as a positive-acting leaf valve closing linearly over the
prescribed time. Its parameters are:
– Time to Close is the operation time required to shut the valve. It is either
instantaneous (if the time is set to zero, it will operate as a check valve) or
gradual and linear whenever the Time to Close is greater than zero.
– Diameter is the size of the opening allowing flow to pass through the valve.
– Time to Close is the operation time required to shut the valve. It is either
instantaneous (if the time is set to zero, it will operate as a check valve) or
gradual and linear whenever the Time to Close is greater than zero.
– Discharge Coefficient is usually calculated from the relation between flow
through the valve and the corresponding pressure drop across the valve at
time zero. If there is no initial flow, the discharge coefficient can be obtained
from the manufacturer or calculated.
– Initial Open refers to the initial Open/Close status of this valve.
– Upstream Pipe denotes the pipe where the flow originates.

6.5.4 Orifice Reference

Orifices are a fixed or passive type of flow-control element. Each is described below.

• Orifice to Atmosphere—represents an opening to atmosphere at a junc-

tion of two or more pipes or the end of a single pipe. The initial pressure is
typically positive and there is usually an outflow from the system at time
zero. It has the following parameters:
– Pressure refers to the pressure drop across the orifice corresponding to the
initial steady-state or typical flow.

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Rotating Equipment

– Initial/Typical Flow is either the initial steady-state flow at a specific pres-

sure or the typical flow when the pressure is zero.
– Initial Volume of Gas is the accumulated air at the orifice at the beginning of
the simulation (the default value is zero).

• Orifice at Branch End—a convenient way to add a length of pipe leading

to a discharge point without having to enter the pipe explicitly. Results are
identical to those obtained by entering an equivalent pipe ending at an
orifice to atmosphere.
– Pressure drop across the orifice corresponding to the initial or typical flow.
– Initial/ Typical Flow is either the initial steady-state flow under certain pres-
sure or the typical flow when the pressure is zero.
– Pipe Length is automatically assigned a small value based on the average
wave speed of the two adjacent pipes, but you can specify any convenient
length.
– Elevation of Orifice is equal to the elevation (by default) of the junction of
the main pipe and branch pipe, but you can specify an elevation for sprinklers,
for example.

• Orifice between 2 Pipes—is an inline orifice characterized by a pressure

drop across the orifice for a given flow.
– Pressure drop across the orifice corresponding to the initial or typical
flow.
– Initial Typical Flow is either the initial steady-state flow under certain pres-
sure or the typical flow when the pressure is zero.
– Upstream Pipe denotes the pipe where the flow originates.
• Rating Curve—is a boundary element which releases water from the
system to atmosphere based on a customizable rating curve relating head
and flow.
– Rating Curve is a functional relationship between time and flow and head
entered in a table, enabling you to achieve a high degree of customization.

6.6 Rotating Equipment

Pumps and turbines are classified as Rotating Equipment as a reminder that these
turbomachines can reverse their spin direction during a hydraulic transient event,
unless this is prevented by a nonreverse ratchet or check valve. Since both spin and
flow can be in a positive or negative direction, four operating cases are possible for

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pumps and turbines. Four-quadrant curves are used to describe a pump’s hydraulic
performance for each case. The common pump curve provided by vendors provides
head and flow in the first quadrant only, for which spin and flow are both positive, at
constant speed.

6.6.1 Pump Fundamentals

A pump is a type of rotating equipment designed to add energy to a fluid. For a given
flow rate, pumps add a specific amount of energy, or total dynamic head (TDH), to the
fluid’s energy head at the pump’s suction flange.

HAMMER automatically imports pump information from WaterCAD or WaterGEMS

using WaterObjects technology. You may need to enter additional data to model
dynamic effects. HAMMER can represent virtually any pump using one of these five
hydraulic elements:

• Constant Speed between 2 Pipes—no pump curve

• Constant Speed between 2 Pipes—pump curve
• Constant Speed at Reservoir—pump curve (a special case without a suction line)
• Variable Speed, Between Two Pipes—four-quadrant pump curve built in
• Shut after Time Delay, Between Two Pipes—four-quadrant pump curve built in

Only the last two allow you to change the speed of the pump during a simulation. The
information needed to describe a pump’s hydraulic characteristics depends on the type
selected, but the following are common parameters:

• Duty or Design Point—Point at which the pump was designed to operate,

defined as its Nominal Flow and Nominal Head (1, 1 in the Pump Curve table).
It is typically at or near the best efficiency point (BEP). For flows above or below
this point, the pump may not be operating under optimum hydraulic conditions.
Other points on the pump curve are entered as a ratio of the nominal head and
flow (e.g., 0.1 to 1.2 times these values). If a pump curve is not available, see
“First-Quadrant and Four-Quadrant Representations” on page 6-224.
• Shutoff and Runout—Shutoff is the maximum head a pump can develop at zero
flow. Runout is an operating point at the other extreme of the pump curve, where
the pump is discharging at a high rate but is no longer able to add any energy (i.e.,
head) to the flow. HAMMER will not automatically shut down a pump if it
reaches shutoff head or runout flow; therefore, this information is not required for
a HAMMER run.
• Elevation—The pump elevation is required to calculate suction or discharge pres-
sures and to display the pump at the correct location on profile plots.

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Rotating Equipment

• Efficiency—Efficiency is defined as the ratio of the hydraulic energy transferred

to the water divided by the total electrical energy delivered to the motor. This
parameter is only required for pumps whose speed changes during a simulation. It
is used to determine the accelerating or decelerating torque, where required.
• Speed—Rotational speed in revolutions per minute (rpm) of the impeller. This is
commonly the same as the motor’s rotational speed, unless a transmission is
installed. It is fixed for constant-speed pumps but can vary for variable-frequency
drives. This parameter is only required for pumps whose speed changes during a
simulation.
• Inertia—Pump inertia is the resistance of the pump assembly to acceleration or
deceleration. HAMMER uses inertia and efficiency to track the rate at which a
pump spins up or down when power is added or removed, respectively. It is a
constant for a particular pump and motor combination. For more information, see
“Pump Inertia” on page 6-221.
• Specific Speed—A pump’s specific speed is a function of its rotational speed,
Nominal Flow, and Nominal Head. For more information, see “Specific Speed”
on page 6-222.

Pump Inertia
If a pump’s speed will be controlled (i.e., ramped up or down, started or shut down
during the simulation period) you need to enter the pump’s rotational inertia. Inertia is
the product of the rotating weight with the square of its radius of gyration. Pumps with
more rotating mass have more inertia and take longer to stop spinning after power
fails or the pump is shut off. The trend has been towards lighter pumps with less
inertia.

Transient Tip: Pumps with higher inertias can help to control transients
because they continue to move water through the pump
for a longer time as they slowly decelerate. You can
sometimes add a flywheel to increase the total inertia
and reduce the rate at which flow slows down after a
power failure or emergency shut down: this is more
effective for short systems than for long systems.

The value of inertia you enter in HAMMER must be the sum of all components of the
particular pump which continue to rotate and are directly connected to the impeller, as
follows:

• Motor inertia—typically available from motor manufacturers directly, since this

parameter is used to design the motor. The pump vendor can also provide this
information.
• Pump impeller inertia—typically available from the pump manufacturers’ sales
or engineering group, since inertia is used to design the pump.

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• Shaft inertia—the shaft’s inertia is sometimes provided as a combined figure

with the impeller. If not, it can either be calculated directly or ignored. Entering a
lower figure for the total inertia yields conservative results because flow in the
model changes faster than in the real system; therefore, transients will likely be
overestimated.
• Flywheel inertia—some pumps are equipped with a flywheel to add inertia and
slow the rate of change of their rotational speed (and the corresponding change in
fluid flow) when power is added or removed suddenly.
• Transmission inertia—some pumps are equipped with a transmission, which
allows operators to control the amount of torque transmitted from the motor to the
pump impeller. Depending on the type of transmission, it may have a significant
inertia from the friction plates and the mechanism used to connect or separate
them.
While this may seem like a long list, it is often enough to enter only the pump and
motor inertia and neglect the other factors. For design purposes, this tends to yield
conservative results, because the simulated pump will stop more rapidly than the real
pump would. Surge-protection designed to control the somewhat larger simulated
transients should be adequate.

If the motor and pump inertia are not available, they can be estimated separately and
then summed (if they remain coupled after a power failure) using an empirical relation
developed by Thorley:

×( P / N 3 )
0.9956
pump = 1.5 ×10
7
I kgm 2
(6.1)

(P / N )
1.48
I motor = 118 × kgm 2
(6.2)

where: P is the brake horsepower in kilowatts at the BEP

N is the rotational speed in rpm

If uncertainty in this parameter is a concern, several simulations should be run to

assess the sensitivity of the results to changes in inertia.

Specific Speed
If reverse spin is possible, a four-quadrant curve representation can be selected based
on your pump’s specific speed. According to affinity laws, impellers with similar
geometry and streamlines tends to have similar specific speeds.

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Rotating Equipment

Transient Tip: To simulate a pump for which no pump curve is available

or whenever there is a possibility of reverse flow or spin,
selecting the built-in four-quadrant curve corresponding
to the correct pump type is essential. Despite some
approximation, HAMMER will output physically
meaningful results provided you select the correct four-
quadrant curve based on your pump’s specific speed.
The results can help you decide whether or not
additional detail is critical or even required.

To select an appropriate four-quadrant pump curve in HAMMER, simply calculate the

specific speed and select the closest available setting in the Specific Speed field of the
pump’s Element Editor. You can calculate your pump’s specific speed, Ns, using the
following equation:

N S = NQ
2
3
H4
(6.3)

where: N = Rotational Speed (rpm)

Q = Flow (m3/s or gpm). For double-suction units, flow is

per suction.

Head (m or ft) at flow Q. For multi-stage units, head

H =
is per stage (e.g., total head divided by total stages).

“Table 6-1: Specific Speeds for Typical Pump Categories in both Unit Systems”on
page 6-223 shows typical values of specific speed for which an exact four-quadrant
representation is built into HAMMER. Centrifugal pumps tend to have lower specific
speeds than axial-flow or multi-stage pumps. Few four-quadrant characteristic curves
are available because they require painstaking laboratory work.

The results of hydraulic transient simulations are not as sensitive to the specific speed
selected, provided that a check valve is installed. You do not need to add a check valve
because every pump in HAMMER has a built-in check valve immediately down-
stream of the pump.

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Note: If you need a four-quadrant pump curve but your pump’s

specific speed does not match one of the available options,
select the closest one available or request it from the
manufacturer. The prediction error cannot be linearly
interpolated using specific speed, but you could run a different
curve to bracket the solution domain.

Table 6-1: Specific Speeds for Typical Pump Categories in both Unit
Systems

Unit System Specific Speed, Ns

Centrifugal pumps Axial-Flow Pumps

Multistage pumps
(radial-vane or (mixed-flow or
(axial or mixed-flow)
flange-screw types) flange-screw types)

U.S. Customary 1280 4850 7500

SI Metric 25 94 145

First-Quadrant and Four-Quadrant Representations

Most pumps used in water and wastewater systems are equipped with check valves to
preclude reverse flow and/or nonreverse or ratchet mechanisms that prevent the pump
impeller from reversing its spin direction. This usually restricts the pump’s operation
to the first quadrant. Provided such a pump will operate continuously at constant
speed throughout the numerical simulation and never allow reverse flow or spin, a
standard multipoint pump curve provides a rigorous and sufficient representation. Two
hydraulic elements enable you to represent this common pump configuration:

• Constant Speed at Reservoir—Pump Curve

• Constant Speed between 2 Pipes—Pump Curve

If you have the multipoint pump curve, you can enter it directly in HAMMER or
import it using WaterObject technology. The pump curve is used by HAMMER to
adjust the flow produced by the pump in response to changing system heads at its
suction and discharge flanges throughout the simulation period.

Note: Entering name-plate values into HAMMER may result in

significant prediction errors. These rated values may differ
significantly from the pump’s actual operating performance.

If a pump curve is not available, but you can obtain the rated head and flow from the
SCADA system or other measurements, enter these as the Nominal Flow and
Nominal Head, and select the four-quadrant curves whose Specific Speed is closest
to your pump: centrifugal, axial-flow (single and double-suction) and multistage
(including vertical turbines), as shown in “Table 6-1: Specific Speeds for Typical

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Pump Categories in both Unit Systems”on page 6-223. You can also use one of these
four-quadrant characteristic curves if reverse spin is possible, but you do not have
these data for your pump. This will yield a physically meaningful answer, even if the
parameters are inexact.

Variable-Speed Pumps (VSP or VFD)

A variable-speed pump (VSP) is typically powered by a variable-frequency drive
(VFD) motor controller or sometimes by a variable-torque transmission mechanism.
Variable-frequency motor controllers and soft-starters modify the voltage phase angle
using silicon controlled rectifiers to achieve speed variations in pumps. Variable-
torque transmissions allow a differential between the motor and driven ends of a pump
using special mechanical, magnetic, or hydraulic couplings.

In practice, automatic start and stop sequences can be controlled to achieve any ramp
time using a programmable logic controller (PLC). However, there may be limits to
the minimum speed or torque which can be achieved. The period of time over which
soft-starters can control the motor may be limited. Finally, operational reasons may
require that startup, shifting and shutdown sequences be shortened as much as
possible—but safely. HAMMER helps you estimate safe ramp times to make the most
of your pump’s capabilities.

In HAMMER, a variable pump is a prescribed boundary condition which is controlled

by setting a time-dependent pattern for its rotational speed or torque. You can enter
any speed or torque pattern, including delays, multiple ramps, and periods of contin-
uous pumping.

HAMMER does not currently model loop-back controllers, which can modify the
VFD’s speed or torque to achieve a specific head or flow at some location in the
system. This is because the pump may stabilize to a new steady state within a few
seconds, including during a power failure or a normal stop or start, for a typical tran-
sient event and the loop-back controller is likely not engaged during such operations.

6.6.2 Pump Element Reference

The various types of pumps are described separately below.

• Constant Speed between 2 Pipes - No Pump Curve—A pump that oper-

ates at constant speed throughout the simulation using a built-in four-
quadrant characteristic curve selected according to specific speed. This
pump requires the following parameters:
– Initial /Typical Flow is the Nominal Flow the pump delivers under normal
operating conditions. If it is not known, you could assume it is the steady-state
flow.

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– Nominal Head is the head required to deliver the Nominal Flow at steady
state. It is the difference between the heads at the suction and discharge sides
of the pump or total dynamic head (TDH).
– Specific Speed enables you to compare pumps from different manufacturers
and models in a rigorous manner. HAMMER provides three built-in four-
quadrant characteristic pump curves corresponding to the specific speeds of
1280, 4850, or 7500 (U.S. customary units) and 25, 94, or 145 (metric units).

– Upstream Pipe denotes the pipe where the flow originates.

– Pump Curve represents the head-discharge relationship of the pump at its
rated speed. Values are entered relative to Nominal Head and Nominal Flow.

• Constant Speed, between 2 Pipes - Pump Curve—A pump that operates

at constant speed throughout the simulation according to a pump curve.
This pump requires the following parameters:
– Nominal Flow is the flow the pump delivers at the Nominal Head under
normal steady-state operating conditions. Sometimes assumed to be the initial
steady-state flow.
– Nominal Head is the head required to deliver the Nominal Flow at steady
state. It is the difference between the heads at the suction and discharge sides
of the pump.
– Upstream Pipe denotes the pipe where the flow originates.
– Pump Curve represents the head-discharge relationship of the pump at its
rated speed. Values are entered relative to Nominal Head and Nominal Flow.

• Constant Speed at Reservoir - Pump Curve—A pump that operates at

constant speed throughout the simulation using a pump curve and
assuming there is no suction system. Useful for sewage forcemains. This
pump requires the following parameters:
– Water Level denotes the water surface level of the reservoir. This is only used
for steady state computations.
– Pressure denotes the pressure equivalent to the water surface level of the
adjacent reservoir. This is set automatically (according to the water level)
after a steady state run. It is used for transient computations.
– Reservoir Head denotes the constant hydraulic grade line available at the
reservoir.
– Nominal Flow is the flow the pump delivers at the Nominal Head under
normal steady-state operating conditions. Sometimes assumed to be the initial
steady-state flow.

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– Nominal Head is the head required to deliver the Nominal Flow at steady
state. It is the difference between the heads at the suction and discharge sides
of the pump.
– Pump Curve represents the head-discharge relationship of the pump at its
rated speed. Values are entered relative to Nominal Head and Nominal Flow.

• Shut after Time Delay, between 2 Pipes—A pump running at full speed
prior to time zero that can be shut down, either at time zero or after a time
delay, to represent a power failure or other emergency shutdown. This
pump requires the following parameters:
– Time Delay is the time that must elapse before the pump shuts down. This
time can also be set to zero (the default value) to simulate a shutdown at time
zero.
– Time to Close is the time required to close the discharge control or check
valve after reverse flow is sensed at the pump. Unless the check valve is
equipped with hydraulic piloting, dashpot damping, or electrical controls that
modify its closure time, enter a value of zero and HAMMER will close it the
instant flow drops to zero. If the discharge-control valve closes in a specific
amount of time after the power failure, enter that closure time.

Transient Tip: HAMMER automatically simulates a check valve at the

discharge flange of each pump. If no check valve is
installed in your system, enter a number of “Time to
Close” large enough to keep the check valve open
throughout the simulation period. To close the check
valve as soon as flow stops, enter zero.

– Diameter refers to the valve at full opening, typically equal to the internal
diameter of the discharge flange.
– Specific Speed provides four-quadrant characteristic curves to represent
typical pumps for many common types, including but not limited to: 1280,
4850, or 7500 (U.S. customary units) and 25, 94, or 145 (SI metric units).
– Reverse Spin indicates whether the pump is equipped with a ratchet or other
device to prevent the pump impeller from spinning in reverse. Set Reverse
Spin either to Allowed or Not Allowed.
– Percent Efficiency represents the efficiency of the pump as a percentage.
This is typically shown on the pump curves provided by the manufacturer. A
typical range is 85 to 95%, but values outside this range are possible.

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– Inertia of Pump is proportional to the amount of stored rotational energy

available to keep the pump rotating (and transferring energy to the fluid), even
after the power is switched off. You can obtain this parameter from manufac-
turer’s catalogs, or from pump curves, or estimate it by correlating it to horse-
power (see the empirical equations in “Pump Inertia” on page 6-221).
– Rotational Speed denotes the rotation of the pump impeller in revolutions
per minute or rpm. This is typically shown prominently on pump curves and
stamped on the name plate on the pump itself.

– Nominal Flow is the flow the pump delivers at the Nominal Head under
normal steady-state operating conditions. Sometimes assumed to be the initial
steady-state flow.
– Nominal Head is the head required to deliver the Nominal Flow at steady
state. It is the difference between the heads at the suction and discharge sides
of the pump.
– Upstream Pipe denotes the pipe where the flow originates and is only used
for steady state computations.
– Pump Curve represents the head-discharge relationship of the pump at its
rated speed. Values are entered relative to Nominal Head and Nominal Flow.
This is only used for steady state computations.

• Variable Speed, between 2 Pipes—A pump whose speed or torque can be

controlled during the simulation period with an operating-rule table.
HAMMER will use the correct head-discharge relationship at any speed.
This pump requires the following parameters:
– Initial / Typical Flow denotes the initial flow of the pump
– Nominal Flow is the flow the pump delivers at the Nominal Head under
normal steady-state operating conditions. Sometimes assumed as the initial
steady-state flow.
– Nominal Head is the head required to deliver the Nominal Flow at steady-
state. It is the difference between the heads at the suction and discharge sides
of the pump.
– Pump Curve represents the head-discharge relationship of the pump at its
rated speed. Values are entered relative to Nominal Head and Nominal Flow.
This data is only used for steady state computations.
– Time to Close is the time required to close the discharge control or check
valve after reverse flow is sensed at the pump. Unless the check valve is
equipped with hydraulic piloting, dashpot damping, or electrical controls that
modify its closure time, enter a value of zero and HAMMER will close it the
instant flow drops to zero. If the check valve and/or a discharge-control valve
closes in a specific amount of time after the power failure, enter the closure
time.

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– Diameter refers to the valve at opening, typically equal to the internal diam-
eter of the discharge flange.
– Specific Speed provides four-quadrant characteristic curves to represent
typical pumps for each of the three most common types, including but not
limited to: 1280, 4850, or 7500 (U.S. customary units) and 25, 94, or 145 (SI
metric units).
– Control Variable allows you to select either Speed or Torque to control
changes in the performance of this type of pump. Consult your motor
controller or transmission documentation for the correct range and time limits
that apply.
– Percent Efficiency represents the efficiency of the pump as a percentage.
This is typically shown on the pump curves provided by the manufacturer. A
typical range is 80 to 95%, but values outside this range are possible.
– Inertia of Pump is proportional to the amount of stored rotational energy
used to keep the pump rotating (and transferring energy to the fluid), even
after the power is switched off. You can obtain this parameter from manufac-
turer’s catalogs, or from pump curves, or estimate it by correlating it to horse-
power (see “Pump Inertia” on page 6-221).
– Nominal Speed denotes the rotation of the pump impeller per unit time, typi-
cally as rotations per minute or rpm. The head and flow delivered by the pump
depend on it.
– Upstream Pipe denotes the pipe where the flow originates. This is only used
for steady state computations.
– Operating Rule describes the set Speed or Torque with time. You can use
this feature to simulate a rapid (or even instantaneous) pump shutdown and
restart.

6.6.3 Turbine Element Reference - Hydropower Hydraulics

In a hydroelectric power plant, turbines convert the moving water’s kinetic energy to
mechanical (rotational) energy. Each turbine is mechanically coupled with a generator
that converts rotational energy to electrical energy. Each generator's output terminal
transmits electricity to the distribution grid. At steady state, the electricity produced
by the turbine-generator system is equal to the electrical grid load on the generator.

“Figure 6-1: Generalized Schematic of a Hydropower Generation Plant”on page 6-

230 is a generalized schematic of a hydroelectric power generation plant. A reservoir
(usually elevated) supplies a low pressure tunnel and a penstock. Water flows through
the penstock under increasingly higher pressure (and velocity if diameter decreases)
as it approaches the turbine. Most of the turbine's rotational energy drives a generator

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to produce electricity. Water emerges from the turbine through the draft tube and tail-
race and flows into the downstream reservoir. Surge tanks can be connected to the
penstock and/or tailrace to limit the magnitude of transient pressures, especially if the
length of the upstream conduit/penstock or if (rarely) the tailrace is relatively long.

Upstream
Reservoir
Surge Tank

Electrical Transmission Line

Low Pressure
Tunnel Pe Surge Tank
ns Generator
to c
k
Downstream
Reservoir
Spherical
Valve
Bypass
Line Tailrace
Turbine Power
House

Reservoir
Tank-
Variable
Area

Turbine
·
T

Figure 6-1: Generalized Schematic of a Hydropower Generation Plant

Hydraulic turbines and penstocks often operate under high pressure at steady-state.
Rapid changes such as electrical load rejection, load acceptance or other emergency
operations can result in very high transient pressures that can damage the penstock or
equipment. During load rejection, for example, the wicket gates must close quickly
enough to control the rapid rise in rotational speed while keeping pressure variations
in the penstock and tailrace within established tolerances. Using Hammer, designers
can verify whether the conduits and flow control equipment are likely to withstand
transient pressures that may occur during an emergency.

Electrical load varies with time due to gradual variations in electricity demand in the
distribution grid. Depending on the type of turbine, different valves are used to control
flow and match the electrical load. Turbines can be classified into two broad catego-
ries: a) impulse turbine, and b) reaction turbine.

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Impulse Turbine
An impulse turbine has one or more fixed nozzles through which pressure is converted
to kinetic energy as a liquid jet(s) – typically the liquid is water. The jet(s) impinge on
the moving plates of the turbine runner that absorbs virtually all of the moving water's
kinetic energy. Impulse turbines are best suited to high-head applications. One defini-
tion of an impulse turbine is that there is no change in pressure across the runner.

In practice, the most common impulse turbine is the Pelton wheel shown in “Figure 6-
2: Impulse Turbine Schematic (e.g. Pelton)”on page 6-231. Its rotor consists of a
circular disc with several “buckets” evenly spaced around its periphery. The splitter
ridge in the centre of each bucket divides the incoming jet(s) into two equal parts that
flow around the inner surface of the bucket. Flow partly fills the buckets and water
remains in contact with the air at ambient (or atmospheric) pressure.

Nozzle

Bucket

Splitter ridge

Section through
bucket

Figure 6-2: Impulse Turbine Schematic (e.g. Pelton)

Once the free jet has been produced, the water is at atmospheric pressure throughout
the turbine. This results in two isolated hydraulic systems: the runner and everything
upstream of the nozzle (including the valve, penstock and conduit). Model the
penstock independently using regular pipe(s), valve(s) and a valve to atmosphere for
the nozzle. Transients occur whenever the valve opens or closes and the penstock
must withstand the resulting pressures.

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Reaction Turbines
“Figure 6-3: Schematic of a Reaction Turbine (e.g. Francis or Kaplan)”on page 6-233
is a schematic of a typical reaction turbine. A volute casing and a ring of guide vanes
(or wicket gate around the circumference) deliver water to the turbine runner. The
wicket gate controls the flow passing through the turbine and the power it generates. A
mechanical and/or electrical governor senses gradual load variations on the generator
and opens or closes the wicket gates to stabilize the system (by matching electrical
output to grid load).

Transient Tip: Hammer currently models hydraulic transients that

result from changes in variables controlled by the
governor: it does not explicitly model the governor's
internal operation or dynamics. Depending on the
Operating Case being simulated, HAMMER either
assumes the governor is ‘disconnected’ or ‘perfect’.

The governor is an electro or mechanical control system

that may not be active – or may not react fast enough –
during the emergency conditions of primary interest to
modelers: instant load rejection or (rapid) load rejection.
Instant load rejection assumes the governor is
disconnected.

At other times, the governor will strive to match

electrical output at the synchronous or ‘no-load’ speed:
e.g. during load acceptance or load variation. Given the
fact that no two governors are the same, it is useful to
assume the governor is ‘perfect’ in those cases and that
it can match the synchronous speed exactly.

The runner must always be full to keep losses to a minimum, in contrast to an impulse
turbine where only a few of the runner blades are in use at any moment. Therefore,
reaction turbines can handle a larger flow for a given runner size. The number of
runner blades varies with the hydraulic head–the higher the head the more blades.

Reaction turbines are classified according to the direction of flow through the runner.
In a radial-flow turbine, the flow path is mainly in the plane of rotation: water enters
the rotator at one radius and leaves at a different radius–the Francis turbine being an
example of this type. In an axial-flow turbine, the main flow direction is parallel to the
axis of rotation – the Kaplan turbine being an example of this type. The term: mixed
flow turbine is used when flow is partly radial and partly axial.

Each of these categories corresponds to a range of specific speeds that can be calcu-
lated from the turbine's rated power, rotational (synchronous) speed and head.

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Rotating Equipment

Guide Vane
Q,H Pivot

Runner N (rpm)

Volute
Guide Vane or Wicket Gate w (%)
Electrical Load or Torque M

Draft tube

___________ ______
_ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ ___ ___ ___ __ _ Tailrace

Figure 6-3: Schematic of a Reaction Turbine (e.g. Francis or Kaplan)

The primary hydraulic variables used to describe a turbine are “Figure 6-3: Schematic
of a Reaction Turbine (e.g. Francis or Kaplan)”on page 6-233:

Q = Flow
H = Head
N = Rotational speed
I = Rotational Inertia
w = Wicket gate position (% open)
M = Electrical load or torque

Modeling Hydraulic Transients in Hydropower Plants

In a hydropower generation plant, it is essential to predict the transient pressures that
could occur and to implement an adequate surge control strategy to ensure the safety
and reliability of the unit. The impact of gradual or diurnal load variations on the
turbine-generator may be of interest during normal operations but an electric or
mechanical governor can control moderate transients.

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The primary purpose of hydraulic transient simulations is therefore to protect the

system against rapid changes in the electrical and/or hydraulic components of the
hydroelectric system. In each case, hydraulic transients result from changes in the
variables controlled by the governor:

1. Wicket Gate Position controls flow to increase or decrease the power the
turbine generates. The wicket gate is also used to stop or (re)start the system.
The governor opens or closes the wicket gate.
2. Electrical Load or Torque on the turbine-generator system varies with the
electrical load in the distribution grid. In steady-state operation, the electrical
torque and the hydraulic torque are in dynamic equilibrium. From a hydraulic
perspective, electrical torque is an external load on the turbine-generator unit.

Speed is another possible control variable for numerical simulations, especially for
pump-turbines. For turbines, however, the governor strives to keep the turbine at
synchronous speed by varying the wicket gate position during load variation and
acceptance (assuming a perfect governor). If field data were available, the speed could
be used to determine whether the model simulates the correct flow and pressures.

Once the time-varying electrical torque and wicket gate positions are known, the
turbine equations (Appendix B), HAMMER solves flow, Q, and rotational speed, N,
in conjunction with the four-quadrant characteristic curves for the turbine unit(s). This
yields the transient pressures for the load rejection, load acceptance, emergency shut-
down, operator error or equipment failure. The possible emergency or transient condi-
tions are discussed separately in the sections that follow.

Full Load Rejection

Full load rejection occurs when the distribution grid fails to accept electrical load from
the turbine-generator system. After the load is rejected by the grid, there is no external
load on the turbine-generator unit and the speed of the runner increases rapidly. This
can be catastrophic if immediate steps are not taken to slow and stop the system. To
keep the speed rise within an acceptable limit, the wicket gates must close quickly and
this may result in high (followed by low) hydraulic transient pressures in the penstock.
Since full load rejection usually results in the most severe transient pressures, it typi-
cally governs the design of surge control equipment.

During full load rejection, the generation of electrical power by the turbine-generator
unit should decrease to zero as quickly as possible to limit the speed rise of the unit.
To accomplish this, the wicket gates close gradually in order to reduce flow. “Table 6-
2: Load and Wicket Gate Changes for Load Rejection”on page 6-235 below shows an
example of electrical load and wicket gate position versus time to simulate full load
rejection.

Load and gate position are entered in different parameter tables in HAMMER because
they may not have the same time. HAMMER interpolates automatically as required.

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Rotating Equipment

Table 6-2: Load and Wicket Gate Changes for Load Rejection

Time Electrical Load Wicket Gate Position

(s) (MW) (%)

0 350 100

1 100 50

2 0 0

Full Load Acceptance

Full load acceptance occurs when the turbine-generator unit is connected to the elec-
trical grid and brought to full speed, known as no-load-speed (NLS). Transient pres-
sures generated during full load acceptance can be significant but they are usually less
severe than those resulting from full load rejection.

Up to NLS, the turbine generates no electrical power. When the turbine reaches NLS,
the electrical grid is connected to the output terminal of the generator and wicket gates
have to be open as quickly as possible to limit the speed drop as well as meeting the
power demand – all without causing excessive pressure in the penstock.

Table 6-3: Load and Wicket Gate Changes for Full Load Acceptance

Time Electrical Load Wicket Gate Position

(s) (MW) (%)

0 0 0

1 100 50

2 350 100

Emergency Operations

Emergency operations may occur due to operator error, control failure (e.g. governor),
equipment failure (e.g. spherical valve) or other unanticipated condition. If a control
failure allows the wicket gates to close suddenly, the hydraulic transient impact can be
worse than full load rejection (for which the governor reduces flow gradually to limit
the pressure rise). Depending on the situation, transient pressures for the emergency
shutdown can be the most significant that the system could ever experience.

In an emergency shutdown, electrical load suddenly drops to zero while the wicket
gates close rapidly. “Table 6-4: Load and Wicket Gate Changes for Emergency Shut-
down” shows an example of typical user input to simulate an emergency shutdown.

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Table 6-4: Load and Wicket Gate Changes for Emergency Shut-down

Time Electrical Load Wicket Gate Position

(s) (MW) (%)

0 350 100

0.01 0 0

5 0 0

Electrical Load Variation

Load variation on the turbine-generator unit can occur due to the diurnal changes in
electricity demand in the distribution grid. During load variation, the governor
controls the wicket gate opening to adjust flow through the turbine so that the unit can
match the electrical demand. The water column in the penstock and conduit system
accelerates or decelerates, resulting in pressure fluctuations.

The transient pressures that occur during general load variation may not be significant
from a hydraulic design perspective since they are often lower than the pressure
generated during a full load rejection or emergency shutdown.

At steady-state, the turbine-generator system usually runs at full load with the wicket
gates 100% open. The amount of electricity produced by the system depends on the
flow through the wicket gates. A decrease in electrical load requires a reduction in the
wicket gate opening to adjust the flow. “Table 6-5: Load and Wicket Gate Changes for
General Load Variation” shows an example of typical user input to simulate transient
pressures for load variation.

Table 6-5: Load and Wicket Gate Changes for General Load Variation

Time Electrical Load Wicket Gate Position

(s) (MW) (%)

0 350 100

5 300 85

10 250 70

15 200 57

20 100 28

30 50 15

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Rotating Equipment

Table 6-5: Load and Wicket Gate Changes for General Load Variation

Time Electrical Load Wicket Gate Position

(s) (MW) (%)

35 100 28

42 150 42

55 200 57

65 250 70

80 300 85

90 350 100

Impact of Turbine Governor on Transients

A governor plays an important role: it limits the speed rise of the turbine-generator
unit during load rejection (or other rapid variation) to keep pressure in the penstock
below an acceptable limit. The governor senses an electrical load variation or speed
rise (or both) and initiates corrective adjustments to the flow through the wicket gates.
If the governor functions as designed, and if it was designed correctly, it is unlikely
that transient pressures in the penstock will exceed pre-set limits.

You can use HAMMER to determine the rate at which the wicket gates must close to
limit hydraulic transient pressures to an acceptable range. Use the following steps:

• Enter the time-varying wicket gate position and electrical output in a table.
• Run HAMMER to model the variables controlled by the governor and simulate
the hydraulic response of the penstock and tailrace in terms of pressure and flow.
• After a few simulations, you can determine the correct timing of wicket gate
closure to avoid exceeding flow or pressure limits in the penstock.
• Use this timing to program (or adjust) the governor's response rate and damping
mechanisms at the power station.
As stated above, HAMMER models the variables controlled by the governor: it does
not model the internal workings of mechanical or electrical governors. Most types of
governors can be described by parameters such as “machine start time” that delay its
response time; or permanent and temporary “speed droop” that may reduce the speed
of the runner by a small amount during wicket gate closure (often a second-order
effect during rapid variations). Wicket gate position approximates this in HAMMER.

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Irrespective to the type of governor, the feedback it provides to the system is an

instruction to open or close the wicket gates in order to increase or decrease flow,
respectively. If you can measure or otherwise determine the range of closure speeds
their governor is capable of, then enter this time-dependent input into HAMMER.

In the design and analysis of the safety and functional adequacy of the penstock and
conduit system under diverse operating conditions, the maximum transient pressures
during full load rejection or emergency system operations are of great importance.
These are least affected by the governor. Transient pressures in the system during
general load variations, which may be affected by the governor, are often of secondary
importance to a hydraulic designer.

Turbine Parameters in HAMMER

Fundamentally, a turbine is a type of rotating equipment designed to remove energy
from a fluid. For a given flow rate, turbines remove a specific amount of the fluid’s
energy head. HAMMER provides a single but very powerful turbine representation:

• Turbine between 2 Pipes—A turbine that undergoes electrical load rejec-

tion at time zero, requiring it to be shut down rapidly. The four-quadrant
characteristics of generic units with certain specific speeds are built into
HAMMER. The turbine element allows nonlinear closure of the wicket gates and
is equipped with a spherical valve that can be closed after a time lag. It has the
following parameters:
– Spherical Valve Time Delay is a period of time that must elapse before the
spherical valve of the turbine activates.
– Spherical Valve Operation Time is the time required to operate the spherical
valve. By default, it is set equal to one time step.
– Spherical Valve Diameter is the diameter of the spherical valve.
– Specific Speed enables you to select from four-quadrant characteristic curves
to represent typical turbines for three common types: 30, 45, or 60 (U.S.
customary units) and 115, 170, or 230 (SI metric units). You can enter your
own four-quadrant data in the XML library (Appendix B).
– Percent Efficiency represents the efficiency of the turbine as a percentage.
This is typically shown on the curves provided by the manufacturer. A typical
range is 85 to 95%, but values outside this range are possible.
– Moment of Inertia The moment of inertia must account for the turbine,
generator, and entrained water.
– Rotational Speed denotes the rotation of the turbine blades per unit time,
typically as rotations per minute or rpm. The power generated by the turbine
depends on it.
– Rated Head/Flow denote the head and flow for which the turbine is rated.

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Protection Equipment

– Upstream Pipe denotes the pipe where the flow originates. This is only used
for steady state computations.
– Operational Case allows you to choose among the four possible cases:
instantaneous load rejection, load rejection (requires torque/load vs time
table), load acceptance and load variation.
– Operational Rule describes the percentage of gate opening with time.
– Turbine Curve represents the head-discharge relationship of the turbine at its
rated speed. Values are entered relative to Nominal Head and Nominal Flow.
This is only used for steady state computations.

6.7 Protection Equipment

HAMMER lets you consider several aspects of protection equipment.

6.7.1 Check Valves

There are several types of check valves available for the prevention of reverse flow in
a hydraulic system. The simplest and often most reliable are the ubiquitous swing
check valves, which should be carefully selected to ensure that their operational char-
acteristics (such as closing time) are sufficient for the transient flow reversals that can
occur in the system. Some transient flow reversal conditions can occur very rapidly;
thus, if a check valve cannot respond quickly enough, it may slam closed and cause
the valve or piping to fail.

Check valves that have moving discs and parts of significant mass have a higher
inertia and therefore tend to close more slowly upon flow reversal. Check valves with
lighter checking mechanisms have less inertia and therefore close more quickly.
External counterweights present on some check valves (such as swing check valves)
assist the valve closing following stoppage of flow. However, for systems that experi-
ence very rapid transient flow reversal, the additional inertia of the counterweight can
slow the closing time of the valve. Spring-loaded check valves can be used to reduce
closing time, but these valves have higher head loss characteristics and can induce an
oscillatory phenomenon during some flow conditions.

It is important that the modeler understand the closing characteristics of the check
valves being used. For example, ball check valves tend to close slowly, swing check
valves close somewhat faster (unless they are adjusted otherwise), and nozzle check
valves have the shortest closing times. Modeling the transient event with closing times
corresponding to different types of check valves can indicate if a more expensive
nozzle-type valve is worthwhile.

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6.7.2 Pressure Relief and Other Regulating Valves

Typically, if the decrease in pressure caused by a transient is insufficient to cause

vacuum conditions in the system, the resulting positive transient may not be excessive
and additional high-pressure protection devices might not be required. In some cases,
however, pressure-relief valves must open quickly if the system pressure reaches a
pre-established maximum pressure setting. The relief valve opens to discharge water,
thus controlling the maximum system pressure. After the high pressure is relieved, the
valve closes slowly to avoid creating a transient condition. If a storage facility exists
on the suction side of the pumps, water is usually discharged to the tank, though it
could also be discharged into the pump suction line or even to the atmosphere in
systems without a tank. The pressure to which the valve is discharging should usually
be modeled.

A surge-anticipator relief valve can be used instead of a pressure relief valve to control
high-pressure transients, as seen in the following figure. This type of relief valve starts
to open during the low-pressure period following an emergency pump shutdown in
anticipation of a high-pressure transient. Since the anticipator valve is already open
when the high-pressure transient reaches the valve, it is not required to sense the high
pressure. This type of valve is more effective when high-pressure transients occur
quickly and the limited opening time of a relief valve is not adequate. Set the low-
pressure activation point carefully to avoid premature opening before the pump has
spun down, which can cause a very steep negative transient wave.

HIGH
HGL

10 m

HGL HGL

(A) START (B) MATURE (C) REJOIN

Transient Tip: HAMMER assumes that any air admitted into the pipe
system will be released back to atmosphere at the same
location, or node. This is typically acceptable due to the
rapidity of hydraulic transient phenomena and the
tendency of water columns to rejoin at or near this
location. For this reason, valves that only release air are
not modeled.

Air-inlet valves or vacuum breakers can be installed at high points along the pipeline
system to limit subatmospheric pressures locally and to inject air into the pipe system
at locations vulnerable to water column separation. When pressure drops rapidly due
to a power failure, for example, air is able to rapidly enter the system. Following the
low-pressure transient, the air should be expelled slowly to avoid creating another

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Protection Equipment

transient condition. This process can repeat several times for some systems as tran-
sient cycles attenuate. Careful modeling of the air intake and release rates will indicate
the amount of time required for the air to be expelled and the transient energy to be
dissipated by friction, before the pumps are restarted.

Transient Tip: HAMMER calculates the air flow velocity at the inlet or
outlet orifices based on the ambient (atmospheric) and
system pressures (which may be subatmospheric). If
this velocity reaches the sonic limit, HAMMER will
throttle air flow accordingly.

A wide variety of valves enable air to enter and/or leave the system, including air-inlet
valves, air-release valves (ARV), vacuum-relief valves, vacuum-breaker valves, air-
vacuum valves (AVV), and combination air valves (CAV). You need to review the
manufacturer’s technical information carefully when selecting an appropriate air valve
for transient control. Do not rely only on the name and opening sizes of the valve;
obtain diagrams and air-flow charts and input the correct information into HAMMER
based on the physics of the valve.

6.7.3 Protective Equipment Reference

• Combination Air Valve (CAV)—is installed at local high points to allow

air to come into the system during periods when the head drops below the
pipe elevation and expels air from the system when water columns begin
to rejoin. The presence of air in the line limits subatmospheric pressures in the
vicinity of the valve and for some distance to either side, as shown on HAMMER
profile graphs. Air can also reduce high transient pressures if it is compressed
enough to slow the water columns prior to impact. This valve requires the
following parameters:
– Initial Air Volume near the valve at the start of the simulation. The default
value is zero. If there is an initial air volume, pressure at the valve must be
equal to zero at the start of the simulation.
– Small Outflow Diameter is the size of the opening that releases air from the
system when the volume of air is less than the Transition Volume. This diam-
eter is typically small enough to throttle air flow, compressing any air
remaining in the system.
– Transitional Volume is the threshold volume of air at which the outflow
diameter changes between the smaller and bigger size. The default value of
this parameter is zero.

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– Outflow Diameter is the size of the opening that releases air from the system
when the volume of air is greater than, or equal to, the Transition Volume.
This diameter is typically larger than the Small Outflow Diameter. Because it
is rare for this to throttle, the default value of this diameter is considered to be
infinite.
– Inflow Diameter is the size of the opening that lets air enter the system. This
diameter is typically large to allow the free entry of air without throttling. By
default, this diameter is considered infinite in HAMMER.

• Air Valve (Slow-Closing) between 2 Pipes—allows air into the system

freely when the head drops to below the pipe elevation and releases air
and/or fluid from the pipe when head increases again. Also known as a
downsurge relief valve. Unlike a CAV, the large outlet closes over a preset time
period. This valve requires the following parameters:
– Time to close the valve. Valve starts to close only when air begins to exit the
pipe. If air reenters, then the valve opens fully again.
– Diameter is the size of the valve opening for inflow and outflow.

• SAV/SRV at End of 1 Pipe—represents a surge-anticipator valve (SAV),

a surge relief valve (SRV), or both of them combined. A SAV opens on
low pressure in anticipation of a subsequent high pressure. A SRV opens
when pressure exceeds a threshold value. These valves require the following
parameters:
– Type of Valve(s) provides three possible valve types: SAV, SRV, and
SAV+SRV.
– Diameter of Orifice/ Throat for the liquid discharged by the valve.

– Parameters for SRV

- Diameter is the opening available to release fluid from the system.
- Threshold Pressure is the critical pressure at which the SRV opens. This
may be controlled by a spring, piloting, or other mechanism.
- Spring Constant represents the restoring force of the return spring per
unit lift off the valve seat. A typical value of this constant is 150 lb/in
(26.27 N/mm).

– Parameters for SAV:

- Diameter is not used by HAMMER but useful for display. Flow through
the valve is determined based on the Cv at Full Opening and valve type.
It is assumed that the percent of open-area curve for each valve type
corresponds to its Cv curve.
- Threshold Pressure is the critical pressure below which the SAV opens.

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Protection Equipment

- Type of SAV provides five options: Needle, Circular Gate, Globe, Ball,
and Butterfly.
- Time to Open is the time required to open the SAV fully upon activation.
- Open Time is the time the SAV remains fully open (i.e., the time between
the valve’s opening and closing phases).
- Time to Close is the time required to close the SAV fully. SAV must be
closed as soon as pressures are relieved to avoid developing too high a
return-flow velocity. SAV may not be able to close against extremely high
reverse-flow velocities for certain pilot configurations.
- CV at Full Opening refers to the valve coefficient, which is a function of
flow through the valve and the corresponding pressure drop across it.

• SAV/SRV between 2 Pipes—operates in the same way and requires the

same parameters as the SAV/SRV at End of 1 Pipe hydraulic element
described previously.

6.7.4 Gas Vessels and Surge Tanks

Flow-supplement protective devices work by allowing water to enter the system

during low transient pressures and accepting flow from the system during high tran-
sient pressures. There are two common types of flow-supplement protective devices:

• A gas vessel (also known as an air chamber or hydro-pneumatic tank) is a pressure

vessel that contains water and a volume of air that is maintained by an air
compressor. When pumps are shut down and the flow and pressure decrease at the
pump discharge, the air in the chamber expands as a result of the pressure drop,
and water enters the system from the chamber. Redundant compressors are
required to inject air at the correct pressure into the gas vessel because the pressur-
ized air will dissolve into the water as time passes. Since the gas vessel operates at
line pressure, a sight gauge or other method is required to detect the liquid level in
the pressure vessel.
• A surge tank (also known as a stand pipe) typically has a relatively small volume
and is located such that its normal water level is equal to the hydraulic grade line
at steady state. When low transient pressures occur, the tank feeds water into the
system by gravity to avoid subatmospheric pressure at the tank connection and
vicinity.

The piping connection between the gas vessel or surge tank and the system is sized to
provide adequate flow capacity when these are supplying water to the system and to
cause significant head loss when refilling from the system to dissipate transient
energy.

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Decision makers need to compare the life-cycle costs of the alternate routes and tran-
sient protection prior to selecting one surge-control strategy over another.

Using gas vessels and surge tanks to protect drinking water systems can result in
water-quality deterioration and a loss of disinfectant residual. These devices should be
equipped with a mechanism for circulating the water. A further complication occurs
when the tanks are located in cold climates, where the water can freeze.

• Surge Tank (Simple)—controls pressure surges generated by rapid

changes in flow at a pump station or turbine. The surge tank supplies water
into the system during rapid drops in head to avoid subatmospheric pres-
sures and water column separation. This alleviates both low and high pressures in
the system. Its size should be sufficient to prevent it from draining completely (to
prevent air intrusion into the system) and to prevent it from overflowing when
pressures increase again and the tank refills during the transient. It has the
following properties:
– Initial Water Level is the water level at the beginning of the simulation. By
default, the Initial Water Level is equal to the steady-state head of the adja-
cent pipe, provided a check valve is not installed. If this is defined prior to a
steady state run, it will control the HGL at this location. If left blank prior to a
steady state run, the HGL will be computed as though this was a small-diam-
eter standpipe (pressure junction in WaterCAD).
– Diameter is used to determine the cross-sectional area of the tank under the
assumption that it is circular (if not, enter an equivalent diameter for the tank.)
– Diameter of Orifice refers to the size of the opening to release water into the
system during low pressures and to accept water from the system during high
pressures.
– Elevation of Top of Tank is selected by default in such a way that there will
not be any overflow from the tank. If a value is entered, an overflow from the
tank to atmospheric pressure is possible.
– Check Valve Installed denotes whether the check valve is installed. The
default option is NO. If a check valve is installed, this device is referred to as
a one-way surge tank.
– Ratio of Losses represents the ratio of the head losses for inflow to outflow.
The default value of this parameter is 2.5. Differential orifices can create
different head losses depending on the direction of flow.
– Head Loss Coefficient is a dimensionless quantity that can be determined
from the flow through the orifice and corresponding pressure drop.
– Weir Coefficient represents a value equal to the weir discharge coefficient
times the width of the weir. It can be calculated from the standard weir equa-
tions, provided that the flow and head over the weir are know. By default, it is
the large positive number 99999, which assumes that the liquid level does not
significantly exceed the elevation of the top of tank during an overflow.

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• Surge Tank (Differential) between 2 Pipes—is similar to the Surge Tank

(Simple), but with the following additional parameters to reflect the
internal riser:
– Initial Water Level is the water level at the beginning of the simulation. By
default, the Initial Water Level is equal to the steady-state head of the adja-
cent pipe, provided a check valve is not installed. If this is defined prior to a
steady state run, it will control the HGL at this location. If left blank prior to a
steady state run, the HGL will be computed as though this was a small-diam-
eter standpipe (pressure junction in WaterCAD).
– Diameter is the internal diameter of the surge tank.
– Diameter of Orifice is the opening in the internal riser to allow flow from the
riser to the surge tank or from the surge tank into the riser.
– Diameter of External Riser refers to the diameter of the lower riser between
the hemispherical base of the surge tank and the pipe conveying water.
– Diameter of Internal Riser denotes the diameter of the upper riser inside the
surge tank.
– Elevation of Junction of Risers is the elevation at which the external and
internal risers meet.
– Elevation of Orifice refers to the elevation of the orifice in the internal riser.
– Elevation of Top of Base denotes the elevation of the top of the hemispher-
ical base of the tank. For a cylindrical tank, this is equal to the pipe elevation.
– Elevation of Top of Riser refers to the top elevation of the internal riser.
– Elevation of Top of Tank represents the elevation of the top of the surge tank
which generally higher than the top of the riser.
– Ratio of Losses denotes the ratio of the head losses for equal inflows to /
outflows from the tank via the orifice.
– Head Loss Coefficient applies to flow from the tank to the riser. It must be a
positive number.

• Surge Tank (Variable Area)—Similar to a simple surge tank, but with a

cross-sectional area that varies with elevation. It has the following param-
eters:
– Initial Water Level is the water level at the beginning of the simulation. By
default, the Initial Water Level is equal to the steady-state head of the adja-
cent pipe, provided a check valve is not installed. If this is defined prior to a
steady state run, it will control the HGL at this location. If left blank prior to a
steady state run, the HGL will be computed as though this was a small-diam-
eter standpipe (pressure junction in WaterCAD).

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– Diameter of Orifice refers to the size of the opening to release water into the
system during low pressures and to accept water from the system during high
pressures.
– Ratio of Losses represents the ratio of the head losses for inflow to outflow.
The default value of this parameter is 2.5. Differential orifices can create
different head losses depending on the direction of flow.
– Head Loss Coefficient is a dimensionless quantity that can be determined
from the flow through the valve and corresponding pressure drop.
– Tank Geometry refers to the pairs of equivalent diameters and elevations
which describe the geometry of the surge tank.

• Gas Vessel—A gas vessel is typically a cylindrical or spherical pressure

vessel containing fluid at the bottom and an entrapped gas (usually air or
nitrogen) overlying the liquid. The entrapped gas undergoes compression
and expansion in accordance with the gas law. If the gas vessel contains enough
gas to prevent water columns from separating, it can be an extremely effective
way to avoid or reduce pressure surges. A differential orifice can also be installed
at the connection to the system to dissipate the transient energy more rapidly. A
gas vessel has the following parameters:
– Initial Volume of Gas is the initial volume of gas in the pressure vessel at the
start of the simulation. During the transient event, this gas volume expands or
compresses, depending on the transient pressures in the system.
– Diameter of Orifice/ Throat is the size of the opening between the gas vessel
and the main pipe line. It is typically smaller than the main pipe size.
– Ratio of Losses refers to the ratio of inflow head loss to outflow loss (for the
same inflow and outflow rate.) The default value is 2.5.
– Head Loss Coefficient is a dimensionless quantity that can be computed
from the flow and head across the connecting pipe, differential orifice, and
isolation valve (if any).
– Exponent in Gas Law refers to the exponent to be used in the gas law equa-
tion. The usual range of this exponent is 1.0 to 1.4. The default value used by
HAMMER is 1.2.
– Bladder denotes whether the gas is contained within a bladder. The default
setting for this option is NO. If it is set to YES, HAMMER automatically
assumes that the bladder occupied the full-tank volume at the preset pressure
at some time and that the air volume was compressed to a smaller size by the
steady-state pressure in the system.

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• Rupture Disk between 2 Pipes—A rupture disk node is located between

two pipes. It is designed to fail when a specified threshold pressure is
reached. This creates an opening in the pipe through which flow can exit
the system, either to atmosphere or to another pressurized pipe system, such as a
suction line. It has the following parameters:
– Typical Pressure refers to a pressure drop across the (failed) rupture disk at
the Typical Flow.
– Typical Flow refers to any typical positive flow through the (failed) orifice
that corresponds to the Typical Pressure.
– Threshold Pressure refers to the pressure beyond which the rupture disk
breaks and allows flow to exit the system.

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 Chapter

Modeling Capabilities 7
HAMMER’s unmatched capabilities can model and optimize practically any distribu-
tion system.

7.1 Analysis of Hydraulic Transient Pressures

Use HAMMER to simulate short-lived but often extreme hydraulic transient pressures
and flows, as well as to predict the formation and collapse of air or vapor pockets in
your system. HAMMER has the following capabilities:

• Automatically import model data from widely used steady-state models, such as
EPANET, WaterCAD/WaterGEMS, PIPE2000 (with equivalency tables for
SURGE2000). The input database allows you to import data from other platforms
including GIS or databases such as Access.
• Compute the initial steady-state directly within HAMMER. This capability
requires only a few system settings and some additional information (similar to
WaterCAD) for many hydraulic elements within HAMMER.
• Perform a hydraulic transient analysis to see how the system behaves over time
after a power failure, pipe break, pump or valve operation, equipment failure or
operator error. HAMMER enables you to:
– Choose one of three types of friction methods, including steady-state (using
Hazen-Williams or Darcy-Weisbach friction coefficients), or the more accu-
rate quasi-steady or unsteady (transient) friction methods.
– Use pump and turbine representations including simple or multipoint head-
discharge curves for pumps, and four-quadrant pump or turbine characteristics
that you can select based on your unit’s specific speed.
– Use simple valve representations or multipoint head-discharge (Cv) curves.

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Analysis of Hydraulic Transient Pressures

– Use intuitive parameter libraries and presets. Pump, turbine, valve or liquid
parameters can be re-used within a project, or amongst multiple projects, by
storing them as a preset or entering them into an editable XML library. You
can also save the parameters for any hydraulic element to a named preset.

Transient Tip: Preset and library files can be copied from one computer
to another to enable others to use them. Since HAMMER
input files (.hif) contain every model parameter, an
unmodified file can always run on another computer.
This portability facilitates reviews or discussions.

The only exception occurs if the input file uses a custom

four-quadrant pump or turbine data set. In that case,
HAMMER requires the corresponding XML library files
that you modified in order to run on another machine.

– Rely on a built-in vaporous cavitation sub-model, invoked when pressure

reaches full vacuum, as described separately in “Water Column Separation
and Vapor Pockets” on page 7-256.
– Obtain a rigorous numerical solution using the Method of Characteristics
(MOC) and elastic theory—the most advanced and proven methods available.
The MOC simulates wave propagation in a frictionless and slightly compress-
ible liquid, as described in “Method of Characteristics (MOC)” on page B-
351. HAMMER accounts for friction, air intake/exhaust and cavitation sepa-
rately and automatically.

• Specify surge-control equipment based on your results, including surge tanks,

surge-anticipator valves, combination air valves, gas vessels (air chambers), and
rupture disks. These can also be saved to named parameter presets or libraries.
• Calculate transient forces at each node to ensure thrust blocks, guides or anchors
can withstand the time-varying load vectors, which often reverse direction.
• Visualize extremely high and low transient heads and flows using color-coded
maps, animated profiles, and histories at every point of interest—before they can
break pipes, fatigue joints, and cause leaks throughout your system.

Steady-state hydraulic models, such as WaterCAD, simulate systems in which a

dynamic equilibrium has been achieved and where changes in head or flow take
minutes to hours. HAMMER can also solve such systems using a steady state run. In
contrast, HAMMER also simulates hydraulic systems whose balance has been upset
by rapid control-valve operation or other emergencies—all occurring in seconds or
fractions of a second.

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 Modeling Capabilities

With HAMMER’s added simulation power comes a higher computation cost, since
many time steps must be calculated for a transient solution, using more complex equa-
tions to track dynamic changes systemwide. Fortunately, HAMMER automatically
adjusts its solution method to minimize execution time, while delivering detailed and
accurate solutions. HAMMER uses one or both of these algorithms:

• Method of Characteristics (MOC) solution of the full continuity and momentum

equations for a Newtonian fluid (i.e., elastic theory), which account for the fact
that liquids are compressible and that pipe walls can expand under high pressures.
• Differential equation solution of simpler momentum and continuity equations
based on rigid-column theory, which assumes liquids are incompressible and
pipes are rigid. This simpler method is not used by default.

HAMMER uses MOC system-wide for every simulation by default. The simpler,
faster rigid-column algorithm can also applied in specific reaches for a few special
applications if you enable this option. Although the MOC is preferred, due to its
greater accuracy, both methods are described separately below.

7.1.1 Rigid-Column Simulation

Rigid-column theory is suitable for simulating changes in hydraulic transient flow or

head that are gradual in terms of the system’s characteristic time, T = 2 L/a
(Appendix B). This type of hydraulic transient is often referred to as a mass-oscilla-
tion phenomenon, where gradual changes in momentum occur without significant or
sharp pressure wave fronts propagating through the system.

For example, mass oscillations can occur when a vacuum-breaker or combination air
valve lets air into the system at a local high point (to limit subatmospheric pressures).
The water columns separate and move away from the high point as air rushes in to fill
the space between them. Eventually, flow reverses towards the high point, where the
air may be compressed as it is expelled. This back-and-forth motion of the water
columns may repeat many times until friction dissipates the transient energy.

From the HAMMER Tools > Project Options menu, click the Other Options tab and
set Extended CAV (combination air valve) to True. HAMMER will track the extent
of the air pocket and the resulting mass-oscillation and water column accelerations.
HAMMER still calculates the system-wide solution using MOC and elastic theory; it
uses rigid-column theory only for the pipes nearest the high point. This results in more
accurate solutions, without increasing execution times.

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Analysis of Hydraulic Transient Pressures

7.1.2 Elastic Simulation

Elastic theory is suitable for simulating changes in hydraulic transient flow or head of
all types, whether gradual, rapid, or sudden in terms of the system’s characteristic
time. A popular and proven way to implement an elastic theory solver is the Method
of Characteristics (MOC).

The MOC is an algebraic technique to compute fluid pressures and flows in a pressur-
ized pipe system. Two partial differential equations for the conservation of momentum
and mass are transformed to ordinary differential equations that can be solved in
space-time along straight lines, called characteristics. Frictional losses are assumed
to be concentrated at the many solution points.

HAMMER’s power derives from its advanced implementation of elastic theory using
the MOC, which results in several advantages:

• Rigorous solution of the Navier-Stokes equation, including higher-order minor

terms and complex boundary conditions, whose physics can be described with
mathematical rigor.
• Robust and stable results minimizing numerical artifacts and achieving
maximum accuracy. Convergence is virtually assured for most systems and toler-
ances.
• Research and field-proven method based on numerous laboratory and field
experiments, where transient data were measured and used to validate numerical
simulation results.

Numerical methods for solving hydraulic transient systems or describing their

boundary conditions are continuously evolving. The ideal model should have the right
balance of proven algorithms and leading-edge methodologies. HAMMER is such a
model. It is the result of decades of experience and innovation by Environmental
Hydraulics Group’s senior staff combined with Bentley Systems’ software expertise
and track record in bringing leading-edge technologies into widespread use.

7.1.3 Data Requirements and Boundary Conditions

The data requirements of hydraulic models increase with the complexity of the
phenomena being simulated. A steady-state model’s simple dataset and system repre-
sentation are sufficient to determine whether the network can supply enough water to
meet a certain average demand. An extended-period simulation (EPS) model requires
additional data, but it can indicate whether the system can provide an acceptable level
of service over a period of minutes, hours, or days. EPS models can also be used for
energy-consumption studies and water-quality modeling.

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 Modeling Capabilities

Data requirements for hydraulic transient simulations are greater than for EPS or
steady-state runs. In addition to the information required by a steady-state model, you
also need to determine the following:

• Pipe elasticity (i.e., pressure wave speed)

• The fluid’s vaporization limit (i.e., vapor pressure)
• The pumps’ combined pump and motor inertia and controlled ramp times, if any.
• Pump or pump-turbine characteristics for hydropower systems.
• The valves’ controlled operating times and their stroke to discharge coefficient (or
open area) relationship.
• The characteristics of surge-protection equipment.

You can use simple methods to estimate each of the above parameters, as described
elsewhere in this documentation and in the HAMMER software.

Additional data may be required to obtain a steady state from within HAMMER using
a steady state run. For more information, see “Hydraulic Element Reference” on
page 6-205.

7.2 Analysis of Transient Forces

At zero flow (static or stagnant condition), a piping system experiences hydraulic
forces due to the weight and static pressure of the liquid to be conveyed. At steady-
state, these forces are typically balanced such that forces on most elbows are balanced
by forces at another elbow or by a restraint, such as a thrust block. Codes such as
ASME B31.3 refer to this balanced hydraulic steady-state as the "Operating" pressure
and temperature. Pipe stress software can be used to ensure that supports, guides and
restraints are sufficiently strong to hold the pipes in position without excessive
displacement or vibration.

Hydraulic transients occur whenever a change in flow and/or pressure is rapid with
respect to the characteristic time of the system. The rapid changes in pressure and
momentum that occur during a transient cause liquids [and gases] to exert transient
forces on piping and appurtenances. This is highly significant for in-plant, buried and
freely-supported piping because:

• If pressures and flows change during the transient event, the force vectors will
likewise change in magnitude and direction. This has fundamental implications
for the design of thrust blocks and restraints.
• Due to weight, transient forces are always three-dimensional even for horizontal
pipelines. For buried piping, these forces are also resisted in three dimensions at
discrete points (thrust blocks), transversely due to contact with the earth, and
longitudinally due to pipe friction with the soil.

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Analysis of Transient Forces

• Transient forces are not linearly proportional to transient pressures. A small

increase in transient pressure can develop proportionally larger transient forces.
This is because the forces are not a linear function of the pressures.
• Thrust blocks or restraints designed for the steady-state or "operating case" times
a (constant) safety factor can often be inadequate to resist transient forces, espe-
cially for systems with high operating pressures, temperatures or mass.

Codes such as ASME B31.3 refer to a fluid transient as a “Dynamic” operating case,
which may also include sudden thrust due to relief valves that pop open or rapid
piping accelerations due to an earthquake. It is advisable to investigate fluid-structure
interactions (FSI) that can develop for dynamic cases but the decision to undertake
such analysis is largely up to the designer; except for boilers or nuclear installations.

Prior to the advent of inexpensive computing, transient and pipe stress calculations
were onerous and virtually impossible to perform for large piping systems or plants.
The increased analysis and design involved can be justified in terms of achieving a
greater understanding of the system to ensure safe operations with minimum down-
time. Designers are well-advised to follow the following steps:

• Steady-state analysis using WaterCAD: layout piping and equipment to convey

the steady-state flow efficiently. This remains the essential design step and
governs the economics of most systems by determining the number, material/
thickness and length of pipe required.
• Transient analysis using HAMMER: revisit pipe class and/or add protective
equipment to keep transient pressures as close to steady as possible. Check steady
and transient forces to guide the design of thrust blocks. This may be the last step
in the design of buried pipelines, or specialized pipe/soil models can be used to
check for sufficient support and resistance to overburden and groundwater.
• Pipe stress analysis using Bentley AutoPIPE: verify supports, guides and
restraints against steady-state (operating case) and transient (dynamic) plus
thermal pipe stresses, if any. This may be the last step in the design of process
plant piping, or additional time or frequency-domain analysis may be performed
to check for flow-induced vibration or earthquakes.

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 Modeling Capabilities

HAMMER needs X, Y and Z (elevation) coordinates to calculate transient forces.

Simulations for which transient forces are enabled have longer completion times but
there are no additional steps. The results are available as tables or graphics in a similar
way as transient pressures: transient force graphs show the X, Y and Z components as
well as the resultant magnitude. Transient forces are also available from FlexTables or
through the HAMMER output database (Access format): these can be used as input to
pipe stress software such as Bentley AutoPIPE.

7.3 Infrastructure and Risk Management

HAMMER provides input to operation procedures to increase infrastructure life and
reduce the risk of service interruptions in the following ways:

• Reduce wear and tear from pressure cycling due to rapid industrial demand
changes, incorrect control-valve operations, or water-column separation.
• Reduce the risk of pipe breaks, leaks, and unaccounted-for water (UFW) by
optimizing normal and emergency procedures to minimize transient pressure
shock waves. This will also minimize transient thrust forces.
• Verify thrust block designs using time-dependent load vectors. Transient forces
are a more rigorous design basis than the conventional method, whereby thrust
blocks are sized to resist steady-state forces. Transient thrust can be orders of
magnitude greater than steady state thrust. Transient thrust can also change direc-
tion as flows and pressures oscillate and dampen to the new steady-state.
• Predict overflows at outfalls or spills to the environment more accurately.
• Manage the risk of contamination during subatmospheric transient pressures,
which can suck air, dirt, and contaminants into your system.

7.4 Water Column Separation and Vapor

Pockets
During a hydraulic transient event, the hydraulic-grade line (HGL), or head, at some
locations may drop low enough to reach the pipe’s elevation, resulting in sub-atmo-
spheric pressures or even full-vacuum pressures. Some of the water may flash from
liquid to vapor while vacuum pressures persist, resulting in a temporary water-column
separation. When system pressures increase again, the vapor condenses to liquid as
the water columns accelerate toward each other (with nothing to slow them down
unless air entered the system at a vacuum breaker valve) until they collapse the vapor
pocket; this is the most violent and damaging water hammer phenomenon possible.

HAMMER makes a number of assumptions with respect to the formation of air or

vapor pockets and the resulting water column separation:

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Water Column Separation and Vapor Pockets

• HAMMER models volumes as occupying the entire cross section of the pipe. This
may not be realistic for small volumes, since they could overlie the liquid and not
create column separation, as in the case of air bubbles, but this does not result in
significant errors.
• HAMMER models air or vapor volumes as concentrated at specific points along a
pipe. Volume at a node is the sum of the end points (a special case of a point) for
all pipes connected to it. However, HAMMER can simulate an extended air
volume if it enters the system at a local high point (via a combination air valve or
CAV) and if it remains within the pipes connected to it.
• HAMMER ignores the reduction in pressure-wave speed that can result from the
presence of finely dispersed air or vapor bubbles in the fluid. Air injection using
diffusers or spargers can be difficult to achieve consistently in practice and the
effect of air bubbles (at low pressures) on wave speed is still the subject of labora-
tory investigations.

In each case, the assumptions are made so that HAMMER’s results provide conserva-
tive predictions of extreme transient pressures.

7.4.1 Global Adjustment to Vapor Pressure

If system pressure drops to the fluid’s vapor pressure, the fluid flashes into vapor,
resulting in a separation of the liquid columns. Consequently, vapor pressure is a
fundamental parameter for hydraulic transient modeling. Vapor pressure changes
significantly at high temperature, operating pressure, or altitude. Fortunately, it
remains close to HAMMER’s default value for a wide range of these variables for
typical water pipelines and networks.

If your system is at high altitude or if it is an industrial system operating at high

temperatures or pressures, consult a steam table or vapor-pressure curve for the liquid.
Consider a few extra model runs to assess the sensitivity of the hydraulic transient
simulation results to global changes in vapor pressure—you can change it on the
System tab of the Project Options window (Tools > Project Options).

7.4.2 Global Adjustment to Pipe Elevations

HAMMER calculates the elevation along the top of any pipe (also known as its obvert
or crown) from a straight line joining the elevations of the two nodes it connects to.
Because differences can occur between as-constructed pipe elevations (or surveys)
and the design drawings that hydraulic models are typically based on, it is prudent to
assess the sensitivity of the hydraulic transient simulation results to changes in eleva-
tion. If the transient HGL drops below the pipe elevation, vapor pockets can form and
collapse.

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HAMMER speeds this process by allowing you to make a global adjustment to pipe
elevations from the Tools > Project Options menu command; click the Preferences
tab and type in the amount to increase the pipe elevations. After running HAMMER,
you can save the resulting profile as a HAMMER graph (.grp) and copy data from
several such graphs onto a common graph showing the sensitivity to elevation errors.

7.4.3 Global Adjustment to Wave Speed

The pressure-wave speed is a fundamental parameter for hydraulic transient modeling,

since it determines how quickly disturbances propagate throughout the system. This
affects whether or not different pulses may superpose or cancel each other as they
meet at different times and locations. Wave speed is affected by pipe material and
bedding, as well as by the presence of fine air bubbles in the fluid. The default value
of 1,000 m/s (3,280 ft./sec.) is for metal or concrete pipe.

Although higher wave speeds are conservative for typical systems composed of a
single pipe material, such as pipelines, consider a few extra model runs to assess the
sensitivity of the hydraulic transient simulation results to global changes in wave
speed; you can change it on the Summary tab of the Project Options window (Tools >
Project Options).

7.4.4 Automatic or Direct Selection of the Time Step

HAMMER selects the time step used in its calculations automatically, based on the
wave speed and the length of each pipe in the system, so that a sharp pressure-wave
front can travel the length of one of the pipe’s interior segments in one time step.
Encoding long pipeline systems with very short pipes, such as discharge-header
piping inside the pump station, may significantly decrease the time step and increase
the time required to complete a run.

Warning! Using very short pipes (in a pump station) and very long
pipes (transmission lines) in the same HAMMER model
could require excessive adjustments to the wave speed. If
this happens, HAMMER prompts you to subdivide longer
pipes to avoid resulting inaccuracies.

A smaller time step may cause HAMMER to track the formation and collapse of very
fine vapor pockets, each of which may result in pressure spikes with low magnitudes
but high frequencies. If your HAMMER model includes excessively short pipes
(perhaps introduced on import) that result in a small time step, it may be possible to
merge them automatically using Tools > Merge Pipes, enabling faster solutions
without sacrificing accuracy. See “Merge Pipes Dialog Box” on page 2-79 for more
information on the Merge Pipes dialog.

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Check Run

You can also select the time step from the expanded Run dialog. For more information
on selecting a time step, see “Project Setup” on page 4-178.

7.5 Check Run

This feature allows you to validate your model against typical data entry errors, hard
to detect topology problems, and modeling problems. When the Data Check button is
selected, in the Run dialog box, the model is automatically validated before detailed
calculations are begun. The process produces either a dialog box stating No Problems
Found or a status log (see “Status Log” on page 12-539) with a list of messages. The
data check algorithm performs the following validations:

• Network Topology—Checks that the network contains at least one boundary

node, one pipe, and one junction, the minimum network requirements. It also
checks for fully connected pumps and valves and that every node is reachable
from a boundary node through open links.
• Element Validation—Checks that every element in the network is valid for the
calculation. For example, this validation ensures that all pipes have nonzero
length, nonzero diameter, etc. Each type of element has its own checklist. This
same validation is performed when you edit an element in a dialog box.

The validation process generates two types of messages. A warning message means
that a particular part of the model (e.g., a pipe’s roughness) does not conform to the
expected value or is not within the expected range of values. This type of warning is
useful but not fatal. Therefore, no corrective action is required to proceed with a
calculation. Warning messages are often generated as a result of a topographical or
data-entry error and should be corrected.

Note: If your model will not run due to error messages and you do not
know how to proceed, please contact Bentley Systems’ support
staff (see “Contacting Bentley Systems About Haestad Methods
Products” on page 1-25).

An error message, on the other hand, is a fatal error and the calculation cannot proceed
before it is corrected. Typically, error messages are related to problems in the network
topology, such as a pump or valves not being connected on both its intake and
discharge sides.

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7.6 Orifice Demand and Intrusion Potential

In WaterCAD and WaterGEMS, flow emitters are devices associated with junctions
that model the flow through a nozzle or orifice (i.e., orifice demand). The demand or
flow rate through the emitter varies in proportion to the pressure at the junction raised
to some power. The constant of proportionality is termed the discharge coefficient. For
nozzles and sprinkler heads, the exponent on pressure is 0.5 and the manufacturer
usually states the value of the discharge coefficient as the flow rate in gpm through the
device at a 1 psi pressure drop (or L/s at a 1 m pressure drop).

Emitters are used to model flow through sprinkler systems and irrigation networks.
They can also simulate leakage in a pipe connected to the junction (if a discharge coef-
ficient and pressure exponent for the leaking crack or joint can be estimated) or to
compute a fire flow at the junction.

In HAMMER, any demand at a node is called a consumption node and is treated as

an orifice discharging to atmosphere that cannot allow air back into the system during
periods of subatmospheric pressure. This is because the majority of water demands
entered into hydraulic models are really the sum of several houses or demand points,
each located at a significant distance from the point where their aggregate demand is
being modeled. By default, HAMMER assumes that any air allowed into the system at
the individual demand points cannot reach the aggregate demand location. If this is
not the case, use one of the following hydraulic elements:

• Orifice to Atmosphere—Models a demand point located a hydraulically short

distance from its node coordinates (based on the wave speeds of the pipes
connected to it). The initial pressure and flow are used to automatically calculate a
flow emitter coefficient, which will be used during the simulation to calculate
transient outflows. If pressure in the system becomes subatmospheric during the
simulation, this element allows air into the system. You can also specify a volume
of air at time zero to use this element to simulate an inrush transient.
• Orifice at Branch End—Models a demand point in a manner similar to the
element Orifice to Atmosphere. You can enter the orifice’s elevation and distance
away from the node’s coordinates to simulate fire hoses or sprinkler systems.

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Numerical Model Calibration and Validation

Table 7-1: HAMMER Consumption Node Table

System Pressure
Hydraulic
Elements
Positive Negative

Pressure
Consumption No flow
dependent

Orifice to Pressure
Air intrusion
Atmosphere dependent

Orifice at Branch Pressure

Water intrusion
End dependent

7.7 Numerical Model Calibration and Validation

As part of its expert witness and break-investigation service, EHG has calibrated and
validated HAMMER’s numerical simulations for different fluids and systems for
clients in the civil (water and wastewater), mining (slurry), and hydropower sectors.
Comparisons between computer models and validation data can be grouped into the
following three categories:

• Cases for which closed-form analytical solutions exist given certain assump-
tions. If the model can directly reproduce the solution, is considered valid for this
case. The example file (\\HAMR\Samples) hamsam01.hif is a validation case
against the Joukowski equation.

• Laboratory experiments with flow and pressure data records. The model is cali-
brated using one set of data and, without changing parameter values, it is used to
match a different set of results. If successful, it is considered valid for these cases.
• Field tests on actual systems with flow and pressure data records. These compar-
isons require threshold and span calibration of all sensor groups, multiple simulta-
neous datum and time base checks and careful test planning and interpretation.
Sound calibrations match multiple sensor records and reproduce both peak timing
and secondary signals—all measured every second or fraction of a second.

It is extremely difficult to develop a theoretical model that accurately simulates every

physical phenomenon that can occur in a hydraulic system. Therefore, every hydraulic
transient model involves some approximations and simplifications of the real
problem. For designers trying to specify safe surge-control systems, conservative
results are sufficient.

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 Modeling Capabilities

The differences between computer model results and actual system measurements are
caused by several factors, including the following difficulties:

• Precise determination of the pressure-wave speed for the piping system is diffi-
cult, if not impossible. This is especially true for buried pipelines, whose wave
speeds are influenced by bedding conditions and the compaction of the
surrounding soil.
• Precise modeling of dynamic system elements (such as valves, pumps, and
protection devices) is difficult because they are subject to deterioration with age
and adjustments made during maintenance activities. Measurement equipment
may also be inaccurate.
• Unsteady or transient friction coefficients and losses depend on fluid velocities
and accelerations. These are difficult to predict and calibrate even in laboratory
conditions.
• Prediction of the presence of free gases in the system liquid is sometimes impos-
sible. These gases can significantly affect the pressure-wave speed. In addition,
the exact timing of vapor-pocket formation and column separation are difficult to
simulate.

Calibrating model parameters based on field data can minimize the first source of
error listed above. Conversations with operators and a careful review of maintenance
records can help obtain accurate operational characteristics of dynamic hydraulic
elements. Unsteady or transient friction coefficients and the effects of free gases are
more challenging to account for.

Fortunately, friction effects are usually minor in most water systems and vaporization
can be avoided by specifying protection devices and/or stronger pipes and fittings able
to withstand subatmospheric or vacuum conditions, which are usually short-lived.

For systems with free gas and the potential for water-column separation, the numerical
simulation of hydraulic transients is more complex and the computed results are more
uncertain. Small pressure spikes caused by the type of tiny vapor pockets that are
difficult to simulate accurately seldom result in a significant change to the transient
envelopes. Larger vapor-pocket collapse events resulting in significant upsurge pres-
sures are simulated with enough accuracy to support definitive conclusions.

Consequently, HAMMER is a powerful and essential tool to design and operate

hydraulic systems provided the results are interpreted carefully and scrutinized as
follows:

• Perform what-if analyses to consider many more events and locations than can be
tested, including events that would require destructive testing.

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Numerical Model Calibration and Validation

• Determine the sensitivity of the results to different operating times, system config-
urations, and operating- and protective-equipment combinations.
• Based on a calibrated or uncalibrated model, predict the effects of proposed
system capacity and surge-protection upgrades by comparing them against each
other.

These are facilitated if transient pressure or flow measurements are available for your
system, but valid conclusions and recommendations can usually be obtained using
HAMMER alone.

7.7.1 Gathering Field Measurements

Rather than conventional pressure gages and SCADA systems, high-speed sensors
and data logging equipment are needed to accurately track transient events. The pres-
sure transducer should be very sensitive, have a high resolution, and be connected to a
high-speed data acquisition unit. It should be connected to the system pipeline with a
device to release air, because air can distort the pressure signal transmitted during the
transient.

Recording should not begin until all air is released from the pipeline connection and
the pressure measurement interval is defined. Typically, at least two measuring loca-
tions should be established in the system and the flow-control operation should be
closely monitored. The timings of all recording equipment must be synchronized. For
valves, the movement of the position indicator is recorded as a function of time. For
pumps, rotation or speed is measured over time. For protection devices such as one-
way and two-way surge tanks and hydro-pneumatic tanks, the level is measured over
time.

7.7.2 Timing and Shape of Transient Pressure Pulses

With respect to timing, there should be close agreement between the computed and
measured periods of the system, regardless of what flow-control operation initiated
the transient. With a well-calibrated model of the system, it is possible to use the
model in the operational control of the system and anticipate the effects of specific
flow-control operations. This requires field measurements to quantify your system’s
pressure-wave speed and friction, with the following considerations:

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 Modeling Capabilities

• Field measurements can clearly indicate the evolution of the transient. The
pressure-wave speed for a pipe with typical material and bedding can be deter-
mined if the period of the transient (4 L/a) and the length (L) between measure-
ment locations is known. If there is air in the system, the measured wave speed
may be much lower than the theoretical speed.
• If friction is significant in a system, real-world transients attenuate faster than the
numerical simulation, particularly during longer time periods (t > 2 L/a). Poor
friction representation does not explain lack of agreement with an initial transient
pulse.

In general, if model peaks arrive at the wrong time, the wave speed must be adjusted.
If model peaks have the wrong shape, the description of the control event (pump shut-
down or valve closure) should be adjusted. If the transient dies off too quickly or
slowly in the model, the friction losses must be adjusted. If there are secondary peaks,
important loops and diversions may need to be included in the model.

7.8 Steady State Run

This feature allows you to obtain a hydraulic steady state from the data in your
HAMMER model. When the Steady button is selected in the “Type of Run” area of
the Run dialog box, the model data is sent to the steady state solver so it can begin the
calculations. If errors are encountered, the steady state solver will show a dialog box
with a list of messages. Prior to a steady state run:

• Steady State Options—The parameters that control the steady state hydraulic
computations are similar to those in WaterCAD. They can be modified using the
Tools > Project Options menu command and clicking the Steady State tab:
– Steady State Trials is set for maximum accuracy by default. We recommend
you not modify this setting. This is similar to the setting in WaterCAD.
– Steady State Accuracy is set for maximum accuracy by default. We recom-
mend you not modify this setting. This is similar to the setting in WaterCAD.
– Pump Curves Linear Mode is either True or False. If True, the steady state
solver uses linear interpolation to estimate the curve if the solution lies
between points entered in the pump table. This method is consistent with the
transient solver in HAMMER.
– Friction Method is either Hazen-Williams (for which the Friction Coeffi-
cient is a C factor) or Darcy-Weisbach. Selecting Darcy-Weisbach will
display both the Darcy-Weisbach f (for the Friction Coefficient) and the
Roughness Height in the Drawing Pane. Roughness Height is only used for a
steady state run and typical values are available from the material library.
Upon completion, the steady-state solver updates the HAMMER Darcy-Weisbach
Friction Coefficient: f. HAMMER uses the Darcy-Weisbach friction method in all

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Steady State Run

transient simulations, whether the friction model is steady, quasi-steady or unsteady

(Preferences tab of Tools > Project Options).

• Element Data for Steady State—Some fields in the Drawing Pane are only
required for a steady state run, as described by tooltips. If some information
required by the steady state solver is missing, HAMMER will display a Warning
Message dialog prompting for additional data or an Error Message dialog with
instructions on how to proceed. Typically, error messages are related to problems
in the network topology, such as a pump or valves not being connected on both its
intake and discharge sides.

Note: If your model will not run due to error messages and you do not
know how to proceed, please contact Bentley Systems’ support
staff (see “Contacting Bentley Systems About Haestad Methods
Products” on page 1-25).

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 Chapter

Presenting Your 8
Results

This section covers the various methods provided for viewing, annotating, graphing,
animating, and reporting your data. It also presents the tools available for generating
maps, profiles, and time-history plots, which can be color-coded based on the simula-
tion results. HAMMER makes it easy to review and present your results quickly and
efficiently with the following options:

• Color-coded Map—HAMMER can color-code the pipes and nodes in a model

according to the calculated results, including maximum or minimum head or pres-
sure, maximum or minimum flow, and maximum volume of air or vapor. It also
provides diagnostic maps showing adjustments to pipe lengths or pressure wave
speeds (if any) for the selected simulation time-step.
• HGL Profile—HAMMER automatically plots the steady-state hydraulic grade
line (HGL) and the maximum and minimum transient head or pressure envelopes
along each profile (or path). These envelopes provide a visual summary of
extreme conditions along the profile during the simulation.
• Time History—HAMMER can plot or animate time-dependent changes in the
simulated transient flow, head or pressure, forces, and volume of vapor or air at
any point of interest.
• Synchronized Animation—HAMMER automatically synchronizes every profile
and history you choose to animate. This helps you to visualize how variables
change over time and space, by animating time histories for specific locations
along a profile, for example.
• Tabulated Reports—HAMMER provides FlexTables for each type of hydraulic
element that can be customized, filtered, sorted and printed. You can also create
an output database in Access for post-processing or to produce reports and tables
that can also be customized.

It is important to take the time to carefully review the results of each HAMMER simu-
lation to check for data-input errors and learn about the dynamic nature of the pipe
system. HAMMER’s powerful visualization and reporting capabilities make this
easier.

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Reports

8.1 Reports
You can enter your organization’s name by clicking Tools > Viewer > Graphics to
open the HAMMER Viewer, then selecting Tools > Set Company Name.

8.1.1 Using Time or Head to Trigger Output

Using Tools > Project Options or the toolbar button and clicking the Preferences tab
allows you to trigger output to start only after the following occur:

• You can request HAMMER to show only the extreme heads that occur during the
hydraulic transient simulation—even if these are less severe than the initial steady
state—by opting to show heads after the First Maximum or Minimum has been
reached in the Show Extreme Heads After field. The default is to show all heads
from time zero.
• You can set a particular time upon which HAMMER will start time-dependent
output by entering a value (in seconds) in the Report History after Time field.
These features allow you to significantly reduce the size of output files whenever one
or more transient events must take place prior to the transient you want to display in
the final output. This is especially useful when Generate Animation Data is selected
(in the Run Control window that appears after pressing either the GO or COMPUTE
buttons) for several profiles and points. This feature also applies to reports and tables
you can obtain from Access by selecting Generate Output Database before a
HAMMER run.

8.1.2 Text Output File Options

You can choose whether or not to generate ASCII text files, which contain tabulated
output, by selecting the Tools > Project Options menu command and clicking on the
Other Options tab. Setting both the Enable Text Reports and Print Standard
Output Log to True generates the following text files after each successful
HAMMER simulation:

• Tabulated Report (.rpt)—includes the following information and tables:

– Snapshot tables for selected points and for every time step selected for
output.

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 Presenting Your Results

– History table for every selected end point and every time step selected for
output.
– Extreme heads table for each path, including a row for each end point (and
the interior calculation points HAMMER adds automatically); each with
column entries for Distance along the path, Elevation, Initial Head,
Maximum Head, Maximum Volume, and Vapor Pressure (which can be
ignored in water and wastewater systems).

• Output log file (.out)—includes summary information in formatted tables

showing key simulation parameters, system information, connectivity, pipe data,
initial conditions, and hydraulic element details, such as valve closure or pump
curves. HAMMER outputs text messages to this file while it is running. If a run
terminates abnormally, the log becomes an error summary that is automatically
displayed by the HAMMER Modeler GUI.
• Standard Output Log (.out)—provides detailed information about the first,
second, and last time steps in the detailed output log (.out). This is done to report
any initial surges at time zero, such as may result from an unbalanced initial
steady state (perhaps imported from another program) or a sudden valve or pump
operation specified in HAMMER. The last time step is useful to check whether a
final steady state has been reached or, for example, all air or vapor has been
expelled from the system.
• Print Opening/Closing Pockets in Log (.out)—Includes the opening and closing
times or vapor pockets if this option was set to True before the run.

While the formatted ASCII text files described in this section are useful for post-
processing, it is usually more efficient to generate the Access .mdb file and to use the
predefined and customizable reports it provides instead.

8.1.3 Predefined Report Formats in Access

After a successful simulation, HAMMER can generate a Microsoft Access database

(.mdb), complete with predefined queries and reports, in one of two ways:

• Select Generate Output Database before clicking File > Run and then Run in
the Run Control window.

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Reports

• Select File > Export > Database > Output after a successful simulation (and
before any other simulation is begun).

The HAMMER output database provides a Control Window from which you can
select one of the following reporting options:

Summary: The summary report provides the following

information at a glance:
• Date and time the model was run
• Number of pipes and nodes in the model
• Maximum and minimum heads and pressures for
the most extreme locations
• Maximum volumes of air or vapor for the most
extreme locations
Extremes: The extremes report provides the following
information as a detailed, sorted table in which each
line is a different point simulated in the HAMMER
model:
• Maximum and minimum heads and pressures for
each point

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 Presenting Your Results

• Upsurge ratio, or the maximum transient head

divided by the steady-state head
• Date and time the report was generated (in the
table footer)
Pockets: The pockets report provides the maximum volume of
vapor or air pockets ever reached at every location in
the pipe system during the simulation. Interior points
are listed for some pipes using the following
nomenclature: p#:##%, where p# is the pipe’s ID and
the ##% after the colon is the location expressed as a
percent of the pipe length, beginning at that pipe’s
From-Node end. The following information is listed:
• Type of volume (air or vapor)
• Maximum volume reached during the simulation
• Current volume at the end of the simulation
period
• Number of collapses (i.e., number of times the
water columns rejoined to close successive
pockets at this same location)
• Date and time the report was generated (in the
table footer)
Nodes: The nodes report provides a list of all nodes in the
model grouped by category:
• Label and elevation
• Number of pipes or branch pipes connected to
each node
• Date and time the report was generated (in the
table footer)
Pipes: The pipes report provides the following information
as a detailed, sorted table in which each line is a
different pipe simulated in the HAMMER model:
• Pipe label
• Length
• Diameter
• Hazen-Williams coefficient
• Velocity
• Date and time the report was generated (in the
table footer)

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Using FlexTables

This feature makes generating a report a simple point-and-click exercise. You can
select from one of these predefined reports and print some of them for an appendix.

Note: If you are familiar with Access, you can also customize the
report formats and/or the queries with which they populate the
tables.

8.2 Using FlexTables

FlexTables let you view input data and results for all elements of a specific type in a
tabular format. You can use the standard set of FlexTables or create customized
FlexTables to compare data and create reports.

FlexTables lets you view all elements in the project, all elements of a specific type, or
any subset of elements. Additionally, to ease data input and present output data for
specific elements, FlexTables can be:

• Filtered (see “Filtering Tables” on page 8-287)

• Globally edited (see “Globally Editing Data” on page 8-284)
• Sorted (see “Sorting the Order of Columns in a FlexTable” on page 8-286)

If you need to edit one or more properties for all elements of a certain type in your
hydraulic network model, you might consider using a FlexTable to make your changes
there rather than editing each element one at a time in the Drawing Pane.

FlexTables can also be used to present results in report tables that you can print, save
as a comma-delimited file, or copy to the Windows clipboard for copying into word
processing or spreadsheet software.

To work with FlexTables, select the FlexTable toolbar icon or use Tools > FlexTables
to open the FlexTable Table Manager.

8.2.1 FlexTable Setup Dialog Box

The Table Setup dialog box allows you to customize any table through the following
options:

• Table Name—Displays the name of the current FlexTable or lets you specify a
name if this is a new FlexTable.

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 Presenting Your Results

• Table Type—Lets you specify the type of hydraulic elements that will appear in
the table. It also provides a filter for the attributes that appear in the Available
Columns list. When you choose a table type, the available list only contains
attributes that can be used for that table type. For example, only manhole
attributes are available for a manhole table. Clicking on Table Type opens a
cascading menu that is similar to the hydraulic element toolbar menu in the Main
Window, with one added category:
– Special—Lets you create special FlexTables to display input data and simula-
tion results at interior points, including time-dependent transient forces.
– Conduits—Lets you create FlexTables for pipes.
– Boundaries—Lets you create FlexTables for junctions, consumptions, dead
ends, periodic head/flow, manholes and reservoirs.
– Flow Controls—Lets you create FlexTables for various orifices and flow
control valves.
– Protective Equipment—Lets you create FlexTables for various surge control
valves or tanks, and gas vessels or rupture disks.
– Rotating Equipment—Lets you create FlexTables for various pumps or
turbines.
• Available Columns—The Available Columns list is located on the left side of the
Table Setup dialog box. This list contains all of the attributes that are available for
the type of table you are creating. The number next to the Available Columns label
indicates the number of columns that appear in your table.
• Selected Columns—The Selected Columns list is located on the right-hand side
of the Table Setup dialog box. It contains attributes that will appear in your
custom designed FlexTable. When you open the table, the selected attributes
appear as columns in the table in the same order that they appear in the Selected
Columns list.
To add columns to the Selected Columns list, select one or more attributes in the
Available Columns list, then click the Add button [>] to add the highlighted
attributes to the Selected Columns list. You can use the up and down buttons to
change the order of the attributes in the table. The number next to the Selected
Columns label indicates the number of columns that will appear in your
FlexTable.
• Column Manipulation Buttons—Lets you select or deselect columns to be used
in the table, as well as arranging the order in which the columns will appear.
The Add and Remove buttons are located in the center of the Table Setup dialog
box.
– [ > ] Adds the selected items from the Available Columns list to the Selected
Columns list.
– [ >> ] Adds all of the items in the Available Columns list to the Selected
Columns list.

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– [ < ] Removes the selected items from the Selected Columns list.
– [ << ] Removes all items from the Selected Columns list.

Note: You can select multiple attributes in the Available Columns list
by holding down the Shift key or the Control key while clicking
with the mouse. Holding down the Shift key provides group
selection behavior. Holding down the Control key provides
single element selection behavior.

To rearrange the order of the attributes in the Selected Columns list, highlight the
item to be moved, then move it up or down in the list by clicking the up or down
button located below the Selected Columns list.

8.2.2 Using the FlexTable Table Manager

The FlexTable Table Manager lets you manage:

• User-defined FlexTables
• Predefined FlexTables

If the FlexTable Table Manager is not open, click Tools > FlexTables to open it..

8.2.3 FlexTable Table Manager

The FlexTable Table Manager allows you to create, manage, and delete custom tabular
reports called FlexTables. The dialog box consists of a list pane that displays all of the
custom FlexTables currently available, along with a toolbar.

The toolbar consists of the following buttons:

• New—Creates a new tabular report and opens the FlexTable Table Setup dialog
box, allowing you to define the hydraulic element type that the FlexTable
displays, and the columns that are contained in the table.
• Edit—Opens the FlexTable Table Setup dialog box, allowing you to modify
custom FlexTables.
• Rename—Lets you rename the currently highlighted FlexTable.
• Delete—Deletes the currently highlighted FlexTable.
• Duplicate—Creates a FlexTable that is a duplicate of the currently highlighted
FlexTable and allows you to rename it.

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• Open Table—Opens the currently highlighted FlexTable in the FlexTable

Window.
• Help—Opens context-sensitive help for FlexTables.

8.2.4 Opening FlexTables

You can open Flextable in the Table manager by:

• Selecting the FlexTable you want to open, then click the Open toolbar button.
• Double-clicking the FlexTable you want to open.

8.2.5 FlexTable Window

When you open a FlexTable from the FlexTable Table Manager, the table opens in this
window.

The following controls are available at the top of the FlexTable window:

• File—Displays a drop-down menu containing the following command:

– Export Data—Allows you to export the data in the FlexTable as a tab-delim-
ited or comma-delimited text (.txt) file.

• Copy—Copies the data in the FlexTable to the Windows clipboard.

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• Print—Prints a report of the FlexTable.

• Print Preview—Displays a preview of the report of the FlexTable.
• Options—Displays a drop-down menu containing the following commands:
– Customize—Displays the FlexTable Setup dialog box, where you can edit the
the FlexTable.
– Table Manager—Displays the FlexTable Table Manager.
– Sort > Customize—Displays the “Custom Sort Dialog Box”, which allows
you to set up a customized sort, using different columns as sort keys.
– Filter > Customize—Displays the “Custom Filter Dialog Box”, which allows
you to set up a custom filter based on one or more criteria.
– Filter > Reset—Turns off the active filter, causing all available rows in the
table to be displayed.

• Close—Closes the FlexTable window.

• Help—Displays online help.

Print Preview Window

This window provides you with a preview of what will be printed. The window
contains the following buttons:

• Pg Up / Pg Dn—Navigate between pages of the report.

• Zoom—Zllows you to select the zoom level for the preview display.
• Copy—Copy the report(s) to the Windows Clipboard.
• Print—Output the report to the printer.
• Options— Clicking the Options button opwns a submenu containing the
following commands:
– Print Setup—Change printer options, such as portrait or landscape page
layout.
– Fit to Page—The Fit to Page check box will not appear if the Print Preview
window does not contain a drawing, or if the drawing is in schematic mode.
When checked, the drawing will be scaled to fit within a single page. When
not checked, the drawing will be output using the drawing scale.

• Close—Close the Print Preview window.

• Help—Provides access to help for the Print Preview window.

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8.2.6 Creating New FlexTables

FlexTables are available in all HAMMER projects. FlexTables are created as follows:

1. Click Tools > FlexTables to open the FlexTable Table Manager.

2. In the FlexTable Table Manager, right-click Tables - User-defined or Tables -
Predefined, then select New.
Or, select Tables - User-defined or Tables - Predefined, click the New button
3. The Table Setup dialog box opens.
4. Select the Table Type you want to create. This filters your table by element type.
5. Select the items you want in the FlexTable by moving them from the Available
Columns to the Selected Columns pane.
6. Click OK.
7. The table displays in the FlexTable Table Manager; you can type to rename the
table or accept the default name.

8.2.7 Deleting FlexTables

Click Tools > FlexTable to open the FlexTable Table Manager. In the table manager,
right-click the FlexTable you want to delete, then select Delete. Or, select the
FlexTable you want to delete, then click the Delete button. You cannot delete
predefined FlexTables.

8.2.8 Naming and Renaming FlexTables

To rename FlexTables, click Tools > FlexTables to open the FlexTable Table
Manager, then:

• Right-click the FlexTable you want to rename, then select Rename.

• Select the FlexTable you want to rename, then click the Rename button.

Note: You cannot rename predefined FlexTables.

8.2.9 Editing FlexTables

You can edit a FlexTable to change the columns of data it contains or the values in
some of those columns.

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Editable columns: Columns that contain data you can edit are displayed
with a white background. You can change these
columns directly in the FlexTable and your changes
are applied to your model when you click OK.
The content in the FlexTable columns can be
changed in other areas of HAMMER, such as in the
Property Pane; but, it might be more efficient to
make changes to numerous elements in a FlexTable.
If you make a change that affects a hydraulic element
parameter listed in a FlexTable, the FlexTable is
updated automatically to reflect the change.
Non-editable columns: Columns that contain data you cannot edit are
displayed with a yellow background, and correspond
to model results calculated by the program.
The content in these columns can be changed by
running a computation.

1. To edit a FlexTable, click Tools > FlexTables to open the FlexTable Table
Manager, then:
– Right-click the FlexTable, then select Edit to edit the table format. The Table
Setup dialog box opens. Use the Table Setup dialog box to include and
exclude columns and change the order in which the columns appear in the
table.
– Double-click the FlexTable to open it, then click any cell to edit table content.
– From within a FlexTable, click the Options toolbar button and select Table
Manager to return to the FlexTable Table Manager.

2. Click OK after you finish to save your changes and close the dialog box (or
FlexTable), or click Cancel to close the dialog box without making changes.

Editing Column-Heading Text

To change the text of a column heading:

1. Click Tools > FlexTables to open the FlexTable Table Manager.

2. In the Table Manager, open the FlexTable you want to edit.
3. Right-click the column heading and select Edit Column Label.
4. Type the new name for the label and click OK to save those changes and close the
dialog box or Cancel to exit without making any changes.

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Changing Units, Format, and Precision in FlexTables

To change the units in a column of a FlexTable:

1. Click Tools > FlexTables to open the Table Manager.

2. In the Table Manager, open the FlexTable you want to edit.
3. Right-click any column heading currently displaying units and select FlexUnit.
4. Make the changes you want using the fly-out menu and click OK to save those
changes or Cancel to exit without making any changes.

To change the format or display precision of a FlexUnit used in a FlexTable, click

Tools > FlexUnits to open the FlexUnit Manager and make the required changes.
These will be applied throughout HAMMER, including FlexTables.

Navigating in Tables
The arrow keys, Ctrl+Home, Ctrl+End, PgUp, and PgDn keys navigate to different
cells in a table.

Globally Editing Data

Using FlexTables, you can globally edit all of the values in an entire editable column.
Globally editing a FlexTable column can be more efficient for editing properties of an
element than using the Property Pane to edit each element in your model individually.

To globally edit the values in a FlexTable column:

1. Click Tools > FlexTables to open the FlexTable Table Manager.

2. In the Table Manager, open the FlexTable you want to edit and find the column of
data you want to change.
If necessary, you might need to first create a FlexTable or edit an existing one to
make sure it contains the column you want to change. (For more information, see
“Creating New FlexTables” on page 8-279 and “Editing FlexTables” on page 8-
281.)
3. Right-click the column heading and select Global Edit.
4. In the Operation field, select what you want to do to data in the column: Add,
Divide, Multiply, Set, or Subtract.

Note: The Global Edit capability and Operation field is only available
for numeric data.

5. In the Global Edit field, type or select the value you want—for numeric data, you
typically type a new value, for other data you might select from a drop-down list
or select a check box.

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Global Edit Dialog Box

You use the Global Edit dialog box to globally edit all of the values in an entire edit-
able column. The dialog box contains the following fields:

• Operation—Select what you want to do to data in the column: Add, Divide,

Multiply, Set, or Subtract.
• Global Edit—Type or select the value you want—for numeric data, you typically
type a new value, for other data you might select from a drop-down list or select a
check box.

8.2.10 Sorting and Filtering FlexTable Data

You can sort and filter your FlexTables to focus on specific data or present your data
in a more useful way.

Sorting the Order of Columns in a FlexTable

You can sort the order of columns in a FlexTable in two ways:

• Edit the FlexTable (see “Editing FlexTables” on page 8-281), to open the Table
dialog box and change the order of the selected columns using the up and down
arrow buttons.
The top-most item in the Selected Columns pane appears furthest to the left in the
resulting FlexTable.
• Open the FlexTable, then click and drag the column heading of the column you
want to move to the new position.

Sorting the Contents of a FlexTable Column

To sort the order of items in a FlexTable column.

1. Open the FlexTable you want to edit.

2. To rank the contents of a column, right-click the column heading, then select Sort.
3. Select Sort Ascending, Sort Descending or Custom:

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– Sort Ascending—Sorts alphabetically from A to Z, from top to bottom. Sorts

numerically from negative to positive, from top to bottom. Sorts selected
check boxes to the top and deselected ones to the bottom.
– Sort Descending—Sorts alphabetically from Z to A, from top to bottom.
Sorts numerically from positive to negative, from top to bottom. Sorts dese-
lected check boxes to the top and selected ones to the bottom.
– Custom Sort—Uses several columns as sort keys.

Note: To create a custom sort, you can also click the Options button,
then select Sort > Customize.

Custom Sort Dialog Box

The Custom Sort dialog box allows you to create a custom sort using one or more
table columns as sort keys.

The dialog contains the following table and controls:

• Key table—Each row in the table represents an additional sort key. You select
table columns as sort keys in the Attribute column. You check the box in the
Ascending column if you want the data in the selected column to appear in
ascending order. If the box is not checked, data in the selected column will appear
in descending order.
• Delete Row button—Located in the lower right corner of the dialog box, this
button deletes the currently highlighted row from the Key table.
• Move Up button—Changes the order of sort keys by moving the currently high-
lighted row in the Key table up one row.
• Move Down button—Changes the order of sort keys by moving the currently
highlighted row in the Key table down one row.

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Filtering Tables
Filters let you change the table to display only rows that match the specified criteria.
To access filtering capabilities for FlexTables:

1. Open the FlexTable you want to filter.

2. Right-click the column heading you want to filter, then select Filter and the filter
method you want to use:
– Quick Filter—Set up a simple filter by right-clicking the column header for
the attribute by which you wish to filter and selecting Filter > Quick Filter.
– Custom Filter—Set up a custom filter based on one or more criteria.
– Reset—Turn off the active filter, causing all available rows in the table to be
displayed.

Note: To set up a custom filter, you can also click the Options button,
then select Filter > Customize.

To turn off the active filter, you can also click the Options button,
then select Filter > Reset.

3. For Quick Filter or Custom Filter, specify your filtering criteria in the Filter dialog
box. Each filter criterion is made up of three items:
– Attribute—The attribute or column used to filter the FlexTable rows.
– Operator—The operator to use when comparing the filter value against the
data in the specific column (operators include: =, >, >=, <, <=, < >, Contains,
and Begins With or Ends With).

Note: The filtering options: Contains, Begins With or Ends With allow
more flexibility with regard to filtering tables. These filters are
only available for column types that have alphabetic values, for
example Label.

The Contains filter checks for the specified value anywhere in

the words, and the Begins With filter checks only the first letter
for the specified value.

– Value—The comparison value.

For example, you might set up a filter for pipes that uses the Column value of
Diameter and an Operator of > (greater than) and a Value of 20 in.; in this
case, conduits of 20 and fewer inches are excluded from the FlexTable.

You can add any number of criteria to a filter. Multiple filter criteria are implicitly
joined with a logical AND statement. When multiple filter criteria are defined, only
rows that meet all of the specified criteria are displayed. A filter remains active for the
associated table until the filter is reset.

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To reset a filter:

1. Right-click the column heading you want to filter, then select Filter > Reset, or
2. Click the Options button, then select Filter > Reset.
The status pane at the bottom of the Table window always shows the number of rows
displayed and the total number of rows available (e.g., 10 of 20 elements displayed).
When a filter is active, this message is highlighted.

Note: Table filtering lets you perform global editing (see “Globally
Editing Data” on page 8-284) on any subset of elements. Only the
elements that appear in the filtered table can be edited.

Custom Filter Dialog Box

The Custom Filter dialog box allows you to specify custom filtering criteria for the
current FlexTable.

The dialog contains the following table and controls:

• Filter Table—Each row in the table represents a separate filter criteria. After you
set up your filters, the FlexTable will only display rows that match your criteria.
– Select the column to be used to filter the FlexTable rows in the Attribute
column.
– Select the operator to use when comparing the filter value against the data in
the specific column (operators include: =, >, >=, <, <=, < >, Contains, and
Begins With or Ends With) in the Operator column.
– Type the comparison value in the Value column.

• Delete Row button—Located in the lower right corner of the dialog box, this
button deletes the currently highlighted row from the Key table.
• Move Up button—Changes the order of sort keys by moving the currently high-
lighted row in the Key table up one row.
• Move Down button—Changes the order of sort keys by moving the currently
highlighted row in the Key table down one row.

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8.2.11 Customizing Your FlexTable

There are several ways to customize FlexTables to meet a variety of output require-
ments:

• Changing the Report Title—When you print a table, the table name is used as
the title for the printed report. You can change the title that appears on your
printed report by renaming the table. For more information, see “Naming and
Renaming FlexTables” on page 8-281.
• Adding/Removing Columns—You can add, remove, and change the order of
columns from the Table Setup dialog box. For more information, see “Editing
FlexTables” on page 8-281 and “Sorting and Filtering FlexTable Data” on page 8-
285.
• Drag/Drop Column Placement—With the Table window open, select the
column heading of the column that you would like to move and drag the column
to its new location. For more information, see “Sorting the Order of Columns in a
FlexTable” on page 8-286.
• Resizing Columns—With the Table open, click the vertical separator line
between column headings. Notice that the cursor changes shape to indicate that
you can resize the column. Drag the column separator to the left or right to stretch
the column to its new size.
• Changing Column Headings—With the Table window open, right-click the
column heading that you wish to change and select Edit Column Label.

8.2.12 Copying, Exporting, and Printing FlexTable Data

You can output your FlexTable several ways:

• “Copying FlexTable Data via the Clipboard” on page 8-291

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• “Exporting Data as Text” on page 8-292

• “Creating a FlexTable Report and Printing” on page 8-292

Copying FlexTable Data via the Clipboard

You can copy your FlexTable data via the clipboard and paste it into another Windows
application, such as a word-processing application as tab-delimited text.

To copy your FlexTable data via the clipboard:

1. Click Tools > FlexTables to open the FlexTable Table Manager.

2. In the Table Manager, open the FlexTable you want to use.
3. Click Copy. The contents of the FlexTable are copied to the Windows clipboard.

Caution: Make sure you paste the data you copied before you copy
anything else to the Windows clipboard. If you copy
something else to the clipboard before you paste your
FlexTable data, your FlexTable data will be lost from the
clipboard. You can also right-click any column heading and
select copy to limit the operation to a single column.

4. Paste (Ctrl+v) the data into other Windows software, such as your word-
processing application.

Exporting Data as Text

You can export the data in a FlexTable as tab- or comma-delimited ASCII text, for use
in other applications, such as Notepad.exe, spreadsheet, or word processing software.

To export your FlexTable data as a text file (.txt):

1. Click Tools > FlexTables to open the FlexTable Table Manager.

2. In the Table Manager, open the FlexTable you want to use.
3. Click File > Export data.
4. Select either Tab Delimited or Comma Delimited.
5. When prompted, set the path and name of the .txt file you want to create.

Creating a FlexTable Report and Printing

Create a FlexTable Report if you want to print a copy of your FlexTable and its values.
To create a report:

1. Click Tools > FlexTables to open the FlexTable Table Manager.

2. In the Table Manager, open the FlexTable you want to use.

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Note: Instead of Print Preview, you can click Print to print the report
without previewing it.

3. Click Report. A print preview of the report displays to show what your report will
look like if printed using your default printer.

Note: You cannot edit the format of the report.

4. Click Print to open the Print dialog box and print the report to a printer that you
select.

8.3 Hydraulic Element Labels and Colors

You can customize HAMMER for your particular situation.

• “Using Your Organization’s Name and Logo” on page 8-293

• “System Colors and Display Options” on page 8-294
• “Hydraulic Element Labels” on page 8-294
• “Hydraulic Element Colors” on page 8-295

8.3.1 Using Your Organization’s Name and Logo

You can enter your organization’s name and logo using Tools > Viewer > Graphics to
open the HAMMER Viewer and then Tools > Set Company Name and Tools > Set
Company Logo.

Your logo must supplied in .gif format. Your company’s name will be displayed as text
next to the logo, if available. You can also display only a logo or only text if you
prefer.

8.3.2 System Colors and Display Options

You can change the color and fonts used to display hydraulic element labels, including
the background color of the Drawing Pane, using Tools > Global HAMMER
Options, selecting the Colors tab, and clicking the color (the numbers represent a
color; click to edit them). In the Other Options tab, you can set the default font and
toggle the anti-alias feature, for sharper lines and symbols, on or off.

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Click Tools > Global HAMMER Options, select Other Options, and set the field
Optimized Animation Performance to True if you want to minimize the wait time
between clicking Animate and the start of animation. However, setting this option to
True uses more RAM than setting it to False; so, setting the field Optimized Anima-
tion Performance to False may reduce the use of virtual memory and be more appro-
priate for large systems.

You can use the Capture Screen (camera) toolbar icon to save the contents of the
current Drawing Pane view to a .jpeg or .gif graphic file. You can paste this graphic in
reports and figures.

8.3.3 Hydraulic Element Labels

Depending on the level of detail shown on the screen, you can display or hide
hydraulic element labels using Tools > Project Options and selecting the Other
Options tab to toggle the following display options:

• Show Node Labels—toggle on (True) or off (False) to display node labels.

• Show Pipe Labels—toggle on (True) or off (False) to display pipe labels.
• Short Label Display—toggle on (True) or off (False). Short Labels are useful
when importing from large GIS or CAD files, where much of the hydraulic
element labels may not be very informative from a hydraulic perspective. This
feature abbreviates the labels to the first and last characters only, separated by a
tilde (~) character. You can choose the number of characters to display using
Short Labels in the Max. Char Output field.

8.3.4 Hydraulic Element Colors

The Map Selection color coding choice lets you assign colors and sizes to hydraulic
pipe and node elements in the Drawing Pane based on a variety of input and output
attributes. For any attribute, you can supply a color scale or have HAMMER generate
one for you.

For example, you can supply a color scale to display all pipes whose maximum tran-
sient heads are between 20 and 40 m in green, those between 40 and 110 m in blue,
and those above 110 m in red. For more information, see “Generating Color Maps” on
page 8-295.

Once simulation results have been calculated, HAMMER automatically stores them in
the .hif so you can display results in the Element Editor and Drawing Pane without
running HAMMER again. It also sets the line thickness of each pipe in proportion to
its diameter.

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You can assign one of several transient results to pipes or nodes in the Map Selection
toolbar as shown in “Table 8-1: Transient Result Display Options using the Map
Selector”on page 8-296.

8.4 Generating Color Maps

In designing a surge control strategy for a water-distribution network or pipeline, the
extreme states are usually of the greatest interest. HAMMER has built-in capabilities
to visualize maximum and minimum simulated flows, heads, pressures, and volumes
(vapor or air) throughout the pipe system. You can color-code nodes and pipes
according to these different parameters. HAMMER Modeler also displays line thick-
nesses in proportion to the pipes’ diameter.

HAMMER makes it easy to color-code pipes and nodes in the Drawing Pane of the
HAMMER Modeler based on calculated results, such as the transient heads, pressures,
flows, and volumes. A Map Selector toolbar icon gives immediate access to the
color-coding options available for pipes and nodes, as shown in the following table.

Table 8-1: Transient Result Display Options using the Map Selector

Pipes Nodes

Off (no colors) Off (no colors)

Maximum Head Maximum Head

Minimum Head (or Pressure) Minimum Head

Maximum Pressure Maximum Pressure

Minimum Pressure Minimum Pressure

Maximum Flow

Minimum Flow

Maximum Vapor Volume Maximum Vapor Volume

Maximum Air Volume Maximum Air Volume

Wave Speed Adjustment

Length Adjustment

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At the bottom of the options listed for Pipes and Nodes, you can click Legend (then
click the Drawing Pane) to display a scale bar, or you can click Scales to open the
Color Map Settings window for the currently selected output variable. Simply select
the Color Ramp, Scale Intervals, and Scale Limits and click Apply to visualize the
resulting map.

For an example of how to select a color map scale, see “Part 4—Color-Coding Maps,
Profiles, and Point Histories” on page 3-155.

HAMMER’s Color Map Settings dialog for the chosen calculated result, such as
Node Maximum Pressure, shows the maximum and minimum values of this output
variable using the units you selected with the FlexUnits manager (or the default units).
The appearance of the resulting map depends on how skillfully you divide this total
output range into intervals and set colors corresponding to each of the interval bound-
aries, as follows:

• Select equal intervals by clicking on the Quartile, Quintile, Decile, or Percentile

Scale Type. These correspond to upper and lower range limits of 25, 20, 10, and 1
percent, respectively.
• You can also click Custom (Percent) to use the Low Percent and High Percent
sliders or Custom (Value) to enter the limiting values directly.

The procedure for selecting a color map scale has the following four steps:

1. Color Setting—Each scale is defined as a number of continuous color ramps

interpolated between the specific colors shown in the middle column. You can
click any of these colors to display a color selector window. You can pick a color
by clicking anywhere on the color swatch displayed; or you can click either the
RGB or the HSB tab to enter specific numeric values to define a color more
exactly.
2. Scale Type—HAMMER lets you select equal intervals ranging from quartiles to
percentiles or specify custom percentages using the sliders provided. Alterna-
tively, you can enter custom values for the Minimum Value and Maximum
Value of your scale inside or outside the simulated range. Clicking Apply updates
the color ramp table and scale display automatically. Within the output-variable
range bounded by the Minimum Value and Maximum Value, you can click Add
or Delete to change the number of intervals of the color ramp.

Note: If you want to display a categorical scale, for which the

boundaries between different classes are sharp, add two “%”
rows to the color ramp with very close numbers, such as 15%
and 16%, and select significantly different colors for these
boundary points.

3. Scale Limits—The scale limits determine the portion of the output variable range
for which the continuous color variation you selected is used. Whether you select
it based on percentages or enter it directly, all locations with a value equal to or

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lower than the Minimum Value are displayed with the color corresponding to this
lower limit. All locations with a value equal to or greater than the Maximum
Value are displayed with the color corresponding to this upper limit.

Transient Tip: Set the limits of your scale presets according to the
limits of your actual system. For example, enter the
surge-tolerance limit as the Maximum Value of pressure.
Similarly, enter zero flow or zero pressure for the
Minimum Value of the flow and pressure scales,
respectively.

4. Once you have defined a scale that is suitable for your system and the selected
output variable, you can save it for future use by clicking Save Preset. In any
HAMMER project, you can select presets saved previously using the Presets
choice list. You can also delete presets you no longer need by clicking Delete
Preset, making a selection from the deletion choice list and clicking OK.

8.5 Profile Plots along a Path (or Walk)

A profile is a graph that plots a particular attribute across a distance, such as ground
elevation and HGL along a series of connected pipes. As well as these side or
sectional views of the ground elevation, profiles can be used to show the pipeline,
hydraulic grade, transient head, vapor or air volume.

Although profiles in general are not limited to a specific alignment, piping-network

models are usually concerned with a specific profile alignment called a network walk
or path.

8.5.1 Walking the Path (or Profile Setup)

Setting up a profile is a matter of selecting the path or walk for which variables such
as elevation and calculated results will be plotted. Use Tools > Project Options and
click the Report Paths tab to display HAMMER’s profile-selection tool.

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Note: A path or walk is a nonbranching path through the network that

can only be extended at either end. Pipes cannot be added along
the midsection of the path or walk. Likewise, elements in the
midsection of the path or walk cannot be deselected without first
deselecting all of the elements between one end and the
undesired element.

Before you select Project Options>Report Paths, look at your

network and write the names of the pipes you want in that path
on a piece of paper. These pipes must be connected (i.e. no
gaps). Once you start entering pipes, HAMMER will prompt you
with the available pipes at each junction to insure connectivity.

The Path tool includes four main areas:

• Point Histories—Specifies whether the results calculated at interior points need

to be output only along the paths or throughout the entire network (not necessary).
• Path List—Lists the paths that are currently defined and lets you Add Path,
Remove Path, Rename Path, or Show Path (in the Drawing Pane). If pipe colors
are currently Off in the Map Selector toolbar icon in HAMMER Modeler,
clicking Show Path selects all pipes belonging to the current path, colors them
red, and resets the zoom window to zoom into the area traversed by the path (or
walk).
• System Pipes—Initially, this box lists all pipes currently in the model and it
continues to do so if the Show All option is selected (at the bottom of the box).
Otherwise, this box only shows pipes connected to the previously selected pipe to
simplify the profile selection (after the first pipe in the path is selected). It is
recommended that you use the default and not Show All pipes.
• Report Pipes—Shows the pipes currently included in the path profile in order.
Double-click any pipe to display the cumulative length from the beginning of the
first pipe. A green light and message appears at the bottom of the box as long as
the path is valid (i.e., a path cannot have branches or gaps).

When everything is set up to your satisfaction, close the Project Options window to
return to HAMMER Modeler.

8.5.2 Path or Profile Plot

The HAMMER Viewer can be started from the HAMMER Modeler using Tools >
Viewer > Graphics. You can select the Path or Profile as well as the variables to plot
from this window and display the result either as a graph (click Plot) or an animation
(click Animate). The default is to plot or animate all variables for the first path listed.

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Time History Graphs at a Point

Clicking Animate displays the graph and the Animation Controller (see “Animating
Maps, Profiles and Point Histories” on page 8-305). Whether they were created as
plots or animations, all HAMMER graphs can be modified and printed as follows:

Output: Any HAMMER plot can be copied to a Windows

.bmp file or printed out directly.
Graph Formatting: Click any graph frame and then right-click to display
the menu and select Format Graph. Select either the
X-Axis or Y-Axis tabs and then select the following
tabs to display standard graph formatting options,
including: Scales (including FlexUnits), Titles,
Labels, Ticks, and Grids. For more information, see
“Graph Formatting and Annotation” on page 8-301.

8.6 Time History Graphs at a Point

Using the HAMMER Viewer, you can plot a transient history at any point in the
system to display the temporal variation of selected parameters (such as heads and
flows). You can also plot a profile of selected variables along a particular path to
display the spatial extent of transient phenomena. Finally, you can compare the results
of two similar graphs.

To generate a time history, follow these simple steps:

1. In HAMMER Modeler, select Tools > Viewer > Graphics to display the
HAMMER Viewer, then load the .hof file containing your results. You can also
load a .grp if you previously created a graph and saved it for this project.
2. Select the end point you want to plot a history for p??:j??, where ?? represents
the pipe and node used in the end point’s name. Select a Graph Type such as
Head & Flow and click Plot to display the transient history.
3. To format a graph, click its frame to select it (this will display square handles on
the frame outline), and right-click this frame to open the graph’s context menu.
Move the cursor and click to select a context menu command, such as Draw
Symbol. You can also click Format Graph as described in “Graph Formatting
and Annotation” on page 8-301.

Right-click anywhere on the graph to display a menu to toggle the display of the Show
Page View and Show Frame on or off. To change the figure number, title, date, and
project number, double-click on these areas and make the required changes.

The graph-formatting options available for Time History plots are identical to those
described in “Graph Formatting and Annotation” on page 8-301.

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8.7 Graph Formatting and Annotation

These features customize the way a graph looks and add explanatory symbols and text
labels. You can also add a figure title, date, and number to generate report-ready
output.

8.7.1 Graph Formatting

Click any graph frame and then right-click to display the menu and select Format
Graph. Select either the X-Axis or Y-Axis tabs and then select the following tabs to
display standard Haestad graph formatting options, including Scales (with FlexUnits),
Titles, Labels, Ticks, and Grids:

Transient Tip: The high and low limits of the axes should be selected
based on the minimum and maximum attribute values for
the entire simulation period and for all locations in the
current project—or even for several alternative HAMMER
surge-control projects. This will make direct comparison
of different locations and surge-protection alternatives
easier.

• Titles—Every graph has three titles: Graph title, X-Axis title, and Y-Axis title.
You can select the font and size of each title.
• Automatic Scaling—By default, HAMMER uses Automatic Scaling to set the
X- and Y-axis minimum, maximum, and increment values. To customize an axis,
turn the check mark off and enter the desired values for the minimum, maximum,
and increment. You can customize a single axis while leaving the other in the
Automatic Scaling mode.
• Ticks —You can specify whether tick marks should be displayed inside, outside,
or across the axis.
• Grid —You can specify grid lines for one or both axes. You can also specify the
line type, thickness, and color of each grid.

8.7.2 Output Variable Formatting

These options allow you to format graphs to compare the results of different
HAMMER surge-control projects.

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Graph Formatting and Annotation

• Line Formatting—Click any graph frame, right-click to display the menu, and
select Format Data. Select one of the lines displayed on the profile, such as the
pipe elevation, maximum or minimum transient envelope, or steady-state HGL.
You can change the line type, color, and thickness of any line. You can also define
a new line segment, parallel to any line, by specifying the segment’s line proper-
ties, the X-coordinates at its beginning and end, and the distance away from the
original line, or Y-offset.

Transient Tip: Convert the pipes’ working pressures and surge-

tolerance limits to equivalent heads in m or ft. Use the
Add Segment button to display these as lines parallel to
the pipe profile. You can then readily interpret the
maximum and minimum transient envelopes in terms of
the pipe’s fatigue or rupture limits.

• Shade Formatting—Click any graph frame, right-click to display the menu, and
select Format Shades. Select any two of the lines displayed on the profile, such
as the pipe elevation and minimum transient head, and define a shade color and
opacity to use whenever the Top Line falls below the Bottom Line. You can also
swap the Top Line and Bottom Line.
• Copy and Paste Settings—Click any graph frame, right-click to display the
menu, and select Copy Settings / Paste Settings. You can copy the settings of one
HAMMER graph and apply them to any other similar HAMMER graph.
• Copy and Paste Symbols—Click any graph frame, right-click to display the
menu, and select Copy Symbols / Paste Symbols. You can copy the symbols of
one HAMMER graph and apply them to any other similar HAMMER graph.
Symbols include hydraulic element symbols, text, lines, and other annotations.
• Copy and Paste Data—Click any graph frame, right-click to display the menu,
and select Copy Data / Paste Data (+) / Paste Data (-). You can copy the data
and lines displayed on one HAMMER graph and paste them to any other similar
HAMMER graph. Selecting Paste Data (-) deletes the contents of the target graph
prior to the paste operation. Selecting Paste Data (+) adds the lines to the existing
graph content.

8.7.3 Adding Annotations

Whenever a graph pane is selected, HAMMER Viewer provides several graphical

annotation tools for enhancing the appearance of your plots. Graphical annotations
can be manipulated like any other element in the graph pane; you can add, move, and
delete them. (For more information on text and symbol size, see “Adding and
Resizing Text and Symbols” on page 2-93.)

To add graphical annotation to a graph, right-click its frame and select from the avail-
able tools:

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• Draw Lines—Adds horizontal, vertical, or diagonal lines to the graph pane.

Double-click any line to select its line type, color, and thickness.
• Draw Text—Adds horizontal or vertical text. Click on text to change its location
in the graph pane. Double-click any text to select its font, size, and color.
• Draw Symbol—Adds predefined symbols such as valves, pumps, and other
hydraulic elements to the graph pane. Click on the symbol to change its location
in the graph pane. Double-click any symbol to select its size, line pattern, line
thickness, and line color.

8.7.4 No Need for Print Previews

The HAMMER Modeler’s Drawing Pane, as well as every graph and animation
generated by HAMMER, is “What You See is What You Get” or WYSIWIG—it will
print as displayed on the screen. Consequently, there is no need for a print-preview
feature in HAMMER. Right-click anywhere on the graph (except the graph pane) and
toggle the Page View option ON to get a sense of the proportions imposed by the page
size and margins.

8.8 Animating Maps, Profiles and Point

Histories
HAMMER provides many ways to visualize the simulated results using a variety of
graphs and animation layouts. For small systems, you can specify each point and
every time step for output, but this is not advisable for larger networks. Usually, you
specify which points and paths (profiles) are of interest and the frequency to output
results prior to a run. This avoids creating excessively large output files (.hof).

For the same reason, HAMMER only generates the Animation Data (for on-screen
animations) or Output Database (for tabular reports in Access) if you select this
option in the Run dialog box.

Transient Tip: To achieve shorter completion times and conserve disk

space, try to avoid generating voluminous output, such
as Animation Data or Output Databases early in your
hydraulic transient analysis. Fast turnaround makes
your evaluation of different alternatives more interactive
and challenges you to apply good judgment as you
compare your mental model of the system with
HAMMER’s results—a good habit which is like
estimating an answer in your head when using a
calculator.

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Animating Maps, Profiles and Point Histories

Early in a HAMMER project, you evaluate many different types or sizes of surge
protection equipment with many different HAMMER input and graph files. You can
often compare the effectiveness of different protection by plotting the maximum tran-
sient head envelopes with the same y-axis limits. At any time, or once you feel you are
close to a definitive surge-control solution, you can generate animation data in one of
two ways:

• Tell HAMMER to generate the animation data files before you run the program by
clicking Generate Animation Data in the run dialog box. If you generated
animation data during the run, HAMMER automatically starts the HAMMER
Viewer after a successful run.
• Immediately after a run (i.e., prior to the next run), you can generate animation
data using Tools > Generate Animations. You will need to load this animation
data using Tools > Viewer > Graphics and selecting the correct HAMMER
output file (.hof) prior to animating the results on screen.

Once you have generated the animation data files, you can display animations without
running HAMMER again. This saves a lot of time when comparing the results of
several surge-control alternatives. You can load the animation data files using the
HAMMER Viewer (Tools > Viewer > Graphics in Modeler):

In the HAMMER Viewer, select one of the available Paths from the choice list.
Usually, you will select the Graph Type Path & Volume and then click the Animate
button. This automatically loads the animation data and starts the Animation
Controller, as follows:

1. On the Animation Controller, click the play button (second from the left) to start
the animation.
2. Right-click on the graph and click Save as to save the result displayed on screen
as a HAMMER graph (.grp) or Windows bitmap (.bmp). You can reload
HAMMER graphs later.
3. Open as many histories and paths (also known as profiles or walks) as you want
and position them on the screen. Again, annotate and save each one as a
HAMMER graph (.grp).
4. When the on-screen layout and graph annotations are ready for a presentation,
select File > Save Animation As and type in a name to save the entire animation
layout as an .ani file for rapid recall later.
5. Once you are done for this session and close the Animation Controller, you are
prompted to close all graphs. Click Yes.
6. In the future, you can use the HAMMER Viewer to open the animation layout
directly by clicking File > Open and selecting the .ani file. This automatically
starts the Animation Controller, opens the .hof and .grp files, positions the
graphs on the screen, and returns control to you so you can begin your presenta-
tion—all in a matter of seconds!

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7. You can also display a color-coded map by repositioning and sizing the
HAMMER Modeler window. Click Show Tabs to toggle the display of the tabs
off to maximize the available display area.

Note: You can generate the maximum and minimum transient maps by
clicking the Capture Screen button on the HAMMER Modeler
toolbar. These need to be added as the last two frames of an .avi
file to be accessible using the HAMMER Animation Controller.

8. During an animation, you can use the Animation Controller to change the frame
rate or frame position interactively with the sliders provided. You can stop the
animation at any time and then, for example, step through a vapor-pocket collapse
frame by frame. You can also jump to a specific time by selecting it from the
choice list. Practice using these tools to prepare a polished and powerful presenta-
tion.
9. Carefully select the key locations at which to show histories and the key profiles
to illustrate topography. This keeps the number of graphs to be animated to a
minimum. An animated map is often as effective as several animated profiles.
10. For large networks, multiple displays increase the amount of screen area available
for animating graphs; however, keep in mind that most people find it difficult to
track many graphs at once, unless the frame rate is very slow and many explana-
tions are provided. This can detract from the overall visual impact of the presenta-
tion.
11. You can also use a computer projector to magnify the size of each graph. This is
highly recommended if you will be presenting the results to more than about three
people.

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 Appendix

Frequently Asked A
Questions

A.1 Overview: “How Do I”

“How Do I” tips are available in the following categories:

• “Import/Export Tips” on page A-310

• “Modeling Tips” on page A-317
• “How Do I Access the Knowledge Base?” on page A-327
• “Display Tips” on page A-328
• “Editing Tips” on page A-331

Extensive, up-to-date tips are available by clicking the Globe on the toolbar, which
will take you to the Bentley SELECTBentley SELECT area of the Bentley Systems
Web site. There, you can consult Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs), modeling tips,
and other useful information in our KnowledgeBase or do a search on any keyword.
This area of the Web site is only available if you are participating in the Bentley
SELECT program.

If the information you need is not available in this section, click the Search tab at the
top of the Help window for an index. To make your work easier, HAMMER and the
Help system are designed to be used together. If you have a high-resolution display
monitor, you will probably find it helpful to size the frames of both the program and
the Help windows so that they fit side by side. Then, while using the program, you can
use the right mouse button or click on the Help tab to update the Help window with
context-sensitive Help.

A.2 Import/Export Tips

Note: You can import data from virtually any database capable of
exporting to a Microsoft Access file.

The following tips are covered in this section:

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Import/Export Tips

• “Transitioning from Steady-State Models to HAMMER” on page A-310

• “Importing Data from WaterCAD/WaterGEMS Models” on page A-314
• “Importing EPANET Files” on page A-315
• “Importing Surge2000 and PIPE2000 Data” on page A-315
• “Importing from a Database Using the HAMMER Datastore” on page A-316
• “Additional Considerations When Working with Large Model Files” on page A-
316

A.2.1 Transitioning from Steady-State Models to HAMMER

The following sections cover the key aspects of importing data from WaterCAD/
WaterGEMS using WaterObject technology, from EPANET, or from other steady-state
hydraulic models.

Scenario Management
Alternatives are collections of data, such as junction demands or pump and valve
operational settings. A scenario references a certain combination of these alternatives
to reduce the chance of alternative data sets being mishandled. Typically, water-supply
scenarios are managed in the steady-state model, such as WaterCAD or WaterGEMS,
and the selected design is subsequently imported to HAMMER as an initial steady
state, where it is analyzed for hydraulic transients to specify suitable surge-protection
equipment.

HAMMER does not support scenario management directly, but it can store the name
of the original WaterCAD or WaterGEMS file, the name of the scenario, and the time
step you imported in the Summary tab of the Project Options dialog. Each
HAMMER model generates its own set of input and output files, which can be very
large, consequently, you should be aware of the following:

• HAMMER does not store multiple scenarios in a single file at this time, in part to
limit file size and also to avoid decreasing performance when generating tabular
reports or viewing animations. Each scenario must be saved as a separate set of
input and output files.
• You cannot open multiple files at once within a HAMMER session. If you need to
compare the results of different output files, you can save each file’s results to a
HAMMER graph file (.grp) and copy and paste data between these .grp files. This
uses less computer resources than opening each in a separate instance of
HAMMER from the START menu.

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 Frequently Asked Questions

• It is highly recommended that you create a new folder for each alternative to store
the many files HAMMER may create (.hif, .hof, .ani, .grp, .mdb, .rpt, .out, and
others)
• As your understanding of the pipe system’s response to transients improves with
each HAMMER run, you may want to archive or compress certain folders to save
disk space. Be sure to keep the .hif and any .grp or .mdb you generated yourself
from the FILE menu. Animations are stored in the .hof (output data) and .ani
(layout).

Demand Alternatives
Steady-state models consider many demand alternatives (Avg. Day, Max Day, Peak
Hr.) and development conditions (Year 2018, Year 2033).

Transient Tip: For each development condition, two demand

alternatives are typically critical in terms of their
potential for significant hydraulic transients: peak hour
and minimum hour. Results should be scrutinized at
each location with a major facility (e.g., reservoir or
booster pump) and for pipeline profiles/paths along the
largest pipes connecting pumping and storage elements.

Control Valves

Transient Tip: Hydraulic transients of interest to designers usually

result in pressure wave fronts which travel so quickly
throughout a water system that the most severe high and
low pressure cycles occur before control valves have
sufficient time to significantly respond to these changes.
Since pressure-relief and other valves may not react
quickly enough during a transient event, HAMMER
maintains their initial settings throughout the simulation
period.

It is safer to neglect the pressure relief such valves may

provide during transients and to rely solely on surge-
control valves or other equipment specially designed to
control transients. If valves are controlled according to
pressure or flow at a given node, complete the transient
analysis (which lasts a few seconds or minutes), then set
up the final steady state in WaterCAD and restart your
EPS simulation to model these modulating valves.

Based on hydraulic conditions in the system at steady state (i.e., time zero) HAMMER
will convert the following valve types to valves with a fixed opening (acting as an
inline orifice), which results in an equivalent head loss:

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Import/Export Tips

• Pressure-Regulating Valves (PRVs) that open to allow liquid to escape when pres-
sure equals or exceeds a set point.
• Flow-Control Valves (FCVs) that throttle open or closed to maintain a set flow
rate.
• Pressure-Sustaining Valves (PSVs) that throttle open or closed to maintain a set
pressure.
• Pressure-Breaker Valves (PBVs) that create a constant headloss across the valve.
• Throttle-Control Valves (TCVs) that allow you to adjust minor loss coefficients
based on system pressures, HGLs, or time.
• Any open or partially open isolation valve.

Pumps and Pump Curves

HAMMER supports multipoint pump curves to describe the relationship between
flow and head for the overwhelming majority of applications for which both are posi-
tive. This is because pumps are typically equipped with a check valve to prevent flow
from reversing through the pump.

In fact, HAMMER also provides four-quadrant characteristic curves in terms of rela-

tive flow, Q, and speed, N, to describe every possible mode of operation for a turbo-
machine, be it a pump or turbine:

• First quadrant (Q>0, N>0)—the majority of pumps in water systems.

• Second quadrant (Q<0, N>0)—flow reverses through the pump even though the
pump’s spin direction is unchanged (assuming no check valve or nonreturn
ratchet).
• Third quadrant (Q<0, N<0)—flow and spin reverse and the turbomachine
performs like a turbine, removing some energy from the fluid.
• Fourth quadrant (Q>0, N<0)—flow is exiting as per the pump design, but spin
reverses and power is dissipated, while the turbomachine is removing energy from
the liquid. For more information, see “Pump Theory” on page B-369.

In Summary
HAMMER can accurately represent many more features and behaviors than steady-
state models. The following are two very important points that we emphasize as you
prepare to use HAMMER for the first time:

• Context-sensitive online help is available from anywhere in the program by

pressing the F1 key or by clicking the Help toolbar button.
• Don’t be afraid to explore. Some of the most-intuitive features can be easy to
overlook, but are great time-savers once you discover them. Play with the model
and discover the satisfaction that comes from mastering such a powerful tool.

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A.2.2 Importing Data from WaterCAD/WaterGEMS Models

You can use WaterObjects technology to import data from a WaterCAD or Water-
GEMS model into HAMMER. Start WaterObjects using File > Import > Network >
WaterCAD/WaterGEMS on the HAMMER menu. The import procedure is
described in detail in “Part 3—Importing Haestad Methods Models Using WaterOb-
jects” on page 3-139.

A.2.3 Importing EPANET Files

Note: In EPANET, pumps and valves are modeled as links. In HAMMER,

they are modeled as node elements. Hence, during an import,
each EPANET valve and pump link is replaced by two pipes and
one pump or valve element. This will not affect the behavior of
these elements in your system.

Select File > Import > Network and choose EPANET. Then, from the File > Open
window, select the EPANET file to import. For more information, see “Part 1—
Creating or Importing a Steady-State Model” on page 3-106.

A.2.4 Importing Surge2000 and PIPE2000 Data

This program supports the import of most hydraulic elements from PIPE2000 data
sets. Alternatively, you may be able to open these and resave them as EPANET
version 2.0 format, which can be imported into HAMMER.

HAMMER imports pipes and most nodes from Surge2000 models. You need to insert
certain pump, valve, tank data, and additional information into the current project. For
more information, see “Part 4—Importing from Other Models” on page 3-140.

A.2.5 Importing from a Database Using the HAMMER Datastore

HAMMER’s ability to read and write Access database files means that your hydraulic
model can easily be linked to virtually any major database, spreadsheet, or GIS
product currently in use today. HAMMER’s support for FlexUnits ensures you are not
limited to a specific unit system.

For more information, see “Part 1—Exporting an Input or Output File to a HAMMER
Datastore” on page 3-131.

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Modeling Tips

A.2.6 Additional Considerations When Working with Large

Model Files

It is possible to run out of RAM while running or animating very large networks with
thousands of pipes or by running HAMMER for thousands of seconds. Due to
inherent memory-management default in Windows, it is possible for performance to
decrease drastically if your system is forced to create virtual memory on the hard disk.
To avoid this, it is recommended you use the following memory-management proce-
dure:

• Don’t use Generate Animation Data or Generate Output Database unless you
need to actually view the animations or use the Access database or reports, respec-
tively. This will decrease execution time and memory use.
• Always output the minimum number of time steps possible, relying on the
maximum transient envelopes for the extreme high and low heads. In Project
Options, click the Report Times tab and use the periodically option, with a
period of 10 or 20. Only for the final run or when smooth animations are required
should you ever output every time step (and even then, only if required).
• Close animation data files (.ani or .hof), the HAMMER Viewer, and the Anima-
tion Controller when they are not in use. This frees up valuable memory and
resources during a large system run.
• If you have been editing large model files for a few hours in HAMMER
Modeler, consider closing it and reopening it and your .hif file prior to a large
model run. This closes the Java VM and creates a new one, which may free
memory in some cases.

A.3 Modeling Tips

These FAQs are related to modeling water-distribution networks with HAMMER.
Also, please keep in mind that Bentley Systems offers workshops in North America
and abroad throughout the year. These workshops cover these and many more
modeling topics in depth.

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A.3.1 How Do I Set Up a HAMMER Project?

How do I calculate the pressure wave speed for different materials, fluids, and
anchorage conditions?

The pressure-wave speed or acoustic wave speed of a liquid is the speed at which a
disturbance propagates through a closed-conduit, pressurized piping system. See
“Liquid Properties” on page 4-182 for values and ranges for water and typical (buried)
pipe materials. The pressure-wave speed depends on the liquid's wave celerity and the
pipe and bedding or anchorage as described in detail in “Celerity and Pipe Elasticity”
on page B-359.

How do I choose the most appropriate four-quadrant pump curve and what are
the errors involved?

If you need a four-quadrant pump curve but your pump's specific speed does not
match one of the available options, select the closest one available or request it from
the manufacturer. The prediction error cannot be linearly interpolated using specific
speed, but you could run a different curve to bracket the solution domain. For more
information, see “First-Quadrant and Four-Quadrant Representations” on page 6-224
and “Specific Speed” on page 6-222.

What is the effect of using the various friction models and when is it appropriate
to use each one?

The most widely used steady-state friction loss calculation methods include the
Hazen-Williams and Manning’s equations—in which friction losses are proportional
to relative pipe roughness but not to changes in flow. HAMMER uses the more
rigorous Darcy-Weisbach method, in which friction losses are proportional to relative
pipe roughness and to changes in flow.

In HAMMER, a hydraulic transient analysis usually begins with an initial steady state
in which the heads and flows are known for every pipe in the system. Prior to begin-
ning the transient calculations, HAMMER automatically determines the friction factor
based on this information. HAMMER can also use advanced quasi-steady or transient
friction models. For more information, see “Selecting the Friction Method” on page 4-
183.

How do I determine the need for a transient analysis?

It is always a good idea to run HAMMER to check extreme transient pressures for any
system with large changes in elevation, long pipelines with large diameters (i.e., mass
of water), and initial (e.g., steady-state) velocities in excess of 1 m/s. In some cases,
hydraulic transient forces can result in cracks or breaks, even with low steady-state

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Modeling Tips

velocities. For more information, see “Design of Protective Equipment” on page B-

343. The effect of system topology, fluid characteristics, and most likely causes of
transients are discussed in terms of the possible effects of transients in “Overview of
Hydraulic Transients” on page B-335.

Compared with steady-state models, what additional data or considerations are

required for a transient model?

Data requirements for hydraulic transient simulations are greater than for EPS or
steady-state runs. In addition to data required by a steady-state model, you also need
to determine the following:

• Pipe elasticity (pressure-wave speed)

• The fluid’s vaporization limit (vapor pressure)
• Pumps’ combined pump and motor inertia and controlled ramp times, if any
• Pumps or pump-turbine characteristics for hydropower systems
• Valves’ controlled operating times and their stroke-to-discharge coefficient (or
open-area) relationship
• The characteristics of surge-protection equipment

See the HAMMER help resources and “Hydraulic Element Reference” on page 6-205
to ensure that the correct data and parameters are entered in the model. For more infor-
mation, see: “Data Requirements and Boundary Conditions” on page 7-253.

How does HAMMER determine the time step?

Note: The time step cannot be directly modified in HAMMER. This is to

avoid excessively long runs and large memory requirements on
the one hand, or inaccurate answers due to coarse time steps on
the other hand.

HAMMER selects a suitable time step automatically, using an advanced optimization

algorithm that considers the lengths and pressure-wave speeds of pipes, network
complexity, and heuristics.

How does HAMMER model water-column separation and the movement of air?

Air and/or vapor can fill a pipe when the water it carries separates into two columns
due to rapidly changing momentum and hydraulic transient pressures. HAMMER has
an advanced vaporous-cavitation model and it is even able to model the position of the
air/liquid interface at high points. For more information, see “Water Column Separa-
tion and Vapor Pockets” on page 7-256.

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 Frequently Asked Questions

A.3.2 Modeling a Hydropneumatic Tank

Hydropneumatic tanks, also known as air chambers, are modeled using a gas vessel
element in HAMMER as a reminder that these are pressure vessels, which must be
specified with care and in accordance with local codes (e.g., ASME code). Consider a
few key concepts:

• The gas and liquid in the pressure vessel are at the same pressure, typically equal
to the discharge header pressure. Gas vessel pressure has no relationship to the
liquid level, which must be determined based on level probes and, ideally, a sight
glass as a backup.
• The volume of gas required depends on the hydraulic transient dynamics of the
system; there must be enough gas to avoid a partial vacuum in the vessel when the
gas expands.
• The volumes of gas and liquid required are proportional to the volume of vapor
predicted by HAMMER for an unprotected run.
• Try several HAMMER runs, changing the initial volume of gas until the liquid
outflow is sufficient to limit extreme transient heads, and/or to dampen transient
energy quickly enough. A differential orifice will generally attenuate transients
faster.

For more information, see “Gas Vessel or Air Chamber” on page B-410.

A.3.3 Modeling a Pumped Groundwater Well

A groundwater well is modeled using a combination of a reservoir and a pump. Set the
hydraulic grade line of the reservoir at the static groundwater elevation. The hydraulic
profile of a groundwater well pump’s vertical suction and, often, horizontal discharge
line results in a “knee” at the turn to the horizontal.

For pumps installed near or below ground level, it is possible to achieve vapor pres-
sure and water-column separation at the knee, because the water in the vertical riser
slows more rapidly than the water in the horizontal section after a power failure. This
can result in very significant and sudden high pressures when the water columns
subsequently rejoin.

Unless well heads are capped and surrounding soils are not contaminated, it is
possible to suck air and/or groundwater into the horizontal pipeline during the
resulting subatmospheric or vacuum-pressure conditions. Such short-lived transients
can potentially contaminate the water supply.

HAMMER User's Guide A-317

Modeling Tips

A.3.4 Modeling Parallel Pipes

Warning! Different profiles will result in different changes in

momentum, and potentially very different transient
pressures, during a transient event. Hydraulic transient
equivalency is not the same as steady-state equivalency.

HAMMER allows you to create parallel pipes by drawing pipes with the same end
nodes. If you plan to combine two parallel pipes into one equivalent pipe with a larger
diameter, check that they both have the same vertical profile.

A.3.5 Modeling Pumps in Parallel and Series

Note: With pumps in series, it is often possible to use a single

composite pump rather than multiple pumps. When pumps are
shut off, it is easier to control a single pump.

Pumps in parallel can be modeled by inserting a pump on different pipes that have the
same suction and discharge nodes or by modeling the suction and discharge headers
explicitly. However, short pipes in suction and discharge headers are extremely close
together from a hydraulic transient perspective. Based on wave speeds of, typically,
1,000 m/s, an entire header will usually behave as a single node, so consider modeling
it that way.

A.3.6 Modeling Hydraulically Close Tanks

If tanks are hydraulically close, as in the case of several tanks adjacent to each other, it
is convenient to model these tanks as one composite tank with the equivalent total
surface area of the individual tanks. This process hides fluctuations that may occur if
the tanks are modeled individually. Such fluctuations can be caused by small differ-
ences in flow rates to or from the adjacent tanks, which may offset the water surface
elevations over time enough to become significant.

A.3.7 Top-Feed/Bottom Gravity Discharge Tank

A tank element in HAMMER is modeled as a bottom-feed tank. Some tanks, however,

are fed from the top, which is different hydraulically and should be modeled as such.

A-318 HAMMER User's Guide

 Frequently Asked Questions

Elevated tank

To distribution system

Pump

Reservoir

Figure A-1: Top Feed/Bottom Gravity Tank

To model a top-feed tank at steady state, start by connecting an orifice to atmosphere

to the end of the pipe feeding the tank, but do not connect the orifice to the tank. Run
HAMMER. If transient inflows are small compared to the tank volume, you can
model the tank as a reservoir. Otherwise, take the simulated transient orifice outflows
and enter them as a time-varying inflow hydrograph for the MH element.

The outlet of the reservoir or MH tank can then proceed to the distribution system.

Tank represented as a
Orifice to reservoir or as a MH with
atmosphere a time-varying inflow

P-2

P-3

P-7 P-6 P-4

Reservoir Pump J1 J2

Figure A-2: Example Layout

HAMMER User's Guide A-319

Modeling Tips

A.3.8 Estimating Hydrant Discharge Using Flow Emitters

In HAMMER, hydrants are modeled using the hydraulic element orifice at branch
end. You can enter the length of the connecting pipe or “Fire Hose” and the elevation
of the discharge point or nozzle. HAMMER models the outflow as an orifice demand
(i.e., as a function of head) in a manner analogous to a flow emitter in WaterCAD.
HAMMER automatically calculates the emitter coefficient based on the typical flow
and pressure you specify.

In order to accurately model a hydrant, you can find an overall head loss for the
hydrant and the conversion of pressure head to velocity head (K value) from AWWA
Standards C502 and C503. For example, the standards state that a 2.5 in. (63 mm)
outlet must have a pressure drop less than 2.0 psi (1.46 m) when passing 500 gpm
(31.5 l/s). You can enter these pressure drops and flows directly in HAMMER.

A typical hydrant lateral in North America is 6 in. (150 mm) and typical outlet sizes
are 2.5 in. (63 mm) and 4.5 in. (115 mm). Values for k vary from minimum values,
which can be back calculated from AWWA standards, to much higher values actually
delivered by hydrants. Values for K for a range of k values for 6 in. (150 mm) pipes are
given in the following table.

Table A-1: Emitter K Values for Hydrants

Outlet k k K K
Nominal (in.) gpm, psi l/s, m gpm, psi l/s, m

2.5 250-600 18-45 150-180 11-14

2-2.5 350-700 26-52 167-185 13-15

4.5 447-720 33-54 380-510 30-40

The listed coefficients given are based on a 5 ft. (1.5 m) burial depth and a 5.5 in. (140
mm) hydrant barrel. A range is given because each manufacturer has a different
configuration for hydrant barrels and valving. The lowest value is the minimum
AWWA standard.

A.3.9 Modeling Variable-Speed Pumps

HAMMER can model the behavior of variable-speed pumps (VSP), whether they are
controlled by variable-frequency drives, hydraulic transmissions, or other couplings
between the motor and impeller ends. You can specify speed or torque ramps directly
and let HAMMER keep track of the rate at which flow will ramp up or down as a
function of efficiency and inertia, just as the motor controllers or soft-starters do in
actual systems. No work-around is required.

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 Frequently Asked Questions

• One parameter that can be used to adjust pump performance is its speed. For any
speed less than the motor’s full rated speed, HAMMER automatically uses the
pump affinity laws to adjust the pump-head characteristic curve.
• You can specify a variation in torque, typically to model pumps whose motor
input is constant but where a variable-torque transmission is used to transfer it to
the impeller. These mechanisms are common in industrial applications and for
some older pumps.

Motor start and stop sequences are usually predetermined, being merely activated by a
Start or Stop command on the motor control center panel or SCADA system. During
the ensuing pump operation, it is often not possible to control the pump based on the
system conditions. Steady-state pumping must first be achieved.

HAMMER does not support feedback-loop pump controls (based on the pressure or
flow at a node). For this behavior, model the transient event with a duration long
enough to return the system to a final steady state. Then transfer this steady state back
to WaterCAD and continue your analysis of the system as an extended-period simula-
tion.

A.4 How Do I Access the Knowledge Base?

You can access hundreds of commonly asked questions at our online Knowledge
Base. The quickest way to access the Knowledge Base is to click the Globe Icon in
the product toolbars. This will automatically log you on to our Web site. Simply click
the Knowledge Base icon next to the Haestad product of interest.

If the computer you are using does not have internet access, you can log on to Knowl-
edge Base at an alternate computer by going to http://www.haestad.com and entering
the Bentley SELECT portion of the Web site. You can then log on with the Product
ID located in the back of the user’s manual or your PID number.

A.5 Display Tips

This section discusses the following tips:

• “How Do I Display my Organization’s Name and Logo?” on page A-328

• “How Do I Control Element and Label Display?” on page A-329
• “How Do I Color-Code Elements?” on page A-329
• “How Do I Reuse Sets of Hydraulic Elements?” on page A-330
• “How Do I Copy a Path from One HAMMER Project to Another?” on page A-
330

HAMMER User's Guide A-321

Display Tips

A.5.1 How Do I Display my Organization’s Name and Logo?

Note: Entering an organization name will affect graphs and tables

generated by HAMMER.

In HAMMER Modeler, select Tools > Viewer > Graphics to start the HAMMER
Viewer, and do the following:

• Click Tools > Set Logo to enter your organization’s logo. It must be a .gif file.
Text you enter as your organization’s name will only display in the space left over
by the icon.
• Click Tools > Set Company Name to enter your organization’s name. If you do
not enter a logo, the name will occupy all of the available space on graphs. The
organization name also appears in the footers of predefined tables.

A.5.2 How Do I Control Element and Label Display?

To change the appearance of element symbols and labels:

• Select Tools > Global HAMMER Options and select the Other Options tab.
You can select the default font and turn on anti-alias display for sharper lines and
curves. You can also set the background and foreground Drawing Pane colors in
the Colors tab.
• Select Tools > Project Options and then the Other Options tab. You can select
the default font here as well and turn on the display of pipes or node labels. You
can also toggle the display of short labels or full-length labels. These options can
help clean up the display of a large system in the Drawing Pane.

These changes have no effect on pipe lengths or other model parameters.

A.5.3 How Do I Color-Code Elements?

To color-code hydraulic elements shown on the Drawing Pane, do the following:

1. Select the Map Selector choice list on the HAMMER Modeler toolbar.
2. Select the variables to use for color-coding nodes and pipes. You can choose from
maximum or minimum heads, pressures, or flows and maximum vapor or air
volume.
3. Click Scales at the bottom of the Pipe or Node portion of the choice list to display
the Color Map Settings window.

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 Frequently Asked Questions

4. Select a color ramp and the values for its upper and lower limits. You can also set
intermediate limits and colors and HAMMER will automatically interpolate
between these values.
5. Click Legend at the bottom of the Pipe or Node portion of the Map Selection list,
then click a location in the Drawing Pane to display the legend and color-scale bar.

A.5.4 How Do I Reuse Sets of Hydraulic Elements?

HAMMER makes it easy to select and reuse sets of hydraulic elements to quickly
assemble repetitive models of pump suction and discharge lines, for example:

1. Click the Select (arrow) icon on the toolbar and select the hydraulic elements you
want to reuse, then select Edit > Copy.
2. Do not click elsewhere in the drawing. Select Edit > Paste to reproduce this set of
hydraulic elements as many times as you like. HAMMER will automatically
assign different labels to each node and pipe you add to the Drawing Pane in this
way.

Inserted sets are automatically selected to allow you to move them around easily.

A.5.5 How Do I Copy a Path from One HAMMER Project to

Another?

You can copy paths from one project file to another provided each of the pipes in a
valid path exists in both HAMMER project files (i.e., if the topology in both project
files is the same).

1. Click Tools > Copy Paths.

2. Click Browse, adjacent to Source File, to select the project file that already has
the path you want to copy. A list of paths displays in the New Paths pane.
3. Select the check boxes for the paths you want to copy.
4. Click Browse, adjacent to Target File, to select the project file into which you
want to copy the selected paths.
5. Click Copy to complete the task by copying the selected paths from the source file
into the target file.

A.6 Editing Tips

The right mouse button can be used to:

• Select units and precision for displaying data.

HAMMER User's Guide A-323

Editing Tips

• Get help for dialog boxes and data entry fields.

• Open a shortcut menu of command options for an element.

A-324 HAMMER User's Guide

 Appendix

HAMMER Theory and B

Practice

HAMMER is an advanced numerical simulator of hydraulic transient phenomena

(water hammer) in water, wastewater, industrial, and mining systems. Built with busy
engineers in mind, it simplifies data entry and allows you to focus on visualizing,
improving, and delivering your results quickly and professionally. HAMMER can
handle any fluid or system that a typical steady-state hydraulic model like WaterCAD
can, but it can also solve a broader range of problems, as shown in the table below.

Table B-1: HAMMER Capabilities

WaterCAD HAMMER*

Steady or gradually varying turbulent

Rapidly varying or transient flow
flow

Slightly compressible, two-phase fluids

Incompressible, Newtonian, single-
(vapor and liquid) and two-fluid systems
phase fluids
(air and liquid)

Closed-conduit pressurized systems

Full pipes with air intake and release at discrete
points

• * HAMMER capabilities are in addition to WaterCAD’s capabilities

With HAMMER, you can analyze drinking water systems, sewage forcemains, fire
protection systems, well pumps, and raw-water transmission lines. You can change the
specific gravity of the fluid to model oil or slurries, for example. HAMMER assumes
that changes in other fluid properties, such as temperature, are negligible. It does not
currently model fluids with significant thermal variations, such as can occur in cogen-
eration or industrial systems.

The HAMMER algorithms will grow and evolve to keep pace with the state of the
practice in water distribution and wastewater collection modeling. Because the mathe-
matical solution methods are continually extended, this manual deals primarily with
the fundamental principles underlying these algorithms and focuses less on the details
of their implementation.

HAMMER User's Guide B-333

Acknowledgements

This appendix introduces the principles of hydraulic transients in piping systems,

reviews current analytical approaches and engineering practices, discusses the poten-
tial sources and impacts of water hammer, and presents a proven approach to help you
select and size surge-control equipment. Several transient simulations are integrated
into the discussion to provide context.

B.1 Acknowledgements
HAMMER is based on technology originally created by Environmental Hydraulics
Group (EHG), led by Dr. Alan Fok, P.Eng., a designated Hydraulic Specialist, and
assisted by Dr. Sheldon Zemell. Bentley Systems and EHG have forged a long-term
collaboration to support and improve HAMMER. The software is intended to repre-
sent the latest technology in water hammer analysis and design. Some of the text in
this section is adapted from Chapter 13 of Haestad Press’ Advanced Water Distribu-
tion Modeling and Management (AWDM), written by Dr. Edmundo Koelle, Dr.
Thomas Walski, P.E., and the Haestad staff, or extracted from Alan Fok’s past tech-
nical publications and Ph. D. thesis.

B.2 Overview of Hydraulic Transients

A transient is a temporary flow and pressure condition that occurs in a hydraulic
system between an initial steady-state condition and a final steady-state condition.
When velocity changes rapidly in response to the operation of a flow-control device
(for instance, a valve closure or pump start), the compressibility of the liquid and the
elasticity of the pipeline cause a transient pressure wave to propagate throughout the
system. If the magnitude of this transient pressure wave and the resulting transient
flow variation is great enough and adequate transient-control measures are not in
place, a transient can cause system hydraulic components to fail (for instance, a pipe
burst).

Transient Tip: In general, transients resulting from relatively slow

changes in flow rate are referred to as surges, and those
resulting from more rapid changes in flow rate are
referred to as water hammer events. Surges in
pressurized systems are different than tidal or storm
surges, flood waves, or dam breaks, which can occur in
open-water bodies. A water hammer wave travels much
faster in a pressurized system and it can burst even the
strongest pipes. In general engineering practice, the
terms surge, transient, hammer, and water hammer are
synonymous.

Transients can occur in pressurized systems conveying any fluid, including the
following:

B-334 HAMMER User's Guide

 HAMMER Theory and Practice

• Water (raw or treated) systems—transmission lines including booster stations,

low-head pumps and piping in water treatment plants, or high-lift pump stations
and connected networks or distribution systems with branching and looping pipes.
• Wastewater (sewage) systems—pressurized sewage forcemains, surcharged
sewers flowing by gravity, and sewers that are partially pressurized and partially
open channel.
• Combined sewers and tunnels—combined sewers under surcharge with deep-
well pump stations, time-varying inflows from surface sewer systems to drop
shafts, and large storage chambers or deep tunnel conveyance or storage systems.
• Hydro power—penstocks, turbines, and tailraces, including spherical valves.
• Slurry or oil pumping—mining slurries and tailings reclaim lines, oil transmis-
sion pipelines, airport refueling systems, and liquefied natural gas (LNG)
pumping.
• Industrial fluid systems—closed loops, heaters, coolers, boilers, steam, and
other water-conveyance or cogeneration systems. This requires a special version
of HAMMER to track the heat of the fluid. A transient analysis is critical for oper-
ator safety.

HAMMER has been used extensively to analyze and design water and wastewater
systems, as well as slurry and oil systems. EHG has analyzed steam, industrial, and
cogeneration systems with custom versions and has calculated transient forces on
above-ground anchors.

B.2.1 History of Solution Methods

The study of hydraulic transients is generally considered to have begun with the works
of Joukowsky (1898) and Allievi (1902). The historical development of this subject
makes for good reading (Wood F., 1970). A number of pioneers made breakthrough
contributions to the field, including R. Angus and John Parmakian (1963), who popu-
larized and refined the graphical calculation method. Benjamin Wylie and Victor
Streeter (1993) combined the method of characteristics with computer modeling. The
field of fluid transients is still rapidly evolving worldwide (Brunone et al., 2000;
Koelle and Luvizotto, 1996; Filion and Karney, 2002; Hamam and McCorquodale,
1982; Savic and Walters, 1995; Walski and Lutes, 1994; Wu and Simpson, 2000).

Various methods have been developed to solve transient flow in pipes. These range
from approximate equations to numerical solutions of the nonlinear Navier-Stokes
equations:

• Arithmetic method—Assumes that flow stops instantaneously (in less than the
characteristic time, 2 L/a), cannot handle water column separation directly, and
neglects friction (Joukowski, 1898; Allievi, 1902).

HAMMER User's Guide B-335

Overview of Hydraulic Transients

• Graphical method—Neglects friction in its theoretical development but includes

a means of accounting for it through a correction (Parmakian, 1963). It is time-
consuming and not suited to solving networks or pipelines with complex profiles.
• Design charts—Provides basic design information for simple topologies at a few
specific points (valve closure, pump and pipeline with no protection, surge tank,
or air chamber protection). This method has been replaced by computer programs
(Fok, 1978; Fok, 1980; Fok et al., 1982) based on the transient energy concept and
backed by field and laboratory work (Fok, 1987).
• Wave-plan method—Represents initial transient disturbances as a series of
pulses and tracks reflections at boundaries (Wood et al., 1966).
• Method of Characteristics (MOC)—Most widely used and tested approach,
with support for complex boundary conditions and friction and vaporous cavita-
tion models. HAMMER uses the MOC. It converts the partial differential equa-
tions (PDEs) of continuity and momentum (e.g., Navier-Stokes) into ordinary
differential equations that are solved algebraicially along lines called characteris-
tics. An MOC solution is exact along characteristics, but friction, vaporous cavita-
tion, and some boundary representations introduce errors in the results (Gray,
1953; Streeter and Lai, 1962; Elansary, Silva, and Chaudhry, 1994).

Haestad Press’ 2002 Advanced Water Distribution Modeling and Management docu-
ments other less-common methods. Transients have also been studied using:

• Laboratory Models—A scale model can be built to reproduce transients

observed in a prototype (real) system, typically for forensic or steam system
investigations. As a design method, this approach is limited by model scale effects
and by very high costs. However, models have provided invaluable basic research
data on vaporous cavitation and vortex shedding (St. Anthony Falls) and transient
friction (Perugia, Italy).
• Field Tests—Field tests can provide key modeling parameters such as the pres-
sure-wave speed or pump inertia. Advanced flow and pressure sensors equipped
with high-speed data loggers make it possible to capture fast transients, down to 5
milliseconds. Methods such as inverse transient calibration and leak detection use
such data. Like all tests, however, data are obtained at a finite number of locations
and generalizing the findings requires assumptions, with uncertainties spread
across the system. At best, tests provide local data and a feel for the systemwide
response. At worst, tests can lead to physically doubtful conclusions limited by
the scope of the test program.

Neither laboratory models nor field testing can substitute for the careful and correct
application of a proven hydraulic transient computer model, such as HAMMER.

B-336 HAMMER User's Guide

 HAMMER Theory and Practice

The extended-period simulation (EPS) capability of models such as WaterCAD or

WaterGEMS does not consider momentum, and is therefore incapable of analyzing
hydraulic transients. Such simulations are sufficient to analyze hydraulic systems that
undergo velocity and pressure changes slowly enough that inertial forces are insignifi-
cant. If a system undergoes large changes in velocity and pressure in short time
periods, then transient analysis is required.

B.2.2 Causes of Transient Initiation

The cause of a hydraulic transient is any sudden change in the fluid itself or any
sudden change at the pressurized system’s boundaries, including:

• Changes in fluid properties—such as depressurization due to the sudden

opening of a relief valve, a propagating pressure pulse, heating or cooling in
cogeneration or industrial systems, mixing with solids or other liquids (may affect
fluid density, specific gravity, and viscosity), formation and collapse of vapor
bubbles (cavitation), and air entrainment or release from the system (at air vents
and/or due to pressure waves).
• Changes at system boundaries—such as rapidly opening or closing a valve, pipe
burst (due to high pressure) or pipe collapse (due to low pressure), pump start/
shift/stop, air intake at a vacuum breaker, water intake at a valve, mass outflow at
a pressure-relief valve or fire hose, breakage of a rupture disk, and hunting and/or
resonance at a control valve.

Sudden changes such as these create a transient pressure pulse that rapidly propagates
away from the disturbance, in every possible direction, and throughout the entire pres-
surized system. If no other transient event is triggered by the pressure wave fronts,
unsteady-flow conditions continue until the transient energy is completely damped
and dissipated by friction.

The majority of transients in water and wastewater systems are the result of changes at
system boundaries, typically at the upstream and downstream ends of the system or at
local high points. Consequently, you can reduce the risk of system damage or failure
with proper analysis to determine the system’s default dynamic response, design
protection equipment to control transient energy, and specify operational procedures
to avoid transients. Analysis, design, and operational procedures all benefit from
computer simulations with HAMMER.

The three most common causes of transient initiation, or source devices, are all
moving system boundaries.

HAMMER User's Guide B-337

Overview of Hydraulic Transients

H.G
.L.
H.G.L. H.G.L.
Reservoir

Penstock
Governor
Pump Check
Generator Valve
Valve ow
Fl F lo
Sump w
Gate Tailrace
Turbine

Pump Turbine Valve

Figure B-1: Common Causes of Hydraulic Transients

Pumps—A pump’s motor exerts a torque on a shaft that delivers energy to the pump’s
impeller, forcing it to rotate and add energy to the fluid as it passes from the suction to
the discharge side of the pump volute. Pumps convey fluid to the downstream end of a
system whose profile can be either uphill or downhill, with irregularities such as local
high or low points. When the pump starts, pressure can increase rapidly. Whenever
power sags or fails, the pump slows or stops and a sudden drop in pressure propagates
downstream (a rise in pressure also propagates upstream in the suction system).

Turbines—Hydropower turbines are located at the downstream end of a conduit, or

penstock, to absorb the moving water’s energy and convert it to electrical current.
Conceptually, a turbine is the inverse of a pump, but very few pumps or turbines can
operate in both directions without damage. If the electrical load generated by a turbine
is rejected, a gate must rapidly stop flow, resulting in a large increase in pressure,
which propagates upstream (in the penstock).

Valves—A valve can start, change, or stop flow very suddenly. Energy conversions
increase or decrease in proportion to a valve’s closing or opening rate and position, or
stroke. Orifices can be used to throttle flow instead of a partially open valve. Valves
can also allow air into a pipeline and/or expel it, typically at local high points.
Suddenly closing a flow-control valve (with piping on both sides) generates transients
on both sides of the valve, as follows:

• Water initially coming towards the valve suddenly has nowhere to go. As water
packs into a finite space upstream of the valve, it generates a high-pressure pulse
that propagates upstream, away from the valve.
• Water initially going away from the valve cannot suddenly stop, due to its inertia
and, since no flow is coming through the valve to replace it, the area downstream
of the valve may “pull a vacuum,” causing a low-pressure pulse to propagate
downstream.

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

The similarity of the transient conditions caused by different source devices provides
the key to transient analysis in a wide range of different systems: understand the initial
state of the system and the ways in which energy and mass are added or removed from
it. This is best illustrated by an example for a typical pumping system (see “Figure B-
2: Typical Locations where Transient Pulses Initiate”on page B-341):

1. A pump (upstream source device) starts up from the static HGL and accelerates
flow until its input energy reaches a dynamic equilibrium with friction at the
steady HGL.
2. A power failure occurs and the pump stops supplying hydraulic energy; therefore,
the HGL drops rapidly at the pump and a low-pressure pulse propagates down-
stream towards the reservoir. Subatmospheric pressures can occur at the high
point (minimum transient head), but the reservoir maintains downstream pressure
at its liquid level by accepting or supplying liquid as required, often several times
during the transient event.

Note: As the HGL drops to the pipeline elevation, a vacuum breaker

valve can be installed at the local high point to supply or expel
air from the system in a manner analogous to the reservoir. This
tends to maintain atmospheric pressure at the valve, minimizing
subatmospheric pressures when air is admitted and often
reducing high pressures when air is expelled.

3. The pressure pulse is reflected toward the pump, but it encounters a closed check
valve (designed to protect the pump against high pressures) that reflects the pulse
as a high pressure toward the reservoir again (maximum transient head).
4. Friction eventually attenuates the transient energy and the system reaches a final
steady state: static HGL, in this case, since pumping has stopped and flow at the
reservoir is zero.

The foregoing discussion illustrates the typical concepts to consider when analyzing
hydraulic transients. Computer models are an ideal tool for tracking momentum,
inertia, and friction as the transient evolves, and for correctly accounting for changes
in mass and energy at boundaries. Note that transients propagate throughout the entire
pressurized system.

HAMMER User's Guide B-339

Overview of Hydraulic Transients

Maximum Transient Head

Friction ( hf ) Reservoir
Steady HGL

Static HGL
d
nt Hea
r an s ie
T Downstream
High Point
im um
Pipeline
Devices Min Source Devices

Upstream Source Devices

Reservoir
Figure B-2: Typical Locations where Transient Pulses Initiate

Note: Devices can be a pump, valve, or other operable equipment.

B.2.3 Impacts of Transients

Hydraulic transients can result in the following physical phenomena:

High or low transient pressures—These can be applied to piping and joints in a frac-
tion of a second and they often alternate from high to low and vice versa. High pres-
sures resulting from the collapse of vapor pockets are analogous to cavitation in a
pump: they primarily accelerate wear and tear, but they can burst a pipe by over-
coming its surge-tolerance limit. Subatmospheric or even full-vacuum pressures can
combine with overburden and groundwater pressures to collapse pipes by buckling
failure. Groundwater can also be sucked into the piping.

High transient flows—These can result in significant degradation of water quality as

deposits and rust are loosened and entrained at high velocities. This is aggravated
whenever flows reverse direction during a transient event. High-velocity flows also
exert forces at pipe bends.

Transient forces—Rapidly moving pressure pulses result in temporary, but very

significant, transient forces at bends and other fittings, which can cause joints to
move. Even for buried pipe, repeated deflections combined with pressure cycling can
wear out joints and result in leakage or outright failure. Thrust blocks are typically
sized for steady-state forces plus a safety factor—not transient forces—and typically

B-340 HAMMER User's Guide

 HAMMER Theory and Practice

resist thrust in only one direction. In pump stations, low pressures on the downstream
side of a slow-closing check valve may result in a very fast closure known as valve
slam. A 10 psi (69 kPa) pressure differential across the face of a 16 in. (400 mm)
valve can result in impact forces in excess of 2,000 lb. (8,900 N).

Column separation—Water columns typically separate at abrupt changes in profile

or local high points due to subatmospheric pressure. The space between the water
columns is filled either by the formation of vapor (e.g., steam at ambient temperature)
or air, if it is admitted to the pipeline through a valve. With vaporous cavitation, a
vapor pocket forms and then collapses when the pipeline pressure increases as more
flow enters the region than leaves it. Collapse of the vapor pocket can cause a
dramatic high-pressure transient if the water column rejoins very rapidly, which can,
in turn, cause the pipeline to rupture. Vaporous cavitation can also result in pipe
flexure that damages pipe linings. High pressures can also result when air is expelled
rapidly from a pipeline, which tends to repeat more times than when a vapor pocket
collapses.

Vibrations—Rapid transient pressure fluctuations can result in vibrations or reso-

nance that can cause even flanged pipes and fittings (bend and elbows) to dislodge,
resulting in a leak or rupture. In fact, the cavitation that commonly occurs with water
hammer can—as the phenomenon’s name implies—release energy that sounds like
someone pounding on the pipe with a hammer.

Hydraulic transient impacts can be expected at the following locations:

• Check valves at pumps as flow reverses from the downstream reservoir to the
pump.
• Reservoir inlet valves, altitude valves at elevated tanks, or isolation valves if they
close rapidly.
• Local high points where vapor or air pockets collapse.
• Dead ends as they reflect incoming pulses with up to double the wave amplitude.
• Pipe bursts, where flow leaving the system may exceed the steady-state flow (in
systems with high static head compared to the dynamic head).
• Surge-control devices if not properly designed or operated.
• Changes in pipeline profile or alignment where transient forces may be signifi-
cant.

Hydraulic transient impacts can be expected to occur at the following times:

• Pump startup before transient energy has decayed sufficiently or before all air has
been removed from the line.

HAMMER User's Guide B-341

Hydraulic Transient Theory

• Pump emergency shutdown which may result in water-column separation and

severe transient pressures due to vapor or air pocket formation and collapse.
• Pump shifting during normal operations, which may result in frequent pressure
shocks.

Environmental concerns due to hydraulic transients include:

• Sewage spills or leaks to soils or groundwater during high transient pressures.

• Drinking water contamination due to air, debris, or groundwater intrusion during
subatmospheric pressures.

Hydraulic transients can result in the following infrastructure management issues and
risks:

• Premature aging and wear of valves, pipes, and pumps due to high magnitude and/
or frequent pressure shocks.
• Pump cavitation due to low suction head and pipe lining damage due to vacuum
conditions.
• Rapid pump or valve operation by major water users (e.g., a food production
factory) may accelerate the pipe material and anchor fatigue in their vicinity.
• Service interruptions due to repair and maintenance of infrastructure.

B.2.4 Design of Protective Equipment

For typical water-distribution main installation, transient analysis may be necessary

even if velocities are low. System looping and service connections may amplify tran-
sient effects and need to be studied carefully. Transient analysis should be performed
for large, high-value pipelines, especially those with pump stations.

A complete transient analysis, in conjunction with other system design activities,

should be performed during the initial design phases of a project. Normal flow-control
operations and predicable emergency operations should, of course, be evaluated
during the design. However, uncommon flow-control activities can occur once the
system is in operation, making it important that all factors that could affect the integ-
rity of the system be considered.

B.3 Hydraulic Transient Theory

In pressurized networks, a steady-state condition or transient event at one point in the
system can affect all other parts of the system. Consequently, computer models must
consider every pipe that is directly connected to a pressurized system, regardless of
administrative or political boundaries.

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

While a systemwide approach increases the information an engineer must consider,

the physical principles that govern the behavior of the network provide a unified
conceptual basis for tackling the problem. Two fundamental laws apply to steady-
state, EPS or transient models:

• Conservation of mass—also expressed as the continuity equation, which states

that matter cannot be created or destroyed.
• Conservation of energy—also expressed as the momentum equation, which
states that energy cannot be created or destroyed.

The best way to arrive at sound, physically meaningful conclusions and recommenda-
tions is to keep these principles in mind whenever you interpret the results of a
hydraulic model. HAMMER makes this easy by tracking the mass inflow or outflow
of air or water at any location and by plotting or animating the resulting total energy at
any point and time in the system.

B.3.1 Conservation of Energy

The first law of thermodynamics states that for any given system and time interval, the
change in total energy is equal to the difference between the heat transferred to the
system and the work done by the system on its surroundings. In hydraulic terms,
changes in the total energy of a fluid do not consider changes in its internal (molec-
ular) forms of energy, such as electrical and chemical energy, because these are
usually relatively small.

In hydraulic terms, energy is often represented as energy per unit weight, resulting in
units of length. At any point in a hydraulic system, the total energy of a fluid consists
of three components that can be expressed as an equivalent elevation, or head:

Pressure Head: p/γ

Elevation Head: z

Velocity Head: V2/2g

Where: p = pressure (N/m2, lb/ft2)

γ = specific weight (N/m3, lb/ft3)

z = elevation (m, ft)
V = velocity (m/s, ft/sec.)
g = gravitational acceleration constant (m/s2, ft/sec.2)

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Hydraulic Transient Theory

Converting the total energy to an equivalent head allows it to be plotted on the same
scale as elevation for any point in the system, either on pipeline profiles or maps,
allowing engineers to visualize changes as slopes or contour lines, respectively. This
gives a better feel for the resulting behavior of the system, especially when reviewing
the results of an EPS or transient analysis. Further, the difference between this energy
level and the pipeline elevation is equal to the total gauge pressure.

B.3.2 Governing Equations for Steady-State Flow

Steady-state models, such as WaterCAD or WaterGEMS, are capable of two modes of

analysis: steady state and extended period simulation (EPS). EPS solves a series of
consecutive steady states using a gradient algorithm and accounting for mass in reser-
voirs and tanks (e.g., net inflows and storage). Both methods assume the system
contains an incompressible fluid, so the total volumetric or mass inflows at any node
must equal the outflows, less the change in storage.

In addition to pressure head, elevation head, and velocity head, there may also be head
added to the system, for instance, by a pump, and head removed from the system by
friction. These changes in head are referred to as head gains and head losses, respec-
tively. Balancing the energy across two points in the system yields the energy or
Bernoulli equation for steady-state flow:

P1 V2 P V2
+ z1 + 1 + h p = 2 + z2 + 2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
(B.1)

Where: p = pressure (N/m2, lb/ft2)

γ = specific weight (N/m3, lb/ft3)

z = elevation at the centroid (m, ft)
V = velocity (m/s, ft/sec.)

g = gravitational acceleration constant (m/s2, ft/sec.2)

hp = head gain from a pump (m, ft)

hL = combined headloss (m, ft)

The components of the energy equation can be combined to express two useful quanti-
ties, the hydraulic grade and the energy grade:

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

• Hydraulic grade—The hydraulic grade is the sum of the pressure head (p/γ ) and
elevation head (z). The hydraulic head represents the height to which a water
column would rise in a piezometer. The plot of the hydraulic grade in a profile is
often referred to as the hydraulic grade line or HGL.
• Energy grade—The energy grade is the sum of the hydraulic grade and the
velocity head (V2/2g). This is the height to which a column of water would rise in
a pitot tube. The plot of the hydraulic grade in a profile is often referred to as the
energy grade line or EGL. At a lake or reservoir, where the velocity is essentially
zero, the EGL is equal to the HGL, as can be seen in the following figure.

Figure B-3: EGL and HGL

Conservation of Mass at Steady State

At any node in a system containing incompressible fluid, the total volumetric or mass
flows in must equal the flows out, less the change in storage. Separating these into
flows from connecting pipes, demands, and storage, gives the continuity equation:

∑ QIN ∆t = ∑ QOUT ∆t + ∆Vs

(B.2)

Where: QIN = total flow into the node (m3/s, cfs)

QOUT = total demand at the node (m3/s, cfs)
∆V S = change in storage volume (m3, ft3)
∆t = change in time (sec.)

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Hydraulic Transient Theory

Conservation of Energy at Steady State

The conservation of energy principle states that the head losses through the system
must balance at each point. For pressure networks, this means that the total head loss
between any two nodes in the system must be the same regardless of what path is
taken between the two points. The sign of the head loss must be consistent with the
assumed flow direction (i.e., gain head when proceeding opposite the flow direction
and lose head when proceeding in the flow direction).

The same basic principle can be applied to any path between two points. The
combined head loss around a loop must be zero to achieve the same hydraulic grade as
at the beginning.

B.3.3 Governing Equations for Unsteady (or Transient) Flow

Hydraulic transient flow is also known as unsteady fluid flow. During a transient anal-
ysis, the fluid and system boundaries can be either elastic or inelastic:

• Elastic theory describes unsteady flow of a compressible liquid in an elastic

system (e.g., where pipes can expand and contract). HAMMER uses the Method
of Characteristics (MOC) to solve virtually any hydraulic transient problems.
• Rigid-column theory describes unsteady flow of an incompressible liquid in a
rigid system. It is only applicable to slower transient phenomena.

Both branches of transient theory stem from the same governing equations.
HAMMER uses the more advanced elastic theory systemwide for virtually every
simulation, but it can also switch to the faster rigid-column theory (in specific reaches
and for special applications) to reduce execution time, as discussed in “Rigid-Column
Simulation” on page 7-251.

The continuity equation and the momentum equation are needed to determine V and p
in a one-dimensional flow system. Solving these two equations produces a theoretical
result that usually corresponds quite closely to actual system measurements if the data
and assumptions used to build the numerical model are valid. Transient analysis
results that are not comparable with actual system measurements are generally caused
by inappropriate system data (especially boundary conditions) and inappropriate
assumptions.

Continuity Equation for Unsteady Flow

The continuity equation for a fluid is based on the principle of conservation of mass.
The general form of the continuity equation for unsteady fluid flow is as follows:

B-346 HAMMER User's Guide

 HAMMER Theory and Practice

∂H dH a 2 ∂V
+V + =0
∂t ∂x g ∂x
(B.3)

Where: a = pressure wave speed

V = average velocity in the pipe, parallel to the x-axis
H = hydraulic grade line or HGL

The second term on the left-hand side of the preceding equation is small relative to
other terms and is typically neglected, yielding the following simplified continuity
equation, as used in the majority of unsteady models:

∂H a 2 ∂V
+ =0
∂t g ∂x
(B.4)

Momentum Equation for Unsteady Flow

The equations of motion for a fluid can be derived from the consideration of the forces
acting on a small element, or control volume, including the shear stresses generated by
the fluid motion and viscosity. The three-dimensional momentum equations of a real
fluid system are known as the Navier-Stokes equations. Since flow perpendicular to
pipe walls is approximately zero, flow in a pipe can be considered one-dimensional,
for which the continuity equation reduces to:

∂V ∂V ∂H fV V
+V +g + =0
∂t ∂x ∂x 2D
(B.5)

Where: f = Darcy-Weisbach friction coefficient

= inside diameter of the pipe (or equivalent
D
dimension)
V = velocity of fluid
γ = specific weight of the fluid

The last term on the left-hand side represents friction losses in the direction of flow:

fV V
2D

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Hydraulic Transient Theory

The first term on the left-hand side is the local acceleration term, while the second
term represents the convective acceleration, proportional to the spatial change of
velocity at a point in the fluid, which is often neglected to yield the following simpli-
fied equation:

∂V ∂H fV V
+g + =0
∂t ∂x 2D
(B.6)

Equations B.4 and B.6, though rigorous and explicit, incorporate the following
assumptions, which are often not strictly valid in real water systems:

• Fluid is homogeneous—water typically incorporates a small amount of dissolved

and/or entrained air whose exact percentage changes along the system.
• Fluid and pipe wall are linearly elastic—in aging water pipes whose shape has
become noncircular and whose integrity may be compromised by cracks (virtually
every water system leaks), fluid may escape the system rather than being
compressed and deformations imposed on piping may not be entirely recovered.
• Flow is one-dimensional—this assumption has been shown to be inaccurate at
tees in suction lines. Minor losses result from three-dimensional vorticity.
• Pipe flows full—even in pressurized systems, air or vapor can accumulate at local
high points, forcing the water to accelerate and pass underneath it. In extreme
cases, this phenomenon can significantly diminish pumping efficiency (e.g., vapor
lock).
• Average velocity is used—experiments show that the velocity distribution
changes across a cross section during transient events, even for flow in straight
pipes.
• Viscous losses similar to steady state—emerging research in transient or
unsteady friction is challenging this assumption.

Nevertheless, these assumptions are essentially valid for the majority of the time in the
majority of water systems. Solving these equations yields accurate numerical simula-
tion results in most cases.

Method of Characteristics (MOC)

HAMMER uses the most widely used and tested method, known as the Method of
Characteristic (MOC), to solve governing equations B.4 and B.6 for unsteady pipe
flow. Using the MOC, the two partial differential equations can be transformed to the
following two pairs of equations:

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

g dH dV fV V 

+ + = 0

a dt dt 2D 

 C+
dx 

= +a 

dt 

(B.7)

g dH dV fV V 

− + + = 0

a dt dt 2D 

 C−
dx 

= −a 

dt 

(B.8)

Equations B.7 and B.8 cannot be solved analytically, but they can be expressed graph-
ically in space-time as characteristic lines (or curves), called characteristics, that
represent signals propagating to the right (C+) and to the left (C-) simultaneously and
from each location in the system. At each interior solution point, signals arrive from
the two adjacent points simultaneously. A linear combination of H and V is invariant
along each characteristic if friction losses are neglected; therefore, H and V can be
obtained exactly at solution points. With head losses concentrated at solution points
and the assumption that friction is small, an iterative procedure is used in conjunction
with MOC to advance the solution in time.

Transient modeling essentially consists of solving these equations, for every solution
point and time step, for a wide variety of boundary conditions and system topologies.
To obtain a general computer model like HAMMER, the following additional capabil-
ities are required:

• Boundary conditions must also be expressed as algebraic and/or differential equa-

tions based on their physical properties. This must be done for every hydraulic
element in the model and solved along with the characteristic equations.
• Equations of state are incorporated to model vaporous cavitation, whereby the
fluid can flash into vapor at low pressures, for example. The assumptions incorpo-
rated into HAMMER are described in “Water Column Separation and Vapor
Pockets” on page 7-256.
• The length of computational reaches must be set to achieve sufficient accuracy
without resulting in too small a time step and an excessively long execution time.
HAMMER automatically sets an optimal time step based on pipe lengths, wave
speeds, and overall system size, so you can get your model results faster.
• Friction losses are assumed to be concentrated at solution points. Different models
can be implemented, ranging from steady-state to quasi-steady to unsteady (tran-
sient) friction.

HAMMER User's Guide B-349

Hydraulic Transient Theory

HAMMER has been used for over 15 years on a large number of water and waste-
water projects, evolving during this time to add new boundary conditions while
preserving ease of use and accuracy. Thus, it is a proven model with many “electron
miles” and a solid track record of matching field observations (when available). It has
also been used to model other fluids and tackle problems in other industry sectors,
adding to its generality and confirming its robust algorithms.

A derivation of the complete equations for transient analysis (using elastic theory) is
beyond the scope of this manual, but it can be found in other references, such as
Almeida and Koelle (1992) and Wylie and Streeter (1993).

The derivation for incompressible flow and rigid pipe walls is provided in the next
section. The derivation of the wave celerity and pressure-wave speed for compressible
flow and elastic system boundaries is provided next.

B.3.4 Rigid Column Theory

The rigid model assumes that the pipeline is not deformable and the liquid is incom-
pressible; therefore, system flow-control operations affect only the inertial and fric-
tional aspects of transient flow. Given these considerations, it can be demonstrated
using the continuity equation that any system flow-control operations results in instan-
taneous flow changes throughout the system, and that the liquid travels as a single
mass inside the pipeline, causing a mass oscillation. If liquid density and pipe cross
section are constant, the instantaneous velocity is the same in all sections.

These rigidity assumptions result in an easy-to-solve ordinary differential equation;

however, its application is limited to the analysis of surge. Newton’s second law of
motion is sufficient to determine the dynamic hydraulic of a rigid water body during
the mass oscillation:

dH = f (L/D)(V|V|/2g) + (L/g) (dV/dt) (B.9)

Where: dH = change in head (m, ft)

If a steady-state flow condition is established—that is, if dV/dt = 0—then this Equa-

tion equation simplifies to the Darcy-Weisbach formula for computation of head loss
over the length of the pipeline. However, if a steady-state flow condition is not estab-
lished because of flow control operations, then three unknowns need to be determined:
H1(t) (the left-hand head), H2(t) (the right-hand head), and V(t) (the instantaneous
flow velocity in the conduit). To determine these unknowns, the engineer must know
the boundary conditions at both ends of the pipeline.

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

Using the fundamental rigid-model equation, the hydraulic grade line can be estab-
lished for each instant. The slope of this line indicates the head loss between the two
ends of the pipeline, which is also the head necessary to overcome frictional losses
and inertial forces in the pipeline. For the case of flow reduction caused by a valve
closure (dQ/dt < 0), the slope is reduced. If a valve is opened, the slope increases,
potentially allowing vacuum conditions to occur. The change in slope is directly
proportional to the flow change. Generally, the maximum transient head envelope
calculated by rigid water column theory (RWCT) is a straight line, as shown in the
following figure.

Maximum Transient Head Envelope (Elastic)

Maximum Head
(Rigid)
Reservoir
Steady-State HGL

id)
Head (Rig
Minimum

Minimum Transient Head Envelope (Elastic)

Pipeline

Pump Station + Transient Energy Calculated by Elastic

Water Column Theory (EWCT)
Reservoir Transient Energy Calculated by Rigid
Water Column Theory (RWCT)

Figure B-4: Static and Steady HGL versus Rigid and Elastic Transient
Head Envelopes

The rigid model has limited applications in hydraulic transient analysis because the
resulting equations do not accurately model pressure waves caused by rapid flow-
control operations. The rigid model applies to slower surge or mass oscillation tran-
sients, as defined in “Wave Propagation and Characteristic Time” on page B-363.
During mass oscillations, moderate changes in head occur slowly, allowing changes of
the liquid density and/or elastic deformation of the pipeline to be neglected.

Mass oscillations routinely occur while deep sewers or tunnel systems are filling.
Based on simulations for an actual project, “Figure B-5: Mass Oscillations during
Deep Tunnel Filling”on page B-355 shows:

• Liquid levels in the large transmission (sewer or tunnel) and storage (large vertical
chamber) elements typically rise gradually as the system fills.
• The different flow rates contributed by surface sewers, and conveyance in the
deep system, causes each storage chamber (A, B, and C) to fill at a different rate.

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Hydraulic Transient Theory

• Liquid levels in smaller inflow drop shafts can fluctuate significantly at a much
higher frequency than the large storage chambers, possibly resulting in a spill to
surface sewers or even to ground level. Resonance and amplification are possible
in these shafts and elastic theory may be required to correctly model the faster
changes in liquid level.
• As the entire system becomes full, levels in the large chambers may significantly
exceed the ground elevation as excess energy is required to accelerate water (in
the submerged outfall pipes) from zero to a steady-state velocity. Overflows may
occur at the chambers unless adequate provision is made for this temporary condi-
tion.

85

Start of spill Start of overflow to Lake

Initial spill
to ground at large storage chambers
80 via three submerged pipes
Lake Level
75.2 m
75
Rapid and large
level fluctuations
in small shafts by
70 Elastic Water
Column
Theory
Water Level Elevation (m)

(EWCT)
65

60

55

Water levels rise slowly in large chambers

50 as mass oscillations take place. Solvable
using Rigid Water Column Theory (RWCT.)

45

40 Legend
Storage Chamber A
Inflow Shaft
35
Storage Chamber B
Storage Chamber C
30

25
0 5 10 15
Time (minutes)

(from EHG project)

Figure B-5: Mass Oscillations during Deep Tunnel Filling

This example illustrates the importance of using HAMMER to identify the spill poten-
tial of a deep sewer or storage system prior to detailed design and commissioning.

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

B.3.5 Rigid Column versus Elastic Theory

Prior to the widespread use of computers, the subject of rigid water column-theory
was very popular. Substantial effort was devoted by numerous researchers and engi-
neers to improve its accuracy and to determine the range of its application. “Figure B-
6: When to Use Elastic versus Rigid Column Theory for a Valve Closure”on page B-
357 is a dimensionless plot of valve closure time (divided by half the characteristic
time, L/a) versus the ratio of initial head to transient head in a frictionless (or very low
friction) system. The graph shows that different researchers, beginning in 1933,
proposed various criteria to determine when an elastic solution is necessary and when
a rigid-column solution is sufficiently accurate.

The thick black lines were obtained from computer simulations using both methods
and showing the level of error resulting from using RWCT instead of EWCT (Fok,
1987). The error resulting from RWCT instead of EWCT is shown graphically in
“Figure B-6: When to Use Elastic versus Rigid Column Theory for a Valve
Closure”on page B-357. EWCT correctly accounts for fluid compressibility, resulting
in a significantly higher estimate of the maximum transient head than RWCT.
HAMMER solves every problem using elastic theory and the MOC for maximum
accuracy.

HAMMER User's Guide B-353

Hydraulic Transient Theory

Symbols
g = gravitational acceleration
(m/s)
ho = head loss across valve (m)
a = pressure wave speed (m/s)
Fok’s boundary Vo= initial flow velocity through
valve (m/s)
(1987) between tq = time of valve closure (s)
l = pipe length (m)
EWCT and RWCT
using HAMMER

20 10 5 2.5 % of ERROR
Ho = (gho/avo)

)
,74
73
19
VALVE HEAD,

(
CT
RW
’s
od
Wo

TIME of VALVE CLOSURE T q = (tq/l/a)

(from Dr. Fok’s 1987 Thesis)

Figure B-6: When to Use Elastic versus Rigid Column Theory for a Valve
Closure

B.3.6 Elastic Theory

The elastic model assumes that changing the momentum of the liquid causes expan-
sion or compression of the pipeline and liquid, both assumed to be linear-elastic. Since
the liquid is not completely incompressible, its density can change slightly during the
propagation of a transient pressure wave. The transient pressure wave will have a
finite velocity that depends on the elasticity of the pipeline and of the liquid as
described in “Celerity and Pipe Elasticity” on page B-359.

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

In 1898, Joukowski established a theoretical relationship between pressure and

velocity change during a transient flow condition. In 1902, Allievi independently
developed a similar elastic relation and applied it to a uniform valve closure. The
elastic theory developed by these two pioneers is fundamental to the field of
hydraulic transients. The combined elasticity of both the water and the pipe walls is
characterized by the pressure wave speed, a. This relation is a simplified form of the
equation (see equation B.7) applicable to an instantaneous stoppage of velocity.

(H – Ho) = –a / g (V – Vo) (B.10)

Where: o = denotes initial conditions.

For an instantaneous valve closure or stoppage of flow, the upsurge pressure (H–Ho) is
known as the “Joukowski head.” Given that a is roughly 100 times as large as g, a 1
ft./sec. (0.3 m/s) change in velocity can result in a 100 ft. (30 m) change in head.
Because changes in velocity of several feet or meters per second can occur when a
pump shuts off or a hydrant or valve is closed, it is easy to see how large transients can
occur readily in water systems.

The mass of fluid that enters the part of the system located upstream of the valve
immediately after its sudden closure is accommodated through the expansion of the
pipeline due to its elasticity and through slight changes in fluid density due to its
compressibility. This equation does not strictly apply to the drop in pressure down-
stream of the valve, if the valve discharges flow to the atmosphere.

B.4 Water System Characteristics

Haestad Press’ Advanced Water Distribution Modeling and Management describes
many of the topics in this section in greater detail.

B.4.1 Celerity and Pipe Elasticity

The elasticity of any medium is characterized by the deformation of the medium due
to the application of a force. If the medium is a liquid, this force is a pressure force.
The elasticity coefficient (also called the elasticity index, constant, or modulus) is a
physical property of the medium that describes the relationship between force and
deformation.

Thus, if a given liquid mass in a given volume (V) is subjected to a static pressure rise
(dp), a corresponding reduction (dV < 0) in the fluid volume occurs. The relationship
between cause (pressure increase) and effect (volume reduction) is expressed as the
bulk modulus of elasticity (Eν) of the fluid, as given by:

HAMMER User's Guide B-355

Water System Characteristics

dp dp
Ev = − =
dV dρ
V ρ
(B.11)

Where: Ev = bulk modulus of elasticity

dp = static pressure rise

= incremental change in liquid volume with respect
dV
to initial volume
= incremental change in liquid density with respect
dρ/ρ
to initial density

A relationship between a liquid’s modulus of elasticity and density yields its charac-
teristic wave celerity:

Ev dp
a= =
ρ dρ
(B.12)

Where: a = characteristic wave celerity of the liquid

The characteristic wave celerity (a) is the speed with which a disturbance moves
through a fluid. Its value is approximately 4,716 ft./sec. (1,438 m/s) for water and
approximately 1,115 ft./sec. (340 m/s) for air.

Injecting a small percentage of small air bubbles can lower the effective wave speed of
the fluid/air mixture, provided it remains well mixed. This is difficult to achieve in
practice, because diffusers may malfunction and air bubbles may come out of suspen-
sion and coalesce or even buoy to the top of pipes and accumulate at elbows, for
example.

In 1848, Helmholtz demonstrated that wave celerity in a pipeline varies with the elas-
ticity of the pipeline walls. Thirty years later, Korteweg developed an equation to
determine wave celerity as a function of pipeline elasticity and liquid compressibility.
HAMMER uses an elastic model formulation that requires the wave celerity to be
corrected to account for pipeline elasticity.

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

Ev
ρ
a=
Ev D
1+ ψ
Ee
(B.13)

Where: E = Young’s modulus of elasticity for pipe material

Equation B.13 is valid for thin walled pipelines (D/e > 40). The factor ψ depends on
pipeline support characteristics and Poisson’s ratio. ψ depends on the following:

• Pipe is anchored throughout against axial movement: ψ = 1 – µ2, where µ is

Poisson’s ratio
• Pipe is equipped with functioning expansion joints throughout: ψ = 1 – µ/2
• Pipe is supported only at one end and allowed to undergo stress and strain both
laterally and longitudinally: ψ = 5/4 – µ (ASCE, 1975)
For thick-walled pipelines, various theoretical equations have been proposed to
compute celerity; however, field investigations are needed to verify these equations.
Tables “Table B-2: Physical Properties of Some Common Pipe Materials”on page B-
361 and “Table B-3: Physical Properties of Some Common Liquids”on page B-362
provide values for various pipeline materials and liquids that are useful to calculate
celerity during transient analysis. “Figure B-7: Celerity versus Pipe Wall Elasticity for
Various D/e Ratios”on page B-362 provides a graphical solution for celerity given
pipe-wall elasticity and various diameter/thickness ratios.

Table B-2: Physical Properties of Some Common Pipe Materials

Young’s Modulus
Poisson’s Ratio,
Material
µ
(109 lbf/ft2) (GPa)

Steel 4.32 207 0.30

Cast Iron 1.88 90 0.25

Ductile Iron 3.59 172 0.28

Concrete 0.42 to 0.63 20 to 30 0.15

Reinforced Concrete 0.63 to 1.25 30 to 60 0.25

Asbestos Cement 0.50 24 0.30

PVC (20oC) 0.069 3.3 0.45

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Water System Characteristics

Table B-2: Physical Properties of Some Common Pipe Materials (Cont’d)

Young’s Modulus
Poisson’s Ratio,
Material
µ
(109 lbf/ft2) (GPa)

Polyethylene 0.017 0.8 0.46

Polystyrene 0.10 5.0 0.40

Fiberglass 1.04 50.0 0.35

Granite (rock) 1.0 50 0.28

Table B-3: Physical Properties of Some Common Liquids

Bulk Modulus of
Density
Elasticity
Temperature
Liquid
(oC) (slugs/
(106 lbf/ft2) (GPa) (kg/m3)
ft3)

Fresh Water 20 45.7 2.19 1.94 998

Salt Water 15 47.4 2.27 1.99 1,025

1.5 to 1.67 to
Mineral Oils 25 31.0 to 40.0 860 to 890
1.9 1.73

Kerosene 20 27.0 1.3 1.55 800

Methanol 20 21.0 1.0 1.53 790

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

Figure B-7: Celerity versus Pipe Wall Elasticity for Various D/e Ratios

For pipes that exhibit significant viscoelastic effects (for example, plastics such as
PVC and polyethylene), Covas et al. (2002) showed that these effects, including creep,
can affect wave speed in pipes and must be accounted for if highly accurate results are
desired. They proposed methods that account for such effects in both the continuity
and momentum equations.

B.4.2 Wave Propagation and Characteristic Time

Note: The representative system length, L, can be approximated for a

network by taking the longest path connecting a pump to a
storage element, such as a tank or reservoir.

The pressure wave generated by a flow-control operation propagates with speed a,

reaching the other end of the pipeline in a time interval equal to L/a seconds. The same
time interval is necessary for the reflected wave to travel back to its origin, for a total
of 2 L/a seconds. The quantity 2 L/a is termed the characteristic time for the pipeline.
It is used to classify the relative speed of a maneuver that causes a hydraulic transient.

If a flow-control operation produces a velocity change in a time interval less than or

equal to a pipeline’s characteristic time, the operation is considered “rapid.” Flow-
control operations that occur over an interval longer than the characteristic time are
designated “gradual” or “slow.” The classifications and associated nomenclature are
summarized in the following table for different operation time, Tm.

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Water System Characteristics

Table B-4: Classification of Flow Control Operations Based on System

.

Characteristic Time

Time of Maneuver Operation Classification

TM = 0 Instantaneous

T M ≤ 2L ⁄ a Rapid

T M > 2L ⁄a Gradual

T M » 2L ⁄a Slow

The characteristic time is significant in transient flow analysis because it dictates

which method is applicable for evaluating a particular flow-control operation in a
given system. The rigid model provides accurate results only for surge transients
generated by slow flow-control operations that do not cause significant liquid
compression or pipe deformation. Instantaneous, rapid, and gradual changes must be
analyzed with the elastic model. HAMMER uses the elastic model by default to
ensure an accurate solution, regardless of the system’s characteristic time.

B.4.3 Wave Reflection and Transmission Pipelines

In addition to the equations describing transient flow, it is important to know about the
effect of boundaries—such as tanks, dead ends, and pipe branches—that modify the
effects of hydraulic transient phenomena.

Transient Tip: Hydraulic systems commonly have interconnected

pipelines with differing characteristics, such as material
and diameter. These pipeline segments and connection
points (nodes) define a system’s topology.

When a wave traveling in a pipe and defined by a head pulse Ho comes to a node, it is
transmitted with a head value Hs to all other connected pipes and reflects back to the
initial pipe with a head value Hr. The wave reflection occurring at a node changes the
head and flow conditions in each of the pipes connected to the node.

If the distances between the pipe connections are small, the head at all connections can
be assumed to be the same (that is, the head loss through the node is negligible), and
the transmission factor (s) can be defined as

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

Ao
2
∆H s a
s= = n o
∆H o A
∑ ai
i =0 i
(B.14)

Where: s = transmission factor (dimensionless)

Hs = head of transmitted wave (ft, m)

Ho = incident head pulse (ft, m)

Ao = incoming pipe area (ft2, m2)

ao = incoming wave speed (ft/sec., m/s)

Ai = area of i-th pipe (ft2, m2)

ai = wave speed of i-th pipe (ft/sec., m/s)

n = number of outgoing pipes

i = pipe number index

In a closed system without friction to dampen transients, transients would persist

indefinitely. However, viscous and friction effects typically cause transients to atten-
uate within seconds to minutes. HAMMER is an essential tool to keep track of the
transient pressure-wave reflections and the friction and elastic effects during the simu-
lation, as follows:

• Because friction does exist in an actual system, the potential head change calcu-
lated using the Joukowsky equation underestimates the actual head rise. This
underestimation is due to packing—an additional increase in head occurring at
the valve as the pressure wave travels upstream.
• The small velocity behind the wave front means that the velocity difference across
the wave front is less than Vo, so the pressure change is progressively less than the
potential surge as the wave travels upstream. This effect, which is concurrent with
line packing, is called attenuation or reduction.
• Transient pressure waves are partially transmitted and simultaneously reflected
back at every junction with other pipes, depending on their wave speed and diam-
eter.
Although HAMMER calculates the proportion of an incoming transient energy pulse
that is transmitted and reflected at each junction node, it is useful to consider how this
phenomenon takes place in a typical hydraulic system using the relation for the reflec-
tion factor:

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Water System Characteristics

∆H r
r= = s −1
∆H o
(B.15)

Where: r = reflection factor

Hr = head of reflected wave (ft, m)

Several special cases can be considered, including:

• Pipe connected to a reservoir—In this case, n = 1, s = 0, and r = –1. In other

words, a wave reaching a reservoir reflects with the opposite sign.
• Pipe connected to a dead-end or closed valve—In this case, n = 1, and, through the
derivation of an equation for r similar to Equation B.14, it can be shown that r = 1.
In other words, a wave reflects at a closed extremity of a pipe with the same sign
and, therefore, head amplification occurs at that extremity. If a flow-control oper-
ation causes a negative pressure wave that reaches a closed valve, the wave’s
reflection causes a further reduction in pressure. This transient flow condition can
cause liquid column separation and, in low-head systems, potential pipeline
collapse. At a dead end, the wave is reflected with twice the pressure head of the
incident wave.
• Pipe diameter reduced (celerity increase)—In this case, A1 < A0, and s > 1, so the
head that is transmitted is amplified. For example, if A1 = A0/4 (or D1 = D0/2),
then s = 8/5=1.6 and r = s – 1 = 0.6, and the head transmitted to the smaller pipe-
line is 60 percent greater than the incoming head. The larger pipeline is also
subjected to this head change after the wave partially reflects at the node. If the
diameter is reduced to zero, the junction becomes a dead end.
• Pipe diameter increased (celerity decrease)—In this case, an attenuation of the
incident head occurs at a pipeline diameter increase. The smaller pressure wave is
transmitted to the larger pipeline and, after the reflection, the smaller pipeline is
subjected to the lower final head. At an expansion, the reflected wave has the
opposite sign of the incident wave. In the limit, as the diameter increases indefi-
nitely, the reservoir case is obtained.

B.4.4 Type of Networks and Pumping Systems

Although an infinite number of network topologies are possible, the possibilities can
be reduced to the following key characteristics:

• Network characteristics—A water system usually consists of several main trans-

mission pipelines (from pumping stations to reservoirs, elevated tanks, or booster
stations) and many branches and loops to distribute water to local water-demand
points.

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• Piping characteristics—These include pipeline length (L), diameter (D), rough-

ness (C or f), elevations or profile (based on topography), water levels at suction
and receiving water bodies, flow (Q), pressure head (H) at nodes, and pressure
wave speed (a).
• Pressure wave speed—This varies from as low as 340 m/s to as high as 1,438 m/
s for water in thin-walled plastic pipes to thick steel pipes, respectively. Pressure
wave speed is also affected by pipe installation due to bedding, anchorage, and
soil conditions.
• Modeling complexity—In the past, networks were usually reduced to a few key
water mains, taking the flow distribution, pipeline profiles, and kinetic energy of
the system into consideration. This usually provided conservative results for these
main lines, but the transient energy transmitted from the main lines to the distribu-
tion network (or vice versa) was overlooked. Modern computer models, such as
HAMMER, can simulate networks with thousands of pipes and dozens or
hundreds of boundary conditions.

For the purpose of transient analysis, pumping systems can be grouped as follows:

• Open pumping system—An open-water system consists of upstream reservoirs,

pump stations, and downstream reservoirs or elevated tanks. Transient pressure-
wave travel is confined to a single system and transient energy cannot be trans-
mitted to another system. With a favorable pipeline profile (e.g., concave
upward), no significant vapor cavity occurs and the water columns do not sepa-
rate. The maximum upsurge pressure seldom rises 50% higher than the steady
pressure head. However, an irregular pipeline profile can result in a large water-
column separation and severe transient pressures. Vapor or air pockets will even-
tually collapse due to flow reversing from the upstream reservoir or tank.
• Closed system—In a closed system, the pump supplies water and maintains
adequate pressure for the whole system. There is neither a reservoir nor a stand-
pipe in the system. Closed systems usually service a small water supply zone.
Pumps employed in a closed system often have flat pump curves that are undesir-
able from a transient perspective because rapid flow alterations can occur. After a
power failure, the downsurge likely results in more vapor cavities than in an open
system, while the upsurge is relatively small in comparison. Upon pump startup,
higher transient pressures can be expected due in part to the greater number of air
cavities that are trapped and remain in the system, and in part due to inherently
rapid flow acceleration. The air trapped at local high points should always be
released.
• Boosted system—For some water systems, water may be delivered directly to a
booster pumping station that resupplies water to another system on its discharge
side. Normally, no reservoir or suction well is installed upstream of the booster
pumping station; consequently, the hydraulic performance of one side of the
booster pumping system can be significantly affected by the transient conditions
of the other side. From a hydraulic point of view, all possible combinations of
power failure should be considered, including:

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Water System Characteristics

– All the pump stations fail while the booster continues to operate.
– Only the booster fails while all others continue to operate.
– A global power failure occurs at all pumping stations for both systems.

Because of flow continuity, the booster pump stops soon after a power failure in
the upstream system and the resulting transients may be similar to a power failure
at both pumping stations. In cases where the booster pump fails while the
upstream pump continues to operate, a worse transient may result in part of the
water system.

B.4.5 Putting It All Together

Prior to performing the calculations of transient flow and head, HAMMER surveys
the system’s characteristics, considers the various pipe and fluid properties, and auto-
matically determines an optimal time step. By default, HAMMER uses the method of
characteristics and short time steps to ensure that simulation results will be accurate
enough to support firm conclusions about the effects of transients in the system.
HAMMER takes hours of guesswork about time steps and methodology out of your
day, allowing you to focus on interpreting and communicating the results to stake-
holders.

As a modeler, you need to focus on the following factors for a successful HAMMER
run:

• Pick the run duration following the guidelines in “Project Management and
Options” on page 4-176.
• Enter the correct liquid properties as described in “Liquid Properties” on page 4-
182.
• Select an advanced friction model if the effects of repeated transient cycling is a
concern, as described in “Selecting the Friction Method” on page 4-183.
• Describe the boundary conditions and other hydraulic elements correctly using the
information provided in “Overview of Hydraulic Element Properties” on page 6-
205.
After a successful run, you need to interpret the results as described in “Reviewing
your Results” on page 3-121. Perhaps you need a few runs to assess the sensitivity of
your results to vapor pressure, elevations, and wave speed if the model predicts
“Water Column Separation and Vapor Pockets” on page 7-256. Finally, even the most
thorough analysis has little value if its conclusions and recommendations are not
communicated clearly and powerfully; review the quick start lessons and the tips
provided in “Reviewing your Results” on page 3-121.

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B.5 Pump Theory

This section supplements the discussion of “Rotating Equipment” on page 6-218,
covering the following topics:

• “Pump Fundamentals” on page 6-219

• “Pump Inertia” on page 6-221
• “Specific Speed” on page 6-222
• “First-Quadrant and Four-Quadrant Representations” on page 6-224
• “Variable-Speed Pumps (VSP or VFD)” on page 6-224

The above topics introduced the subject as a means of selecting the correct pump
representation for a particular HAMMER run. The following sections focus on theo-
retical and practical aspects:

• “Pump Characteristics and Behavior” on page B-370

• “Variable-Speed Pumps” on page B-372
• “Constant-Horsepower Pumps” on page B-373

B.5.1 Pump Characteristics and Behavior

Pumps are an integral part of many pressurized systems. Pumps add energy, or head
gains, to the flow to counteract head losses within the system.

A pump is defined by its curve, which relates the pump head, or the head added to the
system, to the flow rate. This curve indicates the ability of the pump to add head at
different flow rates. To model the behavior of the pump system, additional informa-
tion is needed to find the actual point at which the pump will operate.

The system operating point is based on the point at which the pump curve crosses the
system curve representing the static lift and head losses due to friction and minor
losses (for more information, see “Minor Losses” on page B-387). When these curves
are superimposed, the operating point is found at their intersection. This is shown in
the following figure:

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Pump Theory

Figure B-8: System Operating Point

As water-surface elevations and demands throughout the system change, the static
head (Hs) and headlosses (HL) vary. This changes the location of the system curve,
while the pump characteristic curve remains constant. These shifts in the system curve
result in a shifting operating point over time periods ranging from minutes to hours.

At steady state, a pump can be described using a simple curve relating the total
dynamic head (TDH) added to the fluid at every possible flow rate within the pump’s
operating range. Additional curves describe the pump’s suction energy (e.g., its
required net positive suction head or NPSHR) and power requirements at each flow
rate.

From a hydraulic transient perspective, these dynamic variables must be considered,

including power input; rotational speed; and the moment of inertia of the pump,
motor, and shaft (including couplings). Each of these properties can have a
pronounced effect on the behavior of the pump during a surge or after a power failure:

1. Pump inertia—Pumps with a lighter impeller and motor have a small moment of
inertia; they can be accelerated and stopped faster because there is less stored
kinetic energy. The trend has been towards lighter pumps. After a power failure,
low-inertia pumps maintain forward flow for a shorter time and stop sooner. This
results in more-sudden changes in flow and pressures than would occur with
heavier pumps, and consequently in more-severe water hammer.
2. Pump curve shape—Flat pump curves are undesirable from a hydraulic tran-
sient perspective because they can result in a large change in flow rate for a
moderate change in head. This can result in a very rapid decrease in flow during
an emergency shutdown.
3. Dynamic change to the system curve—After a large pipe break or uncontrolled
valve opening, the system head curve can suddenly drop far below its usual head
requirement, so the pump no longer needs to add much (if any) energy to supply
the required flow. In cases such as these, the pump’s run-out head can become

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higher than the required static lift. Very large losses in the suction system may
result in cavitation and overspeed conditions, both of which can cause pump wear
and damage. This can be avoided by proper pump selection (steady state) and
controls to shut the pump down and reduce or stop flow during such transients.
4. Dynamic change to the operating point—A shut-off head too close to the high-
head end of the operating range could result in nuisance interruptions of power to
the pump, each of which results in a hydraulic transient due to the emergency
pump shut down (similar to a power failure).
5. Change in NPSHR due to wear or impeller trimming—NPSHR is different for
each turbomachine in a pump station, but manufacturers typically provide this
information. The NPSHR of neighboring pumps can be different from each other.
Further, the manufacturer’s NPSHR curve can become invalid after decades of
wear, poor maintenance, or actual modifications to the impeller. Fortunately,
NPSH can be obtained from field tests. The available NPSHA is determined based
on the reservoir head and losses in the suction system. Pump cavitation occurs if
the NPSH margin, NPSHA – NPSHR is insufficient. Even at incipient cavitation,
an inadequate margin can result in less efficient pumping or even in a breakdown
of the pump curve, whereby a pump may be running but contributing very little
head above a limiting flow. Consult Hydraulic Institute (http://www.pumps.org)
publications for more information on this important issue.

Whenever a pump is forced outside its normal operating range during a hydraulic tran-
sient, vibrations and cavitation may result—even if it does not reach shut-off or run-
out conditions. Reverse spin can force the pump motor (if it is not disconnected) to
generate electricity, rapidly increasing its temperature and possibly damaging the
motor-control circuitry. For these reasons, it is wise to protect pumps against transient
damage by providing suitable discharge-side check valves.

B.5.2 Variable-Speed Pumps

A pump’s characteristic curve is fixed for a given motor speed and impeller diameter,
but can be determined for any speed and any diameter by applying the affinity laws.
For variable speed pumps, these affinity laws are presented as:

Q1 n1
=
Q2 n2
(B.16)

and

h1  n1 
2

= 
h2  n2 
(B.17)

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Pump Theory

Where: Q = pump flow rate (m3/s, cfs)

h = pump head (m, ft)
n = pump speed (rpm)

Figure B-9: Effect of Relative Speed on Pump Curve

B.5.3 Constant-Horsepower Pumps

WaterCAD and WaterGEMS provide many ways to enter pump curves, as described
in “Pump Fundamentals” on page 6-219. HAMMER allows any pump curve to be
represented as pairs of heads and corresponding flows, interpolating linearly between
these values when required during the simulations. It is therefore desirable to enter as
many line segments as is practical to accurately describe the pump’s operating range.

Fortunately, HAMMER automatically imports pump curves. If a multiple point rating

curve was entered in WaterCAD, WaterGEMS, or produced using the Levenberg-
Marquardt Method, as shown in the following equation, an equivalent multiple-point
rating curve is imported automatically into HAMMER.

Y = A − ( B × QC )
(B.18)

Where: Y = head (m, ft)

Q = discharge (m3/s, cfs)

A, B, C = pump curve coefficients

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B.6 Valve Theory

Several types of valves are in use at any one time in a pressurized system. These
valves have different behaviors due to their different purposes, but all valves are used
for controlling flow. They can be opened, closed, or throttled to achieve the desired
result. In terms of hydraulic transient analysis and design, valves can be classified as
flow control or surge control valves. Flow control valve types are discussed in “Flow-
Control Valve Fundamentals” on page 6-212:

• Pressure-reducing valves (PRVs)

• Pressure-sustaining valves (PSVs)
• Pressure-breaker valves (PBVs)
• Flow-control valves (FCVs)
• Throttle-control valves (TCVs)
• General-purpose valves (GPVs)

B.6.1 Valve Selection and Sizing Considerations

A simple approach to valve sizing would be to determine the required valve coeffi-
cient (Cv), as defined in ANSI/ISA Standards S75.01:

Cv = Flow ( specific gravity / pressure drop)1/2 (B.19)

where flow is in US gallons per minute and pressure drop is in pounds per square inch
(psi) at 60oF (16oC). A designer would also check the maximum anticipated flow rate
and temperature combination to avoid choking or flashing conditions. The most
extreme flow rates are likely to occur during a transient.

HAMMER is the most versatile design tool for valve sizing because it allows you to
simulate the operating conditions a valve is likely to encounter during steady-state or
transient events. HAMMER models valves differently depending on their response
time. The principal difference between flow-control and surge-control valves is their
response or activation time:

Flow control valves—The majority of valves in a water system are intended for on/
off operation (i.e., they either allow or block flow). In addition to this, flow-control
valves throttle flow using various methods that depend on the valve body, piston or
pinch mechanism, and actuator. Although special trim is available to deal with
sustained high-velocity or high-pressure differentials, most flow-control valves are
not designed to react to or handle transient conditions for any length of time. They are
typically actuated to ensure a slow opening or closure. Actuators are typically
hydraulic, electric, or (less often for water systems) compressed air:

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Valve Theory

• Hydraulic actuators—Small-diameter tubes called pilots are connected

upstream and downstream of the valve and the difference in pressure between
these points is used to open or close it. The type of valve depends on how the
upstream and downstream pilots are connected to the valve body and/or drained
out of it to ambient, or atmospheric, pressure. The term piloting is often used to
describe the hydraulic (and sometimes electrical) circuitry and connecting tubes.
• Electric actuators—These are motors coupled to gear works to ensure a gradual
opening or closure. In water systems, electric actuators are most often used to
operate large isolation valves, only some of which may be connected to backup or
emergency power (for use during a power failure). Typically, a manual over-ride
and hand wheel is also provided for each valve. The gear ratios are set so that a
large number of turns is required on the wheel to fully open or close the valve.
Even for the fittest operator, this ensures that the valve cannot be closed too
quickly, to prevent water hammer.
• Compressed-air actuators—Compressed- or instrument-air actuators are far
more common in industrial settings, where valves and flows are typically smaller
than in water or wastewater systems (e.g., typically m3/hr. instead of m3/s, respec-
tively). The compressed air is typically maintained at a set pressure and some
reserve capacity is usually stored to allow operations to continue after a power
failure. Since compressors are required to maintain pressure in a gas vessel, it is
possible to use such actuators nearby, but this is rarely done.

Surge-control valves—The majority of surge-control valves are sized and actuated to

respond very quickly to hydraulic transient conditions and to handle far greater flows
and pressure drops than flow-control valves (albeit for shorter times). Small tanks
containing compressed nitrogen or other special gases are sometimes provided to help
valves open more quickly. The piloting is typically designed to respond to sudden or
gradual changes in pressure or even to the rate of change of pressure. Hydraulic or
compressed-air actuators are preferred because these valves are typically installed to
protect against a power failure or sag, during which electrical actuators may fail to
operate. Because hydraulic transients occur so quickly in most systems, the time
required to bring backup power on line is often too long to be of use during transients.

Any valve can initiate a hydraulic transient if it is opened or closed too quickly with
respect to the system’s characteristic time, or if it is operated in an uncontrolled
manner. Uncontrolled operation can occur due to a failure of hydraulic piloting to
react during very high reverse-flow velocities, for example. This illustrates the impor-
tance of sizing a valve to handle the full range of flows it will encounter during its
service life. Another example is that instrument-air pressure can fail to reach a valve at
the correct flow rate or pressure, due to clogged filters or worn orifices, incapacitating
its compressed-air actuator.

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Transient Tip: It is essential to follow the valve manufacturer’s

selection, sizing, and maintenance schedules to avoid
specifying a valve that is unsuitable for a specific
application. A critical first step in the process of sizing
surge-control valves is to perform a thorough hydraulic
transient analysis using HAMMER to determine the
normal and transient conditions the valve will encounter
during its entire service life (e.g., for current, interim, and
ultimate water-supply conditions and surge-control
scenarios). Improper selection or sizing of surge-control
valves can result in worse transients than if no
protection were installed.

B.6.2 Typical Valve Bodies and Pistons

Every flow- or surge-control valve consists of a valve body to convey (and sometimes
redirect) flow and a piston to open, restrict, or block flow. Since all valves can cause a
sudden stoppage of flow, resulting in hydraulic transients if closed too quickly, it is
important to know how each type operates. The following paragraphs summarize key
characteristics for each type:

Butterfly valves are very common in water systems, primarily for on-off and throt-
tling service. A circular disc or vane pivots around an axis at right angles to the direc-
tion of flow in the pipe. Typically, a quarter-turn is sufficient to open or close this
valve. Actuators are often installed to require a large number of turns to prevent rapid
closure, sudden stoppage of flow, and the resulting hydraulic transients.

Gate valves are a general-service valve used primarily for on-off, nonthrottling
service. A flat face, vertical disc, or gate slides down through the valve to block flow.
These valves can be found on very large suction or discharge piping inside most water
pumping stations, often equipped with actuators with very large gear ratios to allow
manual operation. They may be operated only yearly or less frequently.

Globe valves are used for on-off service and throttling applications. A plug with a flat
or convex bottom is lowered onto a matching horizontal seat located at the center of
the valve. Raising the plug opens the valve, allowing flow. Many different types of
materials and pistons are available, including anticavitation or multi-orifice cages.
Globe valves are typically available with a straight-through body or with an angle
body that simultaneously turns flow through 90 degrees.

Plug valves are used primarily for on-off service and some throttling. They control
flow by means of a cylindrical or tapered plug with a hole in the center that either lines
up with the flow path or blocks it with a quarter-turn in either direction. Actuators are
often installed to require a large number of turns to prevent rapid closure, sudden stop-
page of flow, and the resulting hydraulic transients. Plug valves are common in
process or industrial applications.

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Ball valves are used primarily for on-off service and some throttling. They are similar
to the plug valve but use a rotating ball with a hole through it. Many garden hose
attachments are ball valves, requiring a quarter-turn to open or close, but many faucets
are also ball valves that require many turns. Large ball valves are used to throttle flow
in pump-discharge lines.

Diaphragm valves handle corrosive, erosive, and dirty service. They close by means
of a flexible diaphragm attached to a piston, sometimes called a compressor, that can
be lowered by the valve stem onto a weir to seal and cut off flow. Diaphragm valves
are used for waste water, industrial fluids, and for mining applications, such as
pumping light slurries or tailings-reclaim water.

Pinch valves are particularly suited for slurries or liquids with large amounts of
suspended solids. They seal by means of one or more flexible elements, such as a
rubber tube, that can be pinched to shut off flow. The flexible element can vary widely
from food-grade to special natural and synthetic rubbers to handle corrosive and/or
abrasive fluids and mixtures.

Needle valves are volume-control valves that restrict flow in small lines. Needle
valves are commonly used for speed control in piloting by allowing operators to set
the time required for fluid to move to or from the valve piston chamber. The fluid
going through the valve turns 90 degrees and passes through an orifice that is the seat
for a rod with a cone-shaped tip. Positioning the cone in relation to the seat changes
the size of the orifice.

B.6.3 Closing Characteristics of Valves

Depending on the body and piston for a type of valve, closing it by moving the piston
at a constant rate results in a different rate of decrease in the area open to flow. Near
the end of the closure, some types decrease this area faster while others slow down.
HAMMER has built-in area-closure characteristics for various types of valves to
ensure this important factor is represented adequately. You can select the correct valve
type and know that the decrease in flow will be modeled in a realistic manner as the
valve closes.

Note: For most manufacturers, the rate at which area decreases as the
valve closes is a close approximation to the rate at which flow
decreases, often reported as a Cv curve. If either curve is
available for your valve, you can enter it as an area-closure
curve in HAMMER.

For ease of interpretation, valve closing can be represented numerically by the shape
of closure (S) parameter that represents the rate of opening area deceleration during
the time of a complete closure (Tc), or stroke time, if the stroke varies linearly with
time. If a partial closure, opening, or full opening is specified, HAMMER correctly
tracks the area open to flow. The following equations are used to relate area to stroke:

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

• Increasing deceleration—If the rate of change of the area open to flow (with
respect to a constant stroke speed) increases at the end of the closure period, the
valve closing pattern can be expressed as:

A/A0 = 1 - (T/Tc )-S (B.20)

Where: A/A0 = the fraction of the full valve-opening area

= the fraction of time required to completely close

T/Tc
the valve
= the shape of valve closure, which is greater than 1
S
for increasing deceleration

• Decreasing deceleration—If the rate of change of the area open to flow (with
respect to a constant stroke speed) decreases at the end of the closure period, the
exponent S should be less than 1 and the valve-closing pattern can be expressed as

A/A0 = (1 - T/Tc )-S (B.21)

For valves commonly used in engineering practice, the following values of S are used
by HAMMER according to the valve type:

Valve S

Butterfly valve -1.85

Ball valve -1.35

Globe valve 1.00

Circular gate valve 1.35

Needle valve 2.00

User-defined (enter curve) n/a

The relationship between the fraction of area open to flow (A/A0) and the stroke (T/Tc)
is shown in the following figure.

HAMMER User's Guide B-373

Valve Theory

10 Decrease in Open Area near end of Closure

Circular Gate Valve
9 (Accelerated Closure)
A/Ao = 1-(T/Tc)-S

Accelerating Uniform Decelerating

Needle Valve Needle S = 2
8
Circular Gate S = 1.35
Circular Gate Valve
7 Where S > 1
Opening Area A/Ao

Globe S = ± 1, linear
6

5 Globe Valve
A/Ao = (1-T/Tc)- S
4 Ball S = -1.35
Ball Valve Butterfly S = -1.85
3 Where S < -1
Butterfly Valve
2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
T/Tc

Figure B-10: Relationship between Fraction of Area Open to Flow and

Stroke

B.6.4 Flow-Decreasing Characteristics

Normally, the flow rate decreases much slower than that of the opening area during
the early stage of the valve closing. However, this pattern inverts toward the end of the
valve-closing period. As shown in the figure below for most common valves, the
majority of flow drops to zero quickly near the end of the valve-closing stroke (or
time).

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

10

9
Circular Gate Valve
8 (Accelerating Closure)

7
Flow Decrease Q/Qo
6 Butterfly Valve

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
T/Tc

Figure B-11: Flow Patterns for Common Valves

B.7 Friction and Minor Losses

Friction loss methods include:

• “Hazen-Williams Equation” on page B-382

• “Darcy-Weisbach Equation” on page B-383
• “Manning’s Equation” on page B-385
• “Quasi-Steady Friction” on page B-389
• “Unsteady or Transient Friction” on page B-391

B.7.1 Hazen-Williams Equation

The Hazen-Williams formula is frequently used in the analysis of pressure-pipe

systems (such as water distribution networks and sewer force mains). The equation is:

Q = k ⋅ C ⋅ A ⋅ R 0.63 ⋅ S 0.54
(B.22)

HAMMER User's Guide B-375

Friction and Minor Losses

Where: Q = discharge in the section (m3/s, cfs)

C = Hazen-Williams roughness coefficient (unitless)

A = flow area (m2, ft2)

R = hydraulic radius (m, ft)
S = friction slope (m/m, ft/ft)
k = constant (0.85 for SI units, 1.32 for U.S. units).

B.7.2 Darcy-Weisbach Equation

Because of its nonempirical origins, the Darcy-Weisbach equation is viewed by many

engineers as the most accurate method for modeling friction losses. It most commonly
takes the following form:

L V2
hL = f ⋅
D 2g
(B.23)

Where: hL = headloss (m, ft)

f = Darcy-Weisbach friction factor (unitless)

D = pipe diameter (m, ft)
L = pipe length (m, ft)
V = flow velocity (m/s, ft/sec.)

g = gravitational acceleration constant (m/s2, ft/sec.2)

For section geometries that are not circular, this equation is adapted by relating a
circular section’s full-flow hydraulic radius to its diameter as:

D = 4R

Where: R = hydraulic radius (m, ft)

D = diameter (m, ft)

This can then be rearranged to the form:

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

R⋅S
Q = A ⋅ 8g ⋅
f
(B.24)

Where: Q = discharge (m3/s, cfs)

A = flow area (m2, ft2)
R = hydraulic radius (m, ft)
S = friction slope (m/m, ft/ft)
f = Darcy-Weisbach friction factor (unitless)
g = gravitational acceleration constant (m/s2, ft/sec.2)

The Swamee and Jain equation can then be used to calculate the friction factor. For
more information, see “Swamee and Jain Equation” on page B-384.

Swamee and Jain Equation

Note: The kinematic viscosity is used in determining the friction

coefficient in the darcy-weisbach friction Method. The default
units are initially set by Bentley Systems.

1.325
f =
  
2

ln  ε + 5. 74 
  3.7 D
 Re0.9 
(B.25)

Where: f = friction factor (unitless)

ε = roughness height (m, ft)
D = pipe diameter (m, ft)
Re = Reynolds number (unitless)

The friction factor depends on the Reynolds number, which depends on the flow
velocity. This process requires the iterative selection of a friction factor until the
calculated flow agrees with the chosen friction factor.

Colebrook-White Equation
The Colebrook-White equation is used to iteratively calculate the Darcy-Weisbach
friction factor. Its free-surface form is

HAMMER User's Guide B-377

Friction and Minor Losses

 k 
= −2 log 
1 2.51 
+
f 12.0 R Re f 
(B.26)

Its full-flow (closed conduit) form is

 k 
= −2 log 
1 2.51 
+
f  3.7 D Re f 
(B.27)

Where: f = friction factor (unitless)

k = Darcy-Weisbach roughness height (m, ft)
Re = Reynolds Number (unitless)

R = hydraulic radius (m, ft)

D = pipe diameter (m, ft)

B.7.3 Manning’s Equation

Note: Manning’s roughness coefficients are the same as the

roughness coefficients used in Kutter’s equation. This friction
method is not used in HAMMER, but it is included here for
completeness.

Manning’s equation, which is based on Chézy’s equation, is one of the most popular
methods in use today for free-surface flow. For Manning’s equation, the roughness
coefficient in Chézy’s equation is given by:

1
R 6
C=k⋅
n
(B.28)

Where: C = Chézy’s roughness coefficient (m1/2/s, ft1/2/sec.)

R = hydraulic radius (m, ft)

n = Manning’s roughness (s/m1/3)

k = constant (1.00 m1/3/m1/3, 1.49 ft1/3/ft1/3)

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

Substituting this roughness into Chézy’s equation gives you the well-known
Manning’s equation:

k 2 1
Q= ⋅ A⋅ R 3 ⋅ S 2
n
(B.29)

Where: Q = discharge (m3/s, cfs)

k = constant (1.00 m1/3/s, 1.49 ft1/3/sec.)

n = Manning’s roughness (unitless)

A = flow area (m2, ft2)

R = hydraulic radius (m, ft)
S = friction slope (m/m, ft/ft)

Chézy’s Equation
Chézy’s equation is rarely used directly, but it is the basis for several other methods,
including Manning’s equation. Chézy’s equation is:

Q = C ⋅ A⋅ R ⋅ S
(B.30)

Where: Q = discharge in the section (m3/s, cfs)

C = Chézy’s roughness coefficient (m1/2/s, ft1/2/sec.)

A = flow area (m2, ft2)

R = hydraulic radius (m, ft)
S = friction slope (m/m, ft/ft)

B.7.4 Minor Losses

Minor losses in pressure pipes are caused by localized areas of increased turbulence
that create a drop in the energy and hydraulic grades at that point in the system. The
magnitude of these losses is dependent primarily upon the shape of the fitting, which
directly affects the flow lines in the pipe.

HAMMER User's Guide B-379

Friction and Minor Losses

Figure B-12: Flow Lines at Entrance

The equation most commonly used for determining the loss in a fitting, valve, meter,
or other localized component is:

V2
hm = K
2g
(B.31)

Where: hm = loss due to the minor loss element (m, ft)

K = loss coefficient for the specific fitting

V = velocity (m/s, ft/sec.)

g = gravitational acceleration constant (m/s2, ft/sec. 2)

Typical values for fitting loss coefficients are included in the fittings table, see “Fitting
Loss Coefficients” on page B-428.

Generally speaking, more-gradual transitions create smoother flow lines and smaller
head losses. For example, “Figure B-12: Flow Lines at Entrance”on page B-387
shows the effects of entrance configuration on typical pipe entrance flow lines.

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

B.7.5 Quasi-Steady Friction

In HAMMER, a hydraulic transient analysis usually begins with an initial steady state
for which the heads and flows are known for every pipe in the system. Prior to begin-
ning the transient calculations, HAMMER automatically determines the friction factor
based on the following information:

1. If a pipe has zero flow at the initial steady state, HAMMER obtains a friction
factor from a default table based on its diameter:
Table B-5: Default Friction Coefficient Equivalents

Approximate Darcy-
Hazen-Williams Friction
Weisbach Friction
Coefficient, C
Coefficient, f

70 0.050

100 0.025

140 0.015

2. If a pipe has a nonzero flow at the initial steady state, HAMMER automatically
calculates a Darcy-Weisbach friction factor, f, based on the heads at each end of
the pipe, the pipe length and diameter, and the flow in the pipe.
3. HAMMER uses the Darcy-Weisbach friction method in performing either steady-
state or transient friction calculations. If you enter an f value for a pipe in the
Element Editor, HAMMER uses this value in the calculations instead of the
default value. The Darcy-Weisbach method reflects the changes in total fluid and
pipe friction as flow changes, as compared with the other methods shown in
“Figure B-13: Comparison of Friction Coefficients in Various Methods”on
page B-390.

HAMMER User's Guide B-381

Friction and Minor Losses

Figure B-13: Comparison of Friction Coefficients in Various Methods

Note: If your steady-state model used another method to calculate

friction losses, the friction coefficients can be imported into
HAMMER but they will not be used directly. Instead, HAMMER
automatically uses the steady-state flow and heads (resulting
from the other method) to calculate an equivalent Darcy-
Weisbach friction factor, f.

The quasi-steady friction method uses variable Darcy-Weisbach friction factors, f, at

each point along the system. Thus, friction losses for an instantaneous velocity match
the friction losses for fully developed steady flows with the same cross-sectional
average velocity. This method is more computationally demanding than steady-state
friction.

Because it assumes that the friction factor does not vary with time, the steady-state
friction method is a special case of the quasi-steady method. The quasi-steady friction
method is virtually an unsteady method, although one based on steady-state friction
factors.

B-382 HAMMER User's Guide

 HAMMER Theory and Practice

B.7.6 Unsteady or Transient Friction

Compared to a steady state, fluid friction increases during hydraulic transient events
because rapid changes in transient pressure and flow increase turbulent shear.
HAMMER can track the effect of fluid accelerations to estimate the attenuation of
transient energy more closely than would be possible with quasi-steady or steady-state
friction.

Computational effort increases significantly if transient friction must be calculated for

each time step. This can result in long model-calculation times for large systems with
hundreds or pipes or more. Typically, transient friction has little or no effect on the
initial low and high pressures, and these are usually the largest ever reached in the
system. This is illustrated from the following HAMMER simulation results comparing
steady, quasi-steady and transient friction methods.

250

Steady Quasi-Steady Transient

Steady
230
Quasi-
Head (m)

steady

210

Unsteady
(Transient)
190
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (s)

Figure B-14: HAMMER Results for Steady-State, Quasi-Steady, and

Transient Friction Methods

Transient Tip: The steady-state friction method yields conservative

estimates of the extreme high and low pressures that
usually govern the selection of pipe class and surge-
protection equipment. However, if cyclic loading is an
important design consideration, the unsteady friction
method can yield less-conservative estimates of
recurring and decaying extremes.

HAMMER User's Guide B-383

TURBINE SIMULATION IN HAMMER

B.8 TURBINE SIMULATION IN HAMMER

B.8.1 Four-quadrant Characteristics of Turbomachinery

In terms of wave propagation using the MOC, a turbine is a boundary condition in

HAMMER. A set of differential equations are used to compute the head and flow at
the turbine during the transient event(s). The four-quadrant curves that describe the
hydraulic 'turbine characteristics' of the turbomachine have nothing to do with wave
propagation and should not be confused with the MOC.

B.8.2 Numerical Representation of Hydroelectric Turbines

This section describes the general equations for the schematic turbine shown in
“Figure B-15: Schematic of Turbine Hydraulic Element in Hammer”on page B-393
(that also shows the upstream and downstream computational points).

Figure B-15: Schematic of Turbine Hydraulic Element in Hammer

Turbine equations:

H1 + α1Q = h1+ α1q1 (B.32)

H2 + α2Q = h2 + α2q2 (B.33)

Where: H = head at the end of current time step

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

Q = flow at the end of current time step

h = head computed during previous time step
q = flow computed during previous time step

a
α= (where a is the wave speed and S is the pipe cross-
gS sectional area)

Pipe head loss equations:

H1 + f1Q|Q| = HC (B.34)

H2 + f2Q|Q| = HB (B.35)

Where: f = frictional coefficient

HB = head at point B at the end of current time step

HC = head at point C at the end of current time step

Valve head loss equation:

HC − HA = KvQ|Q| (B.36)

Where: HA = head at point A at the end of current time step

Kv = valve loss coefficient

Four-quadrant turbine curves:

Mhyd =FM(Q, N, w) (B.37)

HA − HB =FH(Q, N, w) (B.38)

Where: Mhyd = hydraulic torque

N = rotational speed of the turbine

w = wicket gate position
FM = torque function

FH head function

HAMMER User's Guide B-385

Transient Forces

Conservation of angular momentum:

c ∆t
N = n + -------- [ ( M hyd + m hyd ) – ( M electrical + m electrical ) ] (B.39)
2

= turbine’s rotational speed computed during

Where: n
previous time step
m = torque computed during previous time step
M = torque at the current time step
30g (W= weight of turbine and generator, R= radius of
c = --------------2-
πWR gyration)

Algebraic manipulations reduce equations (B.32) to (B.39) to a pair of non-linear

equations in the unknowns Q and N as follows:

FH(Q, N, w) − (Kv + f1 + f2)Q|Q| − (α1 + α2)Q − (h2 − h1 + α2q2 + α1q1) = 0(B.40)

(B.41)
c ∆t c ∆t
N – n – -------- [ F M ( Q, N, w ) + m hyd ] + -------- [ M electrical + m electrical ] = 0
2 2

The non-linear equations (B.40) and (B.41) can be solved by iteration using Newton’s
method in conjunction with the four-quadrant head and torque curves for various
wicket gate positions.

B.9 Transient Forces

1. Computations
In accordance with Newton’s Third Law, the force exerted on the piping by the
conveyed liquid is equal and opposite to that applied on the liquid by the piping.
On physical grounds, the latter is due to the following causes: gravity, fluid fric-
tion drag, and changes in pipe diameter and/or direction.
The linear-momentum and action-reaction principles are applied to an appropriate
control volume (CV) to construct general formulae for instantaneous forces
applied to pipe walls by the conveyed liquids. Specifically, a fixed control volume
is defined as being centered around a node, which can be internal (associated with
multiple pipes) or external (at the end of exactly one pipe) as illustrated in “Figure
B-16: Control Volume for Internal Node”on page B-396 or “Figure B-17: Control
Volume for External Node”on page B-396 , respectively.

B-386 HAMMER User's Guide

 HAMMER Theory and Practice

i
3 Momentum Decrease Internal Node
within CV

Control Volume (CV)

Momentum into CV Weight

Pressure
Branch Pipe, i

Figure B-16: Control Volume for Internal Node

Momentum into CV

1
Pseudobranch Pressure

Momentum Decrease
within CV External Node

Control Volume (CV)

Momentum into CV Weight

Pressure
Branch Pipe, 1

Figure B-17: Control Volume for External Node

HAMMER User's Guide B-387

Transient Forces

It is assumed that HAMMER has already computed the transient flow/velocity

and head/pressure for every end point and at each relevant instant. Then, the
following relation must hold:
Net force on the liquid in CV = rate of increase of momentum within CV
+ momentum flowrate out of CV boundary surface (CS)
Therefore, after collapsing the CV onto the junction or node:

ρ g Σi Ai (Hi − Z) n i + R = ρ Σi (− Qi v i) (B.42)

where the subscript i refers to the ith pipe emanating from the node, ρ is mass
density, g is acceleration due to gravity, H is head, Z is elevation, n is the unit
inner normal to the CS, A is cross-sectional area, R is the resultant force exerted
by the pipe on the liquid, t is time, v is the fluid velocity, and Q is the flowrate
towards the node. Note that any boldfaced underlined quantity is a vector.
By rearranging (B.42), it follows that the reaction force on the pipe, applied by the
liquid, is given by the vector formula:

P = -R = ρ Σi Ai [ vi2 + g (H i - Z) ] ni (B.43)

where σi = +1, if the flow in the branch is directed towards the node, and -1 other-
wise. On account of the discretization involved, this force is apportioned equally
to each of the end points situated at the node.
The first term on the right-hand side of (B.43), which involves v, is associated
with momentum flowing across the boundary CS. All terms are functions of time,
except for the transverse component of weight which acts in the downward direc-
tion -k, where k is a unit vertical upward vector. The longitudinal (or axial)
component of weight (if any), a body force on the CV, is already accounted for in
the hydraulic transient equations used by HAMMER to solve for flow/velocity
and head/pressure at each instant.
In terms of the Cartesian coordinates, with z being measured vertically upward,
the magnitude of the resultant force P = (Px, Py, Pz) = -R = (-Rx, -Ry, -Rz) on the
pipe is given by:

P = R = |-R| = [Rx2 + Ry2 + Rz2] 0.5 (B.44)

For instance, in the case of an internal node as in Figure C-1 with N = 2, vertical
pipes meeting at an angle of 180 degrees, and steady flow, then the magnitude of
the resultant is given by the relation ρg | H2 A2 - H1 A1|. For steady flow in a
vertical pipe discharging to atmosphere through an orifice at its top end as in
Figure C-2, the resultant downward force on the pipe is ρQ|V - v|, with Q, V, and
v being the flow and velocity at the vena contracta and in the pipe, respectively.

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

The result of the force computations may be restricted to periodic times, as indi-
cated in Project Options > Report Times. If the forces are enabled in the Run
Dialog, a table of maximum forces - over all time steps regardless of report period
- is constructed in the output log with columns: Node, Time, Magnitude, Fx, Fy,
and Fz. In the report database, two tables, Force_History and Force_Maxima, are
created.

B.10 Developing a Surge-Control Strategy

Ideally, a system is designed and operated to minimize the likelihood of damaging
transient events. However, in reality, transients still occur; thus, methods for control-
ling transients are necessary. This section has two goals: (1) to make the hydraulic
engineer aware of the system conditions that lead to the development of undesirable
transients, such as pump and valve operations, and (2) to present the protection
methods and devices that should be used during design and construction of particular
systems and discuss their practical limitations.

There are two possible strategies for controlling transient pressures. The first is to
focus on minimizing the possibility of transient conditions during project design by
specifying appropriate flow-control operations and avoiding the occurrence of emer-
gency and unusual system operations. The second is to install protection devices to
control potential transients due to uncontrollable events, such as power and equipment
failures.

Systems protected by adequately designed surge tanks are generally not adversely
affected by emergency or unusual flow-control operations, because operational failure
of surge tanks is unlikely. In systems protected by gas vessels, however, an air outflow
or air-compressor failure can lead to damage from transients. Consequently, potential
emergency situations and failures should be evaluated and avoided to the extent
possible through the use of alarms that detect device failures and control systems that
act to prevent them.

With most small, well-gridded water-distribution network piping, sufficient safety

factors are built into the system, such as adequate pipe-wall thickness and sufficient
reflections (tanks and dead ends) and withdrawals (water use). The effects of tran-
sients are most likely to result in pipe failures in long pipelines with long character-
istic times (large values of 2 L/a), high velocities, and few branches. Filion and
Karney (2002) found that water usage and leaks in a distribution system can result in a
dramatic decay in the magnitude of transient pressure effects.

HAMMER User's Guide B-389

Developing a Surge-Control Strategy

B.10.1 Piping System Design and Layout

When designing water-distribution systems, the engineer needs to consider economic

and technical factors, such as acquisition of property, construction costs, site topog-
raphy, and geological conditions. In addition, emergency flow-control scenarios
should be analyzed and tested during the design phase, since they affect the piping
system design and the specification of surge-protection equipment.

Pipeline layouts with undulating topographic profiles are common. For these systems,
it may be desirable to change the route and/or profile of the pipeline to avoid high
points that are prone to air accumulation or exposure to low pressures (or both), but
this is seldom possible. If the minimum transient head is above the elevation of the
piping system, then transient protection devices are most likely unnecessary, thus
minimizing construction costs and operational risks.

Low-head systems are more prone to experience transient vacuum conditions and
liquid-column separation than are high-head systems. If the system designer does not
account for the occurrence of low transient pressures in low-head systems, then a
pipeline with inadequate wall thickness may be specified, potentially leading to pipe-
line collapse even if the pipeline is buried in a well-compacted trench. For example,
low-head systems with buried steel pipelines and diameter/thickness ratios (D/e) more
than 200 should be avoided because of the risk of structural collapse during a transient
vacuum condition, particularly if the trench fill is poorly compacted.

Steel, PVC, HDPE, and thin-wall ductile-iron pipes are susceptible to collapse due to
vapor separation, but any pipe that has been weakened by repeated exposure to these
events may experience fatigue failure. A pipe weakened by corrosion may also fail.
Where very low pressures are possible during transient events, the engineer may
choose to use a more expensive material to preclude the chance of collapse. For
example, for large-diameter pipes under high pressures, steel is usually more econom-
ical than ductile iron or high-pressure concrete. However, the engineer may select
high-pressure concrete or ductile iron because it is less susceptible to collapse and
may eliminate the need for operational constraints.

Piping systems constructed above ground are more susceptible to collapse than buried
pipelines. With buried pipelines, the surrounding bedding material and soil provide
additional resistance to pipeline deformations and help the pipeline resist structural
collapse. Above-ground pipelines must be anchored securely against steady-state and
transient forces.

Using combination-air valves to avoid subatmospheric or vacuum conditions requires

careful analysis of possible transient conditions to ensure that the air valve is
adequately sized and designed. Several cases cited in the literature describe the
collapse of piping systems due to the failure of an air inlet valve that was poorly sized,
designed, or maintained. Combination-air valves can provide reliable surge control,
but the potential for operational failures in air valves should not be ignored.

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

Other factors that influence extreme transient heads are pressure wave speed and
liquid velocity. Selecting larger diameters to obtain lower velocities with the purpose
of minimizing transient heads is acceptable for short pipeline systems delivering rela-
tively low flows. However, for long pipeline systems, the diameter should be selected
to optimize construction and operating costs. Long piping systems almost always
require transient protection devices.

After considering these factors during the conceptual and preliminary designs, the
project should move into the final design phase. Any changes to the system during
final design should be analyzed with the transient model to verify that the previous
results and specifications are still appropriate prior to commissioning.

B.10.2 Protection Devices

Using a transient model, the engineer can try different valve operating speeds, pipe
sizes, and pump controls to see if the transient effects can be controlled to acceptable
levels. If transients cannot be prevented, specific devices to control transients may be
needed.

Some methods of transient prevention include:

• Slow opening and closing of valves—Generally, slower valve-operating times

are required for longer pipeline systems. Operations personnel should be trained
in proper valve operation to avoid causing transients.
• Proper hydrant operation—Closing fire hydrants too quickly is the leading
cause of transients in smaller distribution piping. Fire and water personnel need to
be trained on proper hydrant operation.
• Proper pump controls—Except for power failures, pump flow can be slowly
controlled using various techniques. Ramping pump speeds up and down with
soft-start or variable-speed drives can minimize transients, although slow opening
and closing of pump-control valves downstream of the pumps can accomplish a
similar effect, often at lower cost. The control valve should be opened slowly after
the pump is started and closed slowly prior to shutting down the pump.
• Lower pipeline velocity—Pipeline size and thus cost can be reduced by allowing
higher velocities. However, the potential for serious transients increases with
decreasing pipe size. It is usually not cost effective to significantly increase pipe
size to minimize transients, but the effect of transients on pipe sizing should not be
ignored in the design process.
• Stronger pipe—For long-term reliability, pipes and joints should be strong
enough to resist both high and subatmospheric, or even vacuum, pressures.

To control minimum pressures, the following can be adjusted or implemented:

• Pump inertia

HAMMER User's Guide B-391

Developing a Surge-Control Strategy

• Surge tanks
• Air chambers
• One-way tanks
• Air inlet valves
• Pump bypass valves

To control maximum pressures, the following can be implemented:

• Relief valves
• Anticipator relief valves
• Surge tanks
• Air chambers
• Pump bypass valves

The items in the preceding lists are discussed in the sections that follow. These items
can be used singly or in combination with other devices.

B.10.3 Approaches to Surge Protection

A reliable surge-protection system must be in place before the occurrence of uncon-

trolled emergency conditions (e.g., power failure or load rejection in a pump or
turbine). The most common tactics to control water hammer can be grouped into three
categories, as shown in the following table.

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

Table B-6: Comparison of Surge-Protection Approaches

System- Flow-
Surge-Relief
Approach Improvement Supplement
Approach
Approach Approach

• Realign pipeline • Surge tank • Various surge-

route control valves
• Air chamber
including
Surge Control • Recut or
• Increase pump SRV, CAV,
Measures/Impacts improve profile
inertia and SAV
• Enlarge pipe size
• Rupture disk
• Reduce flow

Reliability +++++ +++ +

Cost --- - +++

Operation and
+++++ +++ +
Maintenance

Complexity +++ ++ +

Flexibility --- + +++

• Legend: + Positive effect, - Negative effect

Note: Careful operational procedures and maintenance programs are

very important to protect the water system from water hammer
damage due to equipment malfunction.

These three approaches differ significantly in terms of the required civil and piping
works, physical appearance, hydraulic characteristics, long-term reliability, opera-
tional complexity and flexibility, and cost of construction, operation, and mainte-
nance.

However, these measures have a common basis—all three attempt to protect the
system from water hammer by reducing the rate of change of flow to minimize the
effects of transients. Each approach modifies a different governing parameter, as
described in the following sections.

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Developing a Surge-Control Strategy

Table B-7: Governing Parameters for Hydraulic Transients

A) Piping system characteristics

(i) Static variables

• Pipe length (L)

• Pipe size (D)
• Pipe profile
• Static lift (Ho)
• Pipeline surface roughness (C or f)
• Pressure wave speed (a)
• Pipe flow (Q) or velocity (V)
• Node pressure (P) or head (H)
• Network connectivity (looping, branching, dead ends)
B) Pump-motor characteristics (turbine characteristics are similar)
• Power (Pw)
• Rotating speed (N) or torque (M)
• Pump total dynamic head (TDHo)
• Pumping capacity (Qo)

• Moment of inertia (WR2)

• Net positive suction head required (NPSHr)

C) Valve characteristics
• Types (check valve, surge anticipator, vacuum breaker, air release ….)
• Closure characteristics (butterfly, needle, …)
• Operation procedures (time to open, close, operating curve ….)
D) Surge tank characteristics
• Diameter (Ds) or surface area (As)
• Geometry and variation
• Top (spilling) and bottom (dewatering) elevation
• Orifice size and differential ratio

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

Table B-7: Governing Parameters for Hydraulic Transients (Cont’d)

E) Air Chamber characteristics

• Diameter (Da) and length (La)
• Orifice size and differential ratio
• Orientation (vertical or horizontal)
F) Transient characteristics
• Upsurge head (Hup)
• Downsurge head (Hdown)
• Flow (Q) and direction
• Vapor or air volume in line
• Time for maximum transient to occur
• Dampening rate

System-Improvement Method
This method is the most reliable, with the least operation and maintenance require-
ment. However, it is very expensive and usually used only as a last resort. It consists
of the following measures:

1. Reduce velocity—The smaller the pipe flow velocity, the less potential there is
for a large rate of change in velocity (dV/dt). Normal velocities can be reduced by
enlarging the pipe diameter or redistributing the flow to twin pipes.
2. Pipe material—The pressure wave speed a of a flexible pipe material is less than
that for rigid pipe. For a very fast stoppage of flow (< 2 L/a), the transient effect of
pressure-wave speed is prominent. Changing pipe material may improve the
outcome, although the surge tolerance of a more flexible pipe may be less.
3. Pipeline improvement—Pipeline profiles with prominent local high points are
susceptible to the occurrence of subatmospheric or even full vacuum pressure,
resulting in water-column separation and vapor or air pockets in the pipeline. Very
high upsurge pressures can result when water columns subsequently rejoin. Extra
excavation or fill can reduce or eliminate local high points.

Flow-Supplement Approach
This approach can be used to effectively control transients resulting from a pump shut-
down or startup. Following a power failure, energy stored in hydraulic or mechanical
devices can be converted into kinetic energy to force flow into the system and prevent
vapor or air pockets from forming.

HAMMER User's Guide B-395

Developing a Surge-Control Strategy

Such energy conversions reduce the rate of change of flow and, consequently, the
magnitude of the resulting hydraulic transients. Part of the flow enters the surge tank
or air chamber at start-up or during the upsurge, thereby reducing the effects of an
otherwise rapid increase in flow. Due to its relatively high cost, this very reliable
method may not be feasible in small water systems.

The following sections describe specific implementations of the flow-supplement

approach.

Two-Way Surge Tank

A two-way surge tank controls transients by converting stored potential energy in the
elevated water body inside the tank into kinetic energy, which supplements flow in the
piping system at critical times (or vise versa, for pipe flow into the tank) during
periods of rapid flow variation. The tank is normally located at the pumping station or
at a high point in the system.

A differential orifice may be installed at the riser of the tank to throttle reverse flow
from the system to the tank, but create very little loss for flow leaving the tank. If an
overflow and drain is provided, the tank can also act as a foolproof overpressure
device that can overflow in a controlled manner.

One of the main concerns is the stability problem inside the tank. A rapid rise or drop
in water level in the tank should be avoided. Usually, the surface area of the tank
should be significantly larger than that of the pipeline. In a high-head water system or
a sanitary forcemain, a two-way surge tank may not be economically feasible because
of height or odor problems. A sample HAMMER run extracted from a case study is
shown in the following figure.

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

Surge Tank

Figure B-18: Output of HAMMER Run for a Two-Way Surge Tank

One-Way Surge Tank

A one-way surge tank is a relatively small conventional surge tank, with a check valve
in the connecting pipe, or riser, that only allows flow out of the tank. The tank water
level is maintained by an altitude valve bypassing the check valve. The tank is located
at the high point to supply water and prevent water-column separation. However, one-
way tanks provide no upsurge protection to the system because no flow is allowed
back into the tank. Wherever there is a possibility of freezing, surge tanks may require
insulation or heating.

On sewerage forcemains, special consideration should be given to:

HAMMER User's Guide B-397

Developing a Surge-Control Strategy

• The design of the check valve at the riser to protect against debris or jamming.
• Careful pump restart procedures following a power failure.
• Cost of refilling this tank with drinking water (to avoid odors).
• A chamber may be required to enclose the tank.
• A sanitary sewer may be required to drain liquid overtopping the tank.

Gas Vessel or Air Chamber

This control device functions similarly to a surge tank but its potential energy is stored
as compressed air. The air chamber is usually used in a high-head pumping system. It
should be located close to the pumping station and inside an enclosed building. Auxil-
iary equipment such as compressors are also required.

A differential orifice can be installed to minimize the chamber size by creating greater
head losses for inflows to the vessel than to outflows entering the system. For a system
with a high friction head, one should consider optimizing the chamber by installing
several clusters of probes, each throttling and/or starting (or stopping) a specific
number of operating pumps. “Figure B-19: Output of HAMMER Run for an Air
Chamber”on page B-410 shows the effectiveness of a gas vessel in controlling
hydraulic transients.

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

Figure B-19: Output of HAMMER Run for an Air Chamber

Some manufacturers and engineers reduce the air chamber size by letting air into it
during the downsurge period. There are a number of serious concerns in the practical
application of this, as follows:

HAMMER User's Guide B-399

Developing a Surge-Control Strategy

• If the downsurge head drops to or below the pump station elevation, part of the
pipeline may already be subjected to subatmospheric pressures or even a full-
vacuum condition. This may defeat the purpose of an air chamber installed to
protect against the downsurge.
• Normally, an air chamber requires a high static head to be practical. If the down-
surge head drops to the pump station, a large upsurge head can also bounce back,
considerably higher than the static head. This may also defeat the purpose of its
upsurge protection.
• Air inside a gas vessel (air chamber) is always contained by a thick metal shell
and separated from atmospheric pressure by piping and a reservoir. With an air-
inlet valve mounted on the top, during the downsurge period a large quantity of air
at atmospheric pressure can rush into the chamber. During the upsurge (or even
possibly during normal operation) period, the huge pressure difference between
the inside and outside of the chamber provides a high possibility that a large
volume of air could escape through a leak in the inlet valve. Since an air chamber
is a pressure vessel, pressure inside the chamber is many times greater than atmo-
spheric pressure outside the chamber. The mechanical part of the air-inlet valve
can leak or fail.

When a significant volume is required, two smaller gas vessels should be considered
to provide redundancy whenever one unit has to be maintained, or in case one loses its
gas volume and is ineffective during a transient. The following appurtenances require
careful design:

• There should be two or more redundant air compressors, each equipped with a
tank to store enough air at the required pressure to supply the gas vessel for short
times after a power failure. Compressors should be capable of running from
generators during an extended power failure if diesel fire pumps will be running.
• Level-control probes should be set for high and low level, high and low alarm, and
drain or fill. Compressors should be started and stopped according to these levels.
Avoid setting high- and low-level probes too close to the normal operating range
to avoid spurious warnings—this can cause operators to ignore more serious low-
or high-level alarms.

Increase of Inertia
Inertia increases when flywheels are added to a shaft to increase the kinetic energy
stored in rotating parts, thereby buffering a rapid pump shutdown. Pumps have tended
to get smaller and smaller (with less inertia) and lighter, multistage vertical pumps are
used more frequently. This has tended to make this option far less common.

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

B.10.4 Pump Protection

Pump protection includes:

• “Check Valve” on page B-412

• “Booster Pump Bypass” on page B-413

Check Valve
A check valve on the discharge line of a pump should have a fast closing time to
prevent flow reversal through the pump and the valve slam that can occur with
delayed valve closure, or where surge tanks are incorporated into the pump station
design. Valve slam can damage the valve, pump, or system piping. If it is not possible
to have a check valve that closes before the surge tank responds and slams the valve,
some type of dampening device, such as a dash pot, is necessary to control valve
closure during the last 5 to 10 percent of the valve travel.

Booster Pump Bypass

Another type of protection device is the pump bypass. The following figure shows a
booster pumping system. When the booster pumps shut down, the resulting reduction
in flow generates pressure waves on both sides of the pump. The wave traveling
upstream is a positive transient and the wave traveling downstream is a negative tran-
sient.

Figure B-20: Booster Pumping System with Bypass

HAMMER User's Guide B-401

Developing a Surge-Control Strategy

Depending on the relative lengths of the upstream pipeline (LS) and the downstream
pipeline (LR) and the magnitude of the velocity changes, a pump bypass connection
can act as a transient protection element. Water continues past the booster station if the
downstream pressure falls below the upstream pressure, thus limiting the pressure rise
upstream of the booster station and the pressure drop downstream.

The next figure shows the transient analysis results for such a system. These results
show that the bypass opened to transfer water from the upstream pipeline to the down-
stream pipeline, which helped to attenuate or control the maximum and minimum
pressure transients on the upstream and downstream sides of the station.

Figure B-21: Booster Pump Shutdown

The effectiveness of a booster-station bypass depends on the specific booster pumping

system and the relative lengths of the upstream and downstream pipelines. If the low-
pressure surge generated on the discharge side of the pump is still greater than the
high-pressure surge generated on the suction side of the pump (which tends to occur if
LR < LS), the bypass will not open. For systems in which the bypass may not open,
other transient protection devices are necessary. Each system should be individually
analyzed to assess the occurrence of excessive high- and/or low-pressure transients
and determine strategies to control potentially excessive pressures.

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

B.10.5 Surge-Relief Valves

There are many documented cases of poorly specified control valves. Some of these
valves do not operate adequately because of excessive head loss or cavitation during
steady-state flow conditions; others are inadequate to control hydraulic transients
because of poor valve selection or poor operation. When specifying valves for flow
control and/or pumping stations, the engineer must carefully evaluate the type,
number, and size of valves to provide adequate steady and transient flow regulation.

Note: Even with a comprehensive understanding of the system

equipment and operations, the engineer should realize that it
may not be possible to precisely model the actual system and
system components. Therefore, it is the engineer’s
responsibility to recognize these modeling limitations, use
appropriate safety factors, and apply good engineering
judgement when performing transient analysis.

The advantage of surge-relief valves is that they are relatively inexpensive and easy to
fit into a pumping system at the locations of interest. Generally, valves control surge
conditions by opening and/or closing according to preset characteristics. This restricts
hydraulic transients to more tolerable limits, but it can rarely eliminate cavitation or
water-column separation. Moreover, if the valves are oversized or operated too
rapidly, other types of water hammer problems may result (e.g., water bleeding, and
excessive flow reversals), possibly resulting in worse transients than without valve
protection. However, with careful HAMMER modeling and design, valves offer a
versatile and powerful means to safely control water hammer.

The following are different types of surge-relief valves:

• Check valve—mechanical or electrical control

• Pressure-relief valve
• Station-bypass line with check valve
• Inline bypass with check valve
• Air-inlet (vacuum breaker) valve
• Air-release valve
• Combined air valve
• Hydraulically controlled slow-closing air valve
• Surge-anticipator valve
• Rupture disk

The following descriptions and figures show their geometry and schematics:

HAMMER User's Guide B-403

Developing a Surge-Control Strategy

Check valve—a check valve is commonly installed in a municipal pumping station to

prevent flow from reversing through the pump. A dashpot may be provided to avoid
check valve slam; however, surges still may occur in the piping system and other
methods may also be required. A check valve equipped with an electronically
controlled closure device is often used by engineers. The timing and rate of closure
must be carefully set to protect both the pump and the discharge system.

Qo
Flow at P.S.

Flow
Check With Valve

Time
a) Check Valve Rotential
Reverse Flow

Pressure-relief valve—This valve is usually installed across the pumps and discharge
headers or at critical points along the pipeline. It opens when a preset pressure is
exceeded and closes immediately after pressure drops below this setting. A damped
closure may be provided to allow for a longer closing time. One of the main concerns
is the considerable time lag for the valve to open following a power failure. Transient
pressure waves can come and go in a fraction of second. Very often, this valve is used
as a redundant measure, to limit the pressure rise during normal pumping operations.

Pump station bypass with check valve—If the suction water level is high, a bypass
line can slow the reduction in flow by supplying water to the pipeline during the
downsurge period (following a power failure) using potential energy in the suction
reservoir. However, it provides no upsurge protection to a pumping system because no
back flow is allowed through the check valve. It can be effective in a downhill or flat
pipeline.

A smaller bypass line is sometimes provided (as shown by dotted lines) around the
check valve in the primary bypass line.

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

Inline bypass with check valve—The check valve is usually located downstream of
the location of cavitation at a high point. The bypass line should be sized so that no
high pressure is built up at the downstream section and no large reverse-flow velocity
occurs in the upstream section of the check valve. Normally, an air valve needs to be
installed at the crest to eliminate vapor pressure, and a surge-anticipator valve is
located at the pump station to protect it and the pipe section between the pump and the
high point.

Air-inlet (vacuum-breaker) valve—This valve consists of an orifice that can be

opened or blocked based on system pressure, often by a float device. When pressure
drops below the valve elevation, air is sucked in quickly through the inlet orifice to
maintain atmospheric pressure. If the opening is too small, the incoming air velocity
may reach the sonic limit, resulting in subatmospheric pressure inside the system. This
valve does not allow air to escape the system; it must exit farther down the line.

Air-release valve—This valve also consists of an orifice equipped with a mechanism

to open or close it, often by a float device. When air accumulates inside the valve
body, or reaches a preset residual volume, air is released from the valve in an orderly
and gradual manner. Air is not allowed to enter the system. This valve is commonly
installed at all local high points within the water system.

Combination air valve—Combination air valves consist of at least two components:

a) a large air inlet valve, b) a large outlet orifice (two-way), and possibly a restrictor of
some kind to reduce the opening to a much smaller orifice (three-way) when air in the
valve body is less than the residual volume. When pressure drops below the elevation
of the valve, air enters quickly through the vacuum breaker to maintain the pressure
near atmospheric. Upon the upsurge, air can be expelled quickly through the bigger

HAMMER User's Guide B-405

Developing a Surge-Control Strategy

outlet, until the air in the system is almost totally removed and water starts to enter the
valve body. The remaining air volume inside the valve is released in a controlled
manner by the small outlet orifice, acting as an air cushion to reduce the transient pres-
sure rise.

This type of valve is popular both for water-distribution systems and sanitary force-
mains. However, if the air volume allowed into the pipe system is big and, if it is
released too quickly, excessively high transient pressures can occur when the two
water columns accelerate towards each other during a prolonged period of air release.
The static head can defeat the effectiveness of the air cushion due to the large buildup
of momentum in these accelerating water columns.

Hydraulically controlled slow-closing air valves—This valve is located at high

points of the piping system and acts like an air-inlet valve and surge-anticipator. When
line pressure at the valve drops below atmospheric pressure, it admits air into the pipe-
line. Upon upsurge, air, water, or a mixture of air and water can bleed out to the atmo-
sphere. One of the drawbacks of this installation is the need for a piping system to
drain water away.

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

Surge-anticipator valve—The surge anticipator is normally installed across the

pump suction and discharge headers, with suitable connecting piping. It opens quickly
at a specified time after power failure (or at a preset low-pressure limit) to allow flow
to begin before the main upsurge returns to the pump station, then closes slowly at a
preadjusted rate. During the valve-closing period, flow may decrease much more
rapidly than the opening area of the valve. High flow velocities in the pipeline can
prevent a hydraulically actuated SAV from closing, in extreme cases. Consult the
valve manufacturer’s catalog to select the correct valve type, size, and piloting (if
applicable) for your application.

Time
Delay Fully Open

Valve Operation

Valve Opening
(Automatic Control)

Fast Open Slow Closing

g) Surge Anticipator Time

Rupture disk—A rupture disk is equipped with a membrane which can burst to
discharge a large flow rate and relieve mass (pressure) from the system whenever tran-
sient pressures exceed a pre-set value. Such disks may rupture at a different pressure
and both the upper and lower burst limit provided by the manufacturer should be
modeled using HAMMER.

Pressure-sustaining valve—This valve is usually installed at the downstream end of

a pump-discharge line. It dissipates large amounts of energy just before flow drains to
a lower-energy water system. The valve sustains a stable pressure to the upstream,
higher-head system, by adjusting the opening area of the valve multi-orifices.
However, during the transient period, this valve cannot physically tune the orifices
fast enough to catch rapid pressure changes.

A sample run based on a case study is presented in the following figure. As shown, the
combination air valve does not help to control surge due to the big air pocket and the
high head at the downstream reservoir, in this particular case.

HAMMER User's Guide B-407

Developing a Surge-Control Strategy

Figure B-22: HAMMER Results for a Combined Air Valve

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

B.10.6 Operation and Maintenance

The following items can be considered when setting operation and maintenance
procedures for a pumping system:

• Time delay—Following a power failure or emergency shutdown, pumps should

be restarted only after transients have had sufficient time to decay and air has been
removed from the piping as much as possible. A transient decay analysis can be
simulated and a timer should be used to prevent a premature pump restart of:
– The diesel pump
– The duty pump (if power resumed quickly)
– The standby power grid

Transient Tip: Restart time delays required to allow transients to decay

are typically short in terms of water supply (tens of
seconds). However, transients caused by a power failure
may already have come and gone (in a fraction of
second) within the same restart period. Should
significant air still remain in the water system, a fast
restart of the above device may actually worsen
hydraulic transients.

• Slow change of pump operation—Flow in the water system will increase or

decrease slowly if the following procedures are applied:
– Sequential pump shutdown or startup
– Variable-speed pump ramps up and down gradually
– Soft-start motor controllers for pump startup and shutdown
– Slow and progressive operation of pump discharge control valves
– Slow operation of isolation valves, drain valves, or reservoir/tank inlet valves

• Air venting—The air trapped at local high points must always be released during
both normal and emergency pumping operations. During line filling, air at local
high points must be vented in the proper order and pump flow must be much
smaller than its design capacity to avoid severe hydraulic transients and pipe
breaks.
• Suction system hydraulics—The size of the suction well and/or the suction lines
should be designed and operated adequately to prevent spilling or dewatering.
Whenever the capacity of the pump station increases, the suction system should
be modeled and possibly upgraded to ensure that NPSHA is greater than NPSHR,
while the upstream reservoir can freely fluctuate between designed high- and low-
water levels.

HAMMER User's Guide B-409

Engineer’s Reference

• Slow change of valve operation—Valve opening or closing times must be long

enough. Alternatively, two or more stages can be used, with different stroke
speeds for each.
• Alarm setup—Alarm systems should be regularly tested and checked. If false
alarms occur frequently, conduct an analysis to determine the causes and provide
remedial measures. Otherwise, operators may shutdown the alarm system to elim-
inate annoyances.
• Maintenance—It is essential to regularly inspect and clean the protection
devices, particularly those located outside the pump station.
• Staff training—A workshop can be presented to the engineers and operators, who
often know their water system better than any expert. Very often, the system needs
to be pushed beyond normal operating ranges to achieve the water-supply objec-
tives. Training is particularly critical for existing pumping stations that have been
upgraded many times. It is also possible that operators are not aware of transients
occurring far from the pump station, where no one may be present to experience
them.

B.11 Engineer’s Reference

This section describes the engineering libraries available to HAMMER users and
provides tables of commonly used roughness values and fitting loss coefficients. Also
included are liquid properties at standard temperatures and pressures. Each parameter
library is discussed in a separate section:

• Liquids—It is essential to regularly inspect and clean the protection devices,

particularly those located outside the pump station.
• Materials—It is essential to regularly inspect and clean the protection devices, p
• Valves—It is essential to regularly inspect and clean the protection devices, p
• Pumps—It is essential to regularly inspect and clean the protection devices, p
• Turbines—It is essential to regularly inspect and clean the protection devices, p

Transient Tip: It is the responsibility of the hydraulic transient analyst

to select appropriate model parameters. Correct results
depend on correct input and interpretation of the output.

Roughness Values:

• “Roughness Values—Manning’s Equation” on page B-424

• “Roughness Values—Darcy-Weisbach Equation (Colebrook-White)” on page B-
425
• “Roughness Values—Hazen-Williams Equation” on page B-426

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

• “Typical Roughness Values for Pressure Pipes” on page B-427

• “Fitting Loss Coefficients” on page B-428

B.11.1 Roughness Values—Manning’s Equation

Commonly used roughness values for different materials are:

Table B-8: Manning’s Coefficient (n) for Closed Metal Conduits

Flowing Partly Full

Channel Type and Description Minimum Normal Maximum

a. Brass, smooth 0.009 0.010 0.013

b. Steel

1. Lockbar and welded 0.010 0.012 0.014

2. Riveted and spiral 0.013 0.016 0.017

c. Cast iron

1. Coated 0.010 0.013 0.014

2. Uncoated 0.011 0.014 0.016

d. Wrought iron

1. Black 0.012 0.014 0.015

2. Galvanized 0.013 0.016 0.017

e. Corrugated metal

1. Subdrain 0.017 0.019 0.021

2. Storm drain 0.021 0.024 0.030

HAMMER User's Guide B-411

Engineer’s Reference

B.11.2 Roughness Values—Darcy-Weisbach Equation

(Colebrook-White)

Commonly used roughness values for different materials are:

Table B-9: Darcy-Weisbach Roughness Heights e for Closed

Conduits

Pipe Material ε (mm) ε (ft.)

Glass, drawn brass, copper (new) 0.0015 0.000005

Seamless commercial steel (new) 0.004 0.000013

Commercial steel (enamel coated) 0.0048 0.000016

Commercial steel (new) 0.045 0.00015

Wrought iron (new) 0.045 0.00015

Asphalted cast iron (new) 0.12 0.0004

Galvanized iron 0.15 0.0005

Cast iron (new) 0.26 0.00085

Concrete (steel forms, smooth) 0.18 0.0006

Concrete (good joints, average) 0.36 0.0012

Concrete (rough, visible, form marks) 0.60 0.002

Riveted steel (new) 0.9 ~ 9.0 0.003 - 0.03

Corrugated metal 45 0.15

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B.11.3 Roughness Values—Hazen-Williams Equation

Commonly used roughness values for different materials are:

Table B-10: Hazen-Williams Roughness

Coefficients (C)

Pipe Material C

Asbestos Cement 140

Brass 130-140

Brick sewer 100

Cast-iron

New, unlined 130

10 yr. Old 107-113

20 yr. Old 89-100

30 yr. Old 75-90

40 yr. Old 64-83

Concrete or concrete lined

Steel forms 140

Wooden forms 120

Centrifugally spun 135

Copper 130-140

Galvanized iron 120

Glass 140

Lead 130-140

Plastic 140-150

Steel

Coal-tar enamel, lined 145-150

New unlined 140-150

HAMMER User's Guide B-413

Engineer’s Reference

Table B-10: Hazen-Williams Roughness

Coefficients (C) (Cont’d)

Pipe Material C

Riveted 110

Tin 130

Vitrified clay (good condition) 110-140

Wood stave (average condition) 120

B.11.4 Typical Roughness Values for Pressure Pipes

Typical pipe roughness values are shown below. These values vary according to the
manufacturer, workmanship, age, and many other factors.

Table B-11: Comparative Pipe Roughness Values

Manning’s Hazen-
Darcy-Weisbach
Material Coefficient Williams
Roughness Height
n C

k (mm) k (0.001 ft)

Asbestos cement 0.011 140 0.0015 0.005

Brass 0.011 135 0.0015 0.005

Brick 0.015 100 0.6 2

Cast-iron, new 0.012 130 0.26 0.85

Concrete:

Steel forms 0.011 140 0.18 0.6

Wooden forms 0.015 120 0.6 2

Centrifugally spun 0.013 135 0.36 1.2

Copper 0.011 135 0.0015 0.005

Corrugated metal 0.022 — 45 150

Galvanized iron 0.016 120 0.15 0.5

Glass 0.011 140 0.0015 0.005

Lead 0.011 135 0.0015 0.005

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Table B-11: Comparative Pipe Roughness Values (Cont’d)

Manning’s Hazen-
Darcy-Weisbach
Material Coefficient Williams
Roughness Height
n C

Plastic 0.009 150 0.0015 0.005

Steel

Coal-tar enamel 0.010 148 0.0048 0.016

New unlined 0.011 145 0.045 0.15

Riveted 0.019 110 0.9 3

Wood stave 0.012 120 0.18 0.6

B.11.5 Fitting Loss Coefficients

For similar fittings, the K-value is highly dependent on such things as bend radius and
contraction ratios.

Table B-12: Typical Fitting K Coefficients

Fitting K Value Fitting K Value

Pipe Entrance 90° Smooth Bend

Bellmouth 0.03-0.05 Bend Radius / D = 4 0.16-0.18

Rounded 0.12-0.25 Bend Radius / D = 2 0.19-0.25

Sharp-Edged 0.50 Bend Radius / D = 1 0.35-0.40

Projecting 0.80 Mitered Bend

Contraction—Sudden θ = 15° 0.05

D2/D1 = 0.80 0.18 θ = 30° 0.10

D2/D1 = 0.50 0.37 θ = 45° 0.20

D2/D1 = 0.20 0.49 θ = 60° 0.35

Contraction—Conical θ = 90° 0.80

D2/D1 = 0.80 0.05 Tee

D2/D1 = 0.50 0.07 Line Flow 0.30-0.40

HAMMER User's Guide B-415

Engineer’s Reference

Table B-12: Typical Fitting K Coefficients (Cont’d)

Fitting K Value Fitting K Value

D2/D1 = 0.20 0.08 Branch Flow 0.75-1.80

Expansion—Sudden Cross

D2/D1 = 0.80 0.16 Line Flow 0.50

D2/D1 = 0.50 0.57 Branch Flow 0.75

D2/D1 = 0.20 0.92 45° Wye

Expansion—Conical Line Flow 0.30

D2/D1 = 0.80 0.03 Branch Flow 0.50

D2/D1 = 0.50 0.08

D2/D1 = 0.20 0.13

B.11.6 Properties of Common Liquids

Hydraulic transient analysis requires the correct specific gravity, kinematic viscosity
and vapor pressure. The following table lists liquids included in the HAMMER
library: liquids.xml (an editable text file). If the temperature of your liquid differs
from available table entries, select the nearest one or interpolate between table values.

Table B-13: Liquid Properties

WaterCAD Specific Kinematic Viscosity Vapor

Liquid
library? Gravity (m2/s) Pressure (m)

Water at 4ºC (39ºF) Yes 1.000 1.5656(10)-6 -10.25

Water at 10ºC (50ºF) 1.001 1.344(10)-6 -10.21

Water at 15.6ºC (60ºF) 1.000 1.123(10)-6 -10.15

Water at 20ºC (68ºF) Yes 1.000 1.004(10)-6 -10.09

Water at 54.0ºC(130ºF) 0.988 5.160(10)-7 -8.72

Water at 160ºC(320ºF) 0.909 -999 52.7

Ethyl Alcohol at
20ºC(68ºF)
Yes 0.790 1.500(10)-6 -999

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 HAMMER Theory and Practice

Table B-13: Liquid Properties (Cont’d)

WaterCAD Specific Kinematic Viscosity Vapor

Liquid
library? Gravity (m2/s) Pressure (m)

Carbon tetrachloride at
20ºC(68ºF)
Yes 1.590 6.000(10)-7 -999

Kerosene at 20ºC(68ºF) Yes 0.810 2.370(10)-6 -999

Mercury at 20ºC(68ºF) Yes 13.550 1.200(10)-7 -999

Mercury at 38ºC(100ºF) 13.600 1.100(10)-7 -999

SAE 10W at
38ºC(100ºF)
Yes 0.870 4.100(10)-5 -999

SAE 10W-30 at
38ºC(100ºF)
Yes 0.880 7.600(10)-5 -999

SAE 30 at 38ºC(100ºF) Yes 0.880 1.100(10)-4 -999

SAE 30 at 54ºC(130ºF) 0.908 4.750(10)-5 -999

Sea water at 10ºC(50ºF) Yes 1.030 1.400(10)-6 -999

Freon at 21ºC(70ºF) 1.430 2.950(10)-7 -999

Glycerine at 20ºC(68ºF) Yes 1.260 5.100(10)-4 -999

Glycerine at
38ºC(100ºF)
1.260 1.760(10)-4 -999

Propylene glycol at
21ºC(70ºF)
1.038 1.5.200(10)-5 -999

Hydrochloric acid
(31.5%) at 20ºC(68ºF)
1.050 1.900(10)-6 -999

Sulfuric acid(100%) at
20ºC(68ºF)
1.830 1.460(10)-5 -999

Gasoline at 16ºC(60ºF) 0.710 6.700(10)-7 -999

Gasoline at 38ºC(100ºF) 0.710 5.550(10)-7 -999

Kerosene at
38ºC(100ºF)
0.800 2.000(10)-6 -999

60 Brix Sucrose solution

at 21ºC(70ºF)
1.290 4.970(10)-5 -999

60 Brix Sucrose solution

at 38ºC(100ºF)
1.290 1.870(10)-5 -999

HAMMER User's Guide B-417

Engineer’s Reference

Table B-13: Liquid Properties (Cont’d)

WaterCAD Specific Kinematic Viscosity Vapor

Liquid
library? Gravity (m2/s) Pressure (m)

70 Brix Sucrose solution

at 21ºC(70ºF)
1.350 3.640(10)-4 -999

70 Brix Sucrose solution

at 38ºC(100ºF)
1.350 8.660(10)-5 -999

Milk at 20ºC(68ºF) 1.035 1.130(10)-6 -999

Blackstrap molasses at
38ºC(100ºF)
1.475 5.500(10)-3 -999

Note: Units shown in the table correspond to units in the liquids.xml library file.

The values in the above table are taken from the WaterCAD/WaterGEMS engineering
library files and from Tables 6, 7 and 8 in the Pump Handbook (Karassik, 2001).

B.11.7 Using Presets and Parameter Libraries

HAMMER allows you to save the parameters for any hydraulic element, complete
with any associated tables. This saves time by allowing you to re-use common valves,
for example, while reducing the risk of data input errors. HAMMER manages these
libraries automatically and it saves the data to a file called presets.lib in the main
application folder (typically C:\Program Files\Haestad\HAMR), so it is available to all
HAMMER projects on your workstations (it can also be copied to other computers).

You can also enter reusable data for many hydraulic elements by adding entries to the
XML library files (in the \Data sub-folder): liquids.xml, valves.xml, pumps.xml and
turbines.xml. These files must be edited with a plain-text editor (such as Wordpad,
supplied with Windows) and HAMMER requires strict adherence to the block format
and XML tag names. It is strongly recommended that you backup these files prior to
making changes to them.

In an XML library file, you must add at least 3 blocks for each hydraulic element:
<HMIModelingElement>, <HammerTurbineLibrary> and any associated blocks
to hold tabular data, e.g. <HammerTurbineGates>. You can cut-and-paste from
existing blocks, then edit the data. If everything has been done correctly, HAMMER
will show the new option(s) in that preset menu next time it starts. If you are not
familiar with XML, contact Bentley Systems’ technical support for assistance.

If you add 4-quadrant characteristic data to pumps.xml or turbines.xml, you must

also add it to pumps.extract.4TM.xml and turbines.extract.4TM.xml, respectively,
to be available in the HAMMER menu (indexed by specific speed). Once the update is
complete, click Tools > Update 4 Quadrant Data (which may take a minute or two).

B-418 HAMMER User's Guide

 HAMMER Theory and Practice

Note: Editing an XML file can invalidate its structure. Always backup
XML files used by HAMMER prior to replacing them with your
modified version. Open your modified XML files in Internet
Explorer: they should display cleanly without messages.

B.12 References
Allievi, L., “General Theory of Pressure Variation in Pipes”, Ann. D. Ing. Et Archit.
Ital. Dec. 1902. English translation by Holmes, E., ASME, 1925

ASCE. (1975). Pressure Pipeline Design for Water and Wastewater. ASCE, New York,
New York.

Bergeron, L., “Waterhammer in Hydraulics and Wave Surge in Electricity”, John

Wiley & Sons, Inc., N.Y., 1961

Brunone, B., Karney, B.W., Mecarelli, M., and Ferrante, M. “Velocity Profiles and
Unsteady Pipe Friction in Transient Flow” Journal of Water Resources Planning and
Management, ASCE, 126(4), 236-244, Jul. 2000.

Chaudhry, M.H., “Applied Hydraulic Transients”, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., N.Y.,
1979

Chaudhry, M.H. and Yevjevich, V. (1981) “Closed Conduit Flow”, Water Resources
Publication, USA

Chaudhry, M. H. (1987). Applied Hydraulic Transients. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New

York.

Elansari, A. S., Silva, W., and Chaudhry, M. H. (1994). “Numerical and Experimental
Investigation of Transient Pipe Flow.” Journal of Hydraulic Research, 32, 689.

Filion, Y., and Karney, B. W. (2002). “A Numerical Exploration of Transient Decay

Mechanisms in Water Distribution Systems.”, Proceedings of the ASCE Environ-
mental Water Resources Institute Conference, American Society of Civil Engineers,
Roanoke, Virginia

Fok, A., “Design Charts for Air Chamber on Pump Pipelines”, J. of Hyd. Div., ASCE,
Sept. 1978

Fok, A., Ashamalla, A., and Aldworth, G., “Considerations in Optimizing Air
Chamber for Pumping Plants”, Symposium on Fluid Transients and Acoustics in the
Power Industry, San Francisco, U.S.A. Dec. 1978

Fok, A., “Design Charts for Surge Tanks on Pump Discharge Lines”, BHRA 3rd Int.
Conference on Pressure Surges, Bedford, England, Mar. 1980.

HAMMER User's Guide B-419

References

Fok, A., “Waterhammer & Its Protection in Pumping Systems”, Hydrotechnical

Conference, CSCE, Edmonton, May 1982

Fok, A., “A contribution to the Analysis of Energy Losses in Transient Pipe Flow”,
Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ottawa, 1987

Fox, J.A., “Hydraulic Analysis of Unsteady Flow in Pipe Network”, Wiley, N.Y., 1977

Hamam, M.A. and McCorquodale, J.A., “Transient Conditions in the Transition from
Gravity to Surcharged Sewer Flow”, Canadian J. of Civil Eng., Sep. 1982

Jaeger, C., “Fluid Transients in Hydro-Electric Engineering Practice”, Blackie & Son
Ltd., 1977

Joukowski, N. Paper to Polytechnic Soc. Moscow, Spring of 1898, English translation

by Miss O. Simin. Proc. AWWA, 1904

Karassik, I.J. (Editor), “Pump Handbook - Third Edition”, McGraw-Hill, 2001.

Koelle, E., Luvizotto, Jr., E., and Andrade, J.P.G. “Personality Investigation of
Hydraulic Networks using MOC – Method of Characteristics” Proceedings of the 7th
International Conference on Pressure Surges and Fluid Transients, Harrogate Durham,
United Kingdom, 1996.

Li, J. & McCorquodale, A. (1999) “Modelling Mixed Flow in Storm Sewers,” Journal
of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 125, No. 11, pp. 1170-1180.

Moody, L. F., “Friction Factors for Pipe Flow”, Trans. ASME, Vol. 66, 1944

Parmakian, J., “Waterhammer Design Criteria”, J. of Power Div., ASCE, Sept. 1957

Parmakian, J. (1963). Waterhammer Analysis. Dover Publications, Inc., New York,

New York.

Pickford, J., “Analysis of Surge”, Macmillian, London 1969

Quick, R.S., “Comparison & Limitations of Various Waterhammer Theories”, J. of

Hyd. Div., ASME, May 1933

Rich, G.R., “Hydraulic Transients”, Dover, USA 1963

Savic, D.A., and Walters, G.A. (1995). “Genetic Algorithms Techniques for Cali-
brating Network Models”, Report No. 95/12, Centre for Systems and Control Engi-
neering, School of Engineering, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom, 41.

Sharp, B., “Waterhammer Problems & Solutions”, Edward Arnold Ltd., London 1981

Skousen, P., “Valve Handbook”, McGraw Hill, New York, 1998

B-420 HAMMER User's Guide

 HAMMER Theory and Practice

Song, C.C. et al, “Transient Mixed-Flow Models for Storm Sewers”, J. of Hyd. Div.,
Vol. 109, Nov. 1983

Stephenson, D., “Pipe Flow Analysis”, Elsevier, Vol. 19, S.A. 1984

Streeter, V. L., Lai, C. (1962). “Waterhammer Analysis Including Fluid Friction.”

Journal of Hydraulics Division, ASCE, 88, 79.

Streeter V.L. and Wylie E.B., “Fluid Mechanics”, McGraw-Hill Ltd., USA 1981

Thorley, A.R.D., “Fluid Transients in Pipeline Systems”, D.&L. George, Herts,

England, 1991.

Tullis, J.P., “Control of Flow in Closed Conduits”, Fort Collins, Colorado, 1971

Vallentine, H.R., “Rigid Water Column Theory for Uniform Gate Closure”, J. of Hyd.
Div. ASCE, July 1965

Watters, G.Z., “Modern Analysis and Control of Unsteady Flow in Pipelines”, Ann
Arbor Sci., 2nd Ed., 1984.

Walski, T.M. and Lutes, T.L. (1994) “Hydraulic Transients Cause Low-Pressure Prob-
lems.” Journal of the American Water Works Association, 75(2), 58.

Wood, D. J., Dorsch, R. G., and Lightner, C. (1966). “Wave-Plan Analysis of Unsteady
Flow in Closed Conduits.” Journal of Hydraulics Division, ASCE, 92, 83.

Wood, F.M., “History of Waterhammer”, Civil Engineering Research Report, #65,

Queens University, Canada, 1970.

Wood, F.M., “Comparison of the Rigid Column and Elastic Theories for Water-
hammer”, Can. Hydraulic Conference, U. of Alberta, Edmonton, May 1973.

Wu, Z. Y., and Simpson, A.R. “Evaluation of Critical Transient Loading for Optimal
Design of Water Distribution Systems.” Proceedings of the Hydroinformatics confer-
ence, Iowa, 2000.

Wylie, E.B., “Rigid Water Column Theory”, Ch. 6. 7 in “Closed Conduit Flow”,
edited by Chaudhry & Yeijevich, V., Water Resource Publications, USA, 1981

Wylie, E. B., and Streeter, V. L. (1993). Fluid Transients in Systems. Prentice-Hall,

Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

Zielke, W., “Frequency Dependent Friction in Transient Pipe Flow”, Ph. D. Thesis, U.
of Michigan, 1966.

HAMMER User's Guide B-421

References

B-422 HAMMER User's Guide

 Appendix

About Haestad C
Methods

Bentley Systems, Incorporated provides software for the lifecycle of the world’s infra-
structure. The company’s comprehensive portfolio for the building, plant, civil, and
geospatial vertical markets spans architecture, engineering, construction (AEC) and
operations. Bentley is the leading provider of AEC software to the Engineering News-
Record Design 500 and major owner-operators. For more information, visit the
Bentley Web site at http://www.bentley.com.

Haestad Methods products offer software solutions to civil engineers throughout the
world for analyzing, modeling, and designing all sorts of hydrologic and hydraulic
systems, from municipal water and sewer systems to stormwater ponds, open chan-
nels, and more. With point-and-click data entry, flexible units, and report-quality
output, Haestad Methods is the ultimate source for your modeling needs.

In addition to the ability to run in Stand-Alone mode with a CAD-like interface, five
of our products—SewerGEMS, CivilStorm, WaterCAD, StormCAD and
SewerCAD—can be totally integrated within AutoCAD. These three programs also
share numerous powerful features, such as scenario management, unlimited undo/
redo, customizable tables for editing and reporting, customizable GIS, database and
spreadsheet connection, and annotation.

Be sure to contact us or visit our Web site at http://www.haestad.com to find out about
our latest software, books, training, and open houses.

C.1 Software
Haestad Methods software includes:

• “SewerGEMS”
• “CivilStorm”
• “WaterGEMS”
• “WaterCAD”
• “SewerCAD”

HAMMER User's Guide C-437

Software

• “StormCAD”
• “PondPack”
• “FlowMaster”
• “CulvertMaster”

C.1.1 SewerGEMS

SewerGEMS simulates your entire sewer system within one intuitive scaled layout
model for the Windows, ArcGIS, or AutoCAD environments.

• Dynamic Simulation - The dynamic EPS engine will account for volumes within
the system, as well as balancing network hydraulics. The primary solver is based
on an implicit scheme, but an optional EPA SWMM 5 engine is also available.
• GIS Integration - Access data and functionality through various aspects of the
ArcGIS products.
• Sanitary Loading - Apply to the system via hydrographs, patterned loads, or unit
loads
• Stormwater Modeling - Apply to the system via hydrographs, patterned loads, or
any of the infiltration types defined in SewerGEMS. These load types can simu-
late direct wet-weather effects within the system.
• LoadBuilder™ - Define, assign, forecast, and manage customer demand informa-
tion as defined by customer meter records, flow meter data, land use, parcels, and
census data.
• ModelBuilder™ - Link any type of enterprise and GIS data to the GEMS environ-
ment and construct a living model from existing data assets. Lets you connect to
and import data from a variety of sources, including external data sources,
polyline-to-pipe conversions, or other models.
• Variable-Speed Pumping - Specify any pump as a variable-speed pump.
• Thiessen Polygon Generation - Create service polygons for a selected set of
loading nodes.
• GeoGrapher™ - Create and manage graphs depicting various combinations of
elements, attributes, and scenarios.
• AutoCAD Integration - Run SewerGEMS from within the AutoCAD environ-
ment.
• Scenarios and Alternatives - Create, analyze, and recall unlimited numbers of
variations in models. The powerful two-level design uses scenarios that contain
alternatives for precise control over model changes.

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 About Haestad Methods

• Active Topology Alternatives - Temporarily remove any network elements from

the drawing view and the calculations. This function maintains multiple network
configuration scenarios within a single project file, allowing the user to model
out-of-service and proposed sewers all in the same model.
• Engineering Libraries - Manage specifications of common materials, objects, or
components that are shared across projects.
• Element Symbology - Add, edit, rename, and delete annotations and color-coding
for each type of element.
• Color Coding - Create color-coding definitions and organize them into groups.
• Annotations - Add, delete, edit, and rename annotations as well as organize them
into groups.
• Drawing Navigator - Quickly navigate to and review groups of elements in the
network.
• Profiles (Longitudinal Sections) - Create and manage profile views of selected
elements with control over appearance as well as annotation.
• Selection Sets - Predefine a group of network elements to manipulate together and
can be accessed and edited through a Selection Set Manager.
• Tabular reporting (FlexTables) - Customize tabular views of all or portions of the
network; view all elements in a project, all elements of a specific type, or any
subset of elements. FlexTables can be filtered, sorted, and globally edited.
• Project-Level Options - Modify global options including unit settings, drawing
layout and display settings, and element labeling.

C.1.2 CivilStorm

CivilStorm revolutionizes municipal stormwater management. Whether your concern

is a stormwater master plan, localized flooding, GASB34 requirements, water quality
BMPs, NPDES permitting, or just simply being able to do faster and smarter designs
every day, CivilStorm fits your needs. It is the only commercially available software
package that lets you analyze all your system elements in one package. CivilStorm
also gives you the ability to perform analyses using either the SWMM algorithm or
CivilStorm’s own implicit solution of full Saint-Venant equations.

CivilStorm provides numerical solutions for the toughest interconnected pipe, pond,
and open channel networks, and provides stunning graphics and reporting tools for
visualizing your storm systems in action.

Use CivilStorm For:

• Comprehensive Stormwater Master Plans

• Watershed-Based Master Planning

HAMMER User's Guide C-439

Software

• Analysis of Open-channel, Closed-conduit and Combination systems

• Floodplain Studies
• Complex Flow Regime Analysis
• Water Quality Assessments
• Integrated Stormwater Quantity and Quality Assessments
• NPDES Permitting

C.1.3 WaterGEMS

WaterGEMS brings the concept of water modeling and GIS integration to the next
level. It is the only water distribution modeling software that provides full, completely
seamless integration with GIS applications. Now the combined functionality of
WaterCAD and GIS can be utilized simultaneously, synthesizing the distinct advan-
tages of each application to create a modeling tool with an unprecedented level of
freedom, power, efficiency, and usability.

You can create, display, edit, run, map, and design water models from within the GIS
environment, and view the results of the simulations as native GIS maps or with tradi-
tional Haestad Methods modeling tools. These abilities, in conjunction with the cross-
product functionality provided by the core Unified Data and Object Model architec-
ture, provide a powerful cutting-edge solution for your modeling projects.

WaterGEMS works within your choice of environments: ArcView, ArcEdit, ArcInfo,

AutoCAD, or the stand-alone WaterGEMS Modeler interface.

C.1.4 WaterCAD

WaterCAD is the definitive model for complex pressurized pipe networks, such as
municipal water distribution systems. You can use WaterCAD to perform a variety of
functions, including steady-state and extended-period simulations of pressure
networks with pumps, tanks, control valves, and more.

WaterCAD’s abilities also extend into public safety and long-term planning issues,
with extensive water quality features, automated fire protection analyses, comprehen-
sive scenario management, and enterprise-wide data sharing faculties.

WaterCAD is available with your choice of a Stand-Alone graphical user interface and
an AutoCAD integrated interface.

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 About Haestad Methods

C.1.5 SewerCAD

SewerCAD is a powerful design and analysis tool for modeling sanitary sewage
collection and pumping systems. With SewerCAD, you can develop and compute
sanitary loads, tracking and combining loads from dry-weather and wet-weather
sources. You can also simulate the hydraulic response of the entire system (gravity
collection and pressure force mains), observe the effects of overflows and diversions,
and even automatically design selected portions of the system. Output covers every-
thing from customizable tables and detailed reports to plan and profile sheets.

SewerCAD can be run in a Stand-Alone graphical user interface, an AutoCAD inte-

grated interface, or an ArcView or ArcInfo integrated interface.

C.1.6 StormCAD

StormCAD is a highly-efficient model for the design and analysis of storm sewer
collection systems. From graphical layout and intelligent network connectivity to flex-
ible reports and profiles, StormCAD covers all aspects of storm sewer modeling.

Surface inlet networks are independent of pipe connectivity, and inlet hydraulics
conform to FHWA HEC-22 methodologies. Gradually varied flow algorithms and a
variety of popular junction loss methods are the foundation of StormCAD’s robust
gravity piping computations, which handle everything from surcharged pipes and
diversions to hydraulic jumps.

StormCAD is available with your choice of a Stand-Alone graphical user interface, an

AutoCAD integrated interface, or an ArcView or ArcInfo integrated interface.

C.1.7 PondPack

PondPack is a comprehensive, Windows-based hydrologic modeling program that

analyzes a tremendous range of situations, from simple sites to complex networked
watersheds. HAMMER analyzes pre- and postdeveloped watershed conditions, and
estimates required storage ponds. PondPack performs interconnected pond routing,
and also computes outlet rating curves with tailwater effects, multiple outfalls, pond
infiltration, and pond detention times.

PondPack builds customized reports organized by categories, and automatically

creates section and page numbers, tables of contents, and indexes. You can quickly
create an executive summary for an entire watershed, or build an elaborate drainage
report showing any or all report items. Graphical displays, such as watershed
diagrams, rainfall curves, and hydrographs are fully compatible with other Windows’s
software, such as AutoCAD.

HAMMER User's Guide C-441

Bentley Press

C.1.8 FlowMaster

FlowMaster is an efficient program for the design and analysis of a wide variety of
hydraulic elements, such as pressure pipes, open channels, weirs, orifices, and inlets.
FlowMaster’s Hydraulics Toolbox can create rating tables and performance curves for
any variables, using popular friction methods. Inlet calculations follow the latest
FHWA guidelines, and irregular section roughness can be weighted based on any
popular techniques.

C.1.9 CulvertMaster

CulvertMaster helps engineers design new culverts and analyze existing culvert
hydraulics, from single barrel crossings to complex multi-barrel culverts with
roadway overtopping. CulvertMaster computations use HDS No. 5 methodologies,
and allow you to solve for whatever hydraulic variables you don’t know, such as
culvert size, peak discharge, and headwater elevation. Output capabilities include
comprehensive detailed reports, rating tables, and performance curves.

C.2 Bentley Press

Bentley Press provides civil engineering professionals with affordable, quality refer-
ence and textbooks dedicated to the practical application of engineering theory to
hydraulics and hydrology. Bentley Press publications include:

References and Textbooks: Authored by industry-recognized experts, Bentley

Press offers a complete line of reference books for
use in both academic and professional settings.
Technical Journals: With an eye towards computer technology, journals
like “Current Methods” address the latest innovations
in water resources modeling and practical modeling
case studies, as well as offering credit towards
certification.
Independent Papers: Bentley Press also provides funding for engineers to
write case studies of their projects, for potential
publication in a variety of industry journals and
magazines.

C-442 HAMMER User's Guide

 About Haestad Methods

C.3 Training
The Bentley Institute manages professional training programs to ensure consistent,
high quality, user training for a variety of Bentley products and varying levels of
application experience. Bentley Institute training is developed to maximize your
productivity by using examples relevant to your day-to-day project efforts. Training is
developed concurrently with software applications to provide knowledge of the latest
tools and features. Additionally, all Bentley Institute faculty meet rigorous certifica-
tion requirements.

The Bentley Institute offers complete training for Haestad Methods products.These
training programs are famous for efficiently and effectively teaching engineers how to
apply hydraulic theory and state-of-the-art software to real-world design situations.

• Modelers can become certified in a variety of water-related fields, through an

assortment of teaching methods including:
• JumpStart Seminars
• Comprehensive Workshops
• Publication-Based Programs

To obtain more information about training for Haestad Methods products, or to see
upcoming events in a city near you, visit http://www.haestad.com.

C.4 Internet Resources

In addition to modeling software, continuing education, and publications, Bentley
Systems also provides Internet-based tools to help Haestad Methods products
customers manage their account information, manage their projects, and manage their
sanity.

Use the Check for Updates button to access instant software updates for
Bentley SELECT subscribers, etc. For more information, see “Software
Updates via the Web and Bentley SELECT” on page 1-11.

HAMMER User's Guide C-443

Internet Resources

C.4.1 Instant Account Management

Now you can go on-line to manage your own account information, such as to conve-
niently maintain your products, customize your communication settings, or indicate
your areas of interest. Just visit the accounts section at http://www.haestad.com.

C.4.2 CivilProjects.com

CivilProjects.com is a special Internet service for

posting and locating Requests for Proposal (RFPs). The
database is updated daily with postings from around the
world, and there are extensive search capabilities that
allow you to find exactly what you are looking for.

C.4.3 CivilQuiz.com

CivilQuiz.com is a great way to treat yourself to some fun with a quick on-line engi-
neering challenge, and maybe win a laptop or other prizes along the way. You can
even submit your own questions to stump future CivilQuiz players!

C-444 HAMMER User's Guide

 Appendix

Environmental D
Hydraulics Group

HAMMER is based on technology originally created by Environmental Hydraulics

Group, Inc. (EHG), consulting engineers with a solid track record across Canada and
four continents. For over 15 years, local and international firms and governments have
relied on EHG’s stable team to solve their most difficult hydraulic problems: we are
the Water Hammer Specialists. Our track record is proof of our ability to resolve
complex challenges in the public, mining, industrial, and power sectors in dealing
with environmental and hydraulic issues.

HAMMER is owned and marketed worldwide by Haestad Methods, Inc., who have
forged a long-term collaboration with EHG to support, improve and provide training
for it. EHG hopes you will benefit from HAMMER’s powerful capabilities and, when
you need it, we offer engineering services for expert reviews, build-operate-transfer
models, teaming, and consulting (http://www.ehg-inc.com).

EHG can measure transient flows and pressures in your system to calibrate
HAMMER to explain breaks. EHG brings the right combination of experience,
testing expertise and emerging talent to contribute to your project.

D.1 Water Networks and Transmission Lines

Water systems are EHG’s core expertise. EHG has used HAMMER to model entire
networks for the City of Thunder Bay, Ontario (150,000 population); Calgary, Alberta
(900,000 population); Alliston and parts of the City of Toronto. Explosive growth in
the City of Toronto and the surrounding Peel and York Regions (populations 2.5, 1.0,
and 0.8 million, respectively) requires massive infrastructure investments.

EHG was retained to ensure the resulting Peel-York water supply pipeline (dark line)
and the area’s pump stations (PS) and distribution networks will be expanded and
operated reliably: EHG’s hydraulic and water hammer models of the Peel-York pipe-
line guided route selection, conceptual and detailed design of 10 PS, 3 reservoirs and
40 km (18 miles) of 2100 and 1800 mm (82 and 70 in) pipe—all tied into existing
water networks.

HAMMER User's Guide D-449

Water Networks and Transmission Lines

EHG completed NPSH and pump tests (ANSI 1.6 standard) at the City of Toronto’s
800 MLD (211 MGD) Ellesmere pump station. The calibrated model supports a 40%
increase in capacity with improved surge protection.

EHG was retained to provide hydraulic input to a network-wide optimization and

risk-reduction strategy for Toronto and York, Niagara, and Ottawa.

Long-distance water transmission lines must be economical, reliable and expand-

able. EHG’s track record includes multi-booster pressurized lines with surge protec-
tion ranging from check valves to gas vessels. EHG has particular expertise designing
pressurized and open-channel pipeline segments, using gravity flow where possible to
reduce energy costs. EHG has ensured reliable water transmission for the Peel-York
and City of Toronto systems described above and also:

• 225 MLD, 56 km, 1050 mm (60 MGD, 35 mi, 40 in) line for the capital City of
Regina, Saskatchewan (200,000 population).
• 346 MLD, 50 km, 1200 mm (91 MGD, 31 mi, 47 in) line for the City of London,
Ontario (340,000 population), including two large gas vessel installations.
• 60 MLD, 57 km, 600 mm (16 MGD, 35 mi, 24 in) line for Alliston, Ontario
(30,000 population), with supply to a Honda plant and a 10 km line to Beeton.
• Major pipelines in Tanzania, Nevada (USA), Argentina, and Vietnam.

D-450 HAMMER User's Guide

 Environmental Hydraulics Group

D.2 Deep Sewers and Tunnels

EHG's experience with hydraulic structures in large, complex systems has provided
effective solutions to many problems using computer (numerical) or scale (physical)
models for plant operations, combined sewer overflow (CSO) reduction and outfall
dispersion studies.

EHG used HAMMER to design a practical and economical solution to the City of
Ottawa’s sanitary trunk system problems after power failures.

Rapid surcharge and

surge fronts had
damaged infrastruc-
ture and caused spills
to the local environ-
ment. Field checking
and detailed
modeling revealed City of Ottawa
that a mass flow
reversal and oscilla-
tion phenomenon
could occur in this
system. Reconfig-
uring the pump station with a high-tech “duck bill” check valve resulted in a long-
term, reliable solution.

EHG contributed input to environmental assessment (EA) for the City of Hamilton’s
Greenhill drop shaft and CSO tank twinning project. This 44 m (144 ft.) drop shaft
and 200 m (660 ft.) tunnel conveys flows ranging from 0.5 to 50 m3/s (18 to 1,800 cfs)
under the environmentally-protected Niagara Escarpment. EHG designed, constructed
and tested a 1:12 scale model to configure a vortex-inlet design for the new drop and
tunnel using the existing system for air recirculation at low flows.

EHG resolved constraints ranging from surges (due to attachment during surcharge) to
moving hydraulic jumps and integrated the existing CSO tank in an end-to-end
hydraulic conveyance analysis for the upgraded system, complete with a new 65 ML
(17 million gallon) tank with flushing system. The project passed numerical and scale
model proof-of-concept tests, following which more scale modeling was ordered to
guide detailed design.

HAMMER User's Guide D-451

Hydraulic Testing and Forensic Engineering

City of Hamilton

EHG has provided expert review of the City of Toronto’s 4 km long, 40 m deep, 85
ML Western Beaches tunnel and participated on a design-build team for the City of
Ottawa’s 4.8 km, 57 ML Somerset tunnel—both complete with drop and overflow
shafts. Key considerations include air handling, mass oscillations during filling and
surcharge of the surface sewers and/or overflow handling. EHG offers the right
combination of experience, expertise and tools to find solutions.

D.3 Hydraulic Testing and Forensic Engineering

EHG offers on-site hydraulic test and training services
including:

Pump testing including head-efficiency-flow and

NPSHR curves and a calibrated model of suction
system losses and NPSHA—complete with discharge
system and yard piping.

Reservoir mixing using tracers complete with log-inac-

tivation report and improvement tips. EHG also cali-
brates scale or computer models.

Troubleshooting of all kinds to find and fix hydraulic

bottlenecks, explain breaks, etc….

Operator and supervisor training in pump stations and

industrial/mining plants for water hammer safety and
maximum efficiency.

City of Thunder Bay Plant conveyance, fill/drain and transient reviews

complete with dynamic models.

D-452 HAMMER User's Guide

 Environmental Hydraulics Group

D.3.1 Pump Station Upgrades and NPHS Testing

Pump tests are the best way to get reliable estimates of how an upgraded pump station
will perform based on the proposed and existing pump curves. These may match (or
not) at the operating point, significantly affecting the firm capacity. The published
pump curves are often not enough because impeller trimming, cavitation and wear can
all change a pump's head-flow performance. In addition, pump performance at the
factory is never the same as its output at the pump station. Testing is a wise invest-
ment, given the high energy cost of running the wrong pump combinations or the
expense involved with incorrectly installing or operating a new pump.

EHG and CWS use a modified ANSI 1.6 (Hydraulic Institute standard) test procedure
to obtain the NPSHR and head vs. flow curves for your pump. State-of-the-art
Primayer pressure loggers (± 2%) and Quadrina insertable flow meters (± 5%) obtain
data every 5 seconds. The procedure yields a calibrated suction system model in
WaterCAD (and HAMMER if requested), complete with NSPHA at each pump loca-
tion. Based on this, you can make important upgrade decisions (or defer them) with
confidence.

D.3.2 Expert Witness and Break Investigations

The professional engineers of Ontario (PEO) designated EHG’s founder and CEO, Dr.
Alan Fok, P.Eng., a Hydraulic Specialist in 1983 for his contributions to hydraulics.
EHG has performed pre-trial investigations, discovery and expert witness services for
several high-profile legal cases ranging from a penstock burst on the Welland Canal to
two urban flooding and erosion lawsuits (EHG acted for the plaintiff on one and the
defense for the other). EHG’s objective field work, analysis and computer modeling
helps the parties to settle the matter or find a mediated solution.

HAMMER User's Guide D-453

Field and Lab Tests for Disinfection

EHG performed five break investigations including computer modeling and reports in
2002-2003 alone. EHG identified the causes and provided practical solutions to diffi-
cult problems ranging from repeated pipe bursts, river crossing breaks, thrust restraint
failure, pump casing bursts, shaft breaks, and premature impeller wear due to cavita-
tion on the suction and discharge sides. In addition to ensuring worker and environ-
mental safety, the cost of this service is typically repaid several times over within a
few years by eliminating the need to repair breaks and lost production.

Sand sucked in,

contamination

D.4 Field and Lab Tests for Disinfection

EHG has provided field tests and scale models in the lab to ensure that water reser-
voirs deliver the required log-inactivation and disinfection performance:

• Scale model of the Ottawa South reservoir (4.6 ML capacity), with inflows
ranging from 5 to 25 MLD and strict criteria for the chlorine residual in all areas
of the reservoir. EHG ensured the turn over rate of the water volume was maxi-
mized and provided a chlorine diffuser design.
• Scale model of the Glen Cairn reservoir (68
ML capacity), with inflows ranging from 5 to
30 MLD. This was modeled in the lab to iden-
tify dead zones (see photo) and resolve them
using inexpensive diffuser and baffling
designs.
• Tracer Test of the Brantford Water Treatment
Plant, whose contact chamber was upgraded
with baffles to improve disinfection performance. EHG confirmed this by deter-
mining the current T10, T50, and T90 values in the upgraded contact chamber. This
was used to predict seasonal log-inactivation performance.

EHG has also performed sub-atmospheric

leakage tests to ASTM standards. This was done
to explain repeated pipe breaks but this work led
to improved standards for gasket designs and
installation techniques in the province of
Ontario.Subatmospheric transient pressures can
suck contaminants into the water system.

D-454 HAMMER User's Guide

 Environmental Hydraulics Group

D.5 Hydropower and Cogeneration

The use of small hydroelectric plants and/or cogeneration is prevalent in Ontario and
their hydraulic components serve multiple uses. Their primary purpose is to provide
power and/or to reuse energy (i.e., hot water) to heat the facility and sometimes the
surrounding homes and businesses. EHG has modeled district cooling and heating
water systems, hydro tailraces, and two different types of penstocks impacting a canal
and generating station, respectively.

EHG explained the cause of the penstock rupture in the Welland Canal on the St.
Lawrence Seaway using advanced HAMMER technology and other tools.

EHG has correctly predicted the operational behavior of hydro systems (penstock and
tailrace) and helped explain a needle valve break.

D.6 Mining and Industrial

EHG has a strong track record in resolving critical safety and production issues faced
by the mining and industrial sectors. EHG's specialist hydraulic services are essential
for safe, uninterrupted and efficient hydraulic conveyance of water, process fluids and
slurries. EHG has provided pre-design and post-break project reviews to mining
clients directly as well as in close partnership with leading firms.

Our clients include Barrick Gold, Newmont, QIT Fer et Titane, Inco, and others. EHG
has been consulted on several of Barrick Gold’s plant projects.

EHG does not endorse products and its specialist practice extends to all sectors
(power, public, legal), therefore, EHG is completely independent and objective when
assessing facts or rendering opinions. EHG’s advanced hydraulic services include:

• Hydraulic conveyance—ensure your plant can perform at maximum efficiency

by eliminating bottlenecks, such as under-sized pipes and launders or transitions.
• Plant optimization—improve solids separation in thickeners or mix using gravity
jets and tanks to minimize settlement, scale and power requirements.
• Slurry and process pumping—keep operators and equipment safe from water
hammer damage and reduce down-time due to unplanned emergency shut-downs.
• Pre-start hydraulic review—identify key operational constraints for starting,
ramping and stopping a plant or pipeline; including restarts after a break or
planned maintenance.

HAMMER User's Guide D-455

Mining and Industrial

D-456 HAMMER User's Guide

 Index

Symbols automatic scaling 302

AVV 242
.ani 41, 167 axes 300
.grp 167, 168, 301
.hif 166, 175 B
.hof 41, 166
.mdb 166, 167, 168, 174
background layer files
.mdb import and export 130
using with ProjectWise 172
.out 168, 269
begins with 288
.rpt 168, 174
Bentley Press 445
Bentley SELECT 21
A Bentley Systems 437
about us 437
about dialog box 20 program update 21
about HAMMER 1 training 445
Access 120, 130 Bernoulli equation 346
acknowledgements 334 bladder 247
activation 20 booster pump bypass 413
air chamber 409 bottom gravity discharge tank 323
air chambers 250 boundaries 210
air release valve 242 boundaries of the system 206
air vacuum valves 242 boundary conditions 253
air volume maximum 209 build number 20
amplitude 210 buttons 94
animate 300 online help topic navigation 50
animation 267, 305
controller 41 C
generate 41
animation controller 306
calibration 262
animation data 305
CAV 242
animations 41
celerity 359
annotation 301
certification 445
annotations
characteristic time 363
adding 304
check run 259, 265
anti-alias 186
check valve 208
anticipator valves 250
check valves 240, 412
Application Maintenance dialog box 21
check valves between two pipes 215
ARV 242
check valves installed 245
ASCII text 270
Chezy’s equation 386
attribute type 187
CivilProjects.com 447
attribute value ranges 191
CivilQuiz.com 447

HAMMER User's Guide Index-457

D

CivilStorm 2005 439 cutting elements 200

closed-form analytical solutions 262
coefficient
head loss 211 D
Colebrook-White
typical values 425 Darcy-Weisbach 185
Colebrook-White equation 385 equation 383
color coding roughness values 425
line thickness 155 Darcy-Weisbach equation 383
color map selector 329 data
color maps 295 copy 44
color ramp 297 paste 44
color-code 267 data check 259, 265
colors 293, 294 data form
colors tab 177 add 46
column headings set 46
editing for FlexTables 282 swap 46
combination air valves 242, 250 data logging 264
company name 328 data requirements 253
conservation of energy 345, 348 database 41
constant horsepower pumps 373 datastore 166
constraining input 191 import/export 174
consumption node 210, 261 dead end 210
contacting 25 decimal point 189
contains 288 deleting
contamination 256 FlexTables 280, 281
continuity equation 348 deleting elements 200
continuity equation for unsteady flow 349 demand alternatives 312
control status 216 design point 219
control type 216 determining run duration 180
control valves 312 diameter 207, 211, 243
control variable 228 maintenance hole cover 211
copy graph settings 303 orifice 211
copy paths 91, 330 pumps 227
copying discharge coefficient 216
FlexTables 291 display options 294
copying elements 200 display precision 189
corresponding pressures 215, 217 display tips 328
cover opening diameter 211 draw
create ASCII file 166 lines 44, 45
creating new elements 196 symbols 44, 45
CulvertMaster 444 text 44, 45
curve draw lines 304
pumps 226, 372, 373 draw symbol 304
custom filter 288 draw text 304
Custom Filter dialog box 289 drawing options 186
Custom Sort dialog box 287 drawing pane 32
customizing lock 186
FlexTables 290 locking 202

Index-458 HAMMER User's Guide

 E

duty point 219 validation 260, 266

elevation 211
of the top of base 246
E of the top of tank 245
of top of riser 246
editing of top of tank 246
FlexTables 281 pumps 220
numerous elements at once 284 emitter k values for hydrants 325
editing column headings energy grade 347
FlexTables 282 engineer’s reference 423
editing elements 199 English 181, 188
editing units Environmental Hydraulics Group (EHG) 3, 449
FlexTables 283 EPANET 40, 130, 173, 315
efficiency export 174
pumps 220 import 141, 174
EGL 347 equations
EHG 3, 449 Bernoulli 346
elastic simulation 252 Chezy’s 386
elastic theory 349, 356, 358 Colebrook-White 385
elasticity 359 continuity 348
element continuity for unsteady flow 349
display 329 Darcy-Weisbach 383
element map Hazen-Williams 382
WaterCAD to HAMMER 63 Levenberg-Marquardt method 373
WaterGEMS to HAMMER 63 Manning’s 385
element selector control 32 method of characteristics 351
elements momentum for unsteady flow 350
color code 329 Swamee and Jain 384
colors 293, 295 transients 348
coordinates 206 unsteady state 348
copying 200 valve closing pattern 378
cutting 200 estimating hydrant discharge 325
data control 32 Expanded Run dialog box 59
deleting 200 exponent in gas law 247
description 207 export 173
editing 199 .mdb 130
editor 205 database 174
elevation 207 EPANET 130, 174
finding 201 GIS 174
general properties 206 tips 310
globally editing data in numerous elements exporting
284 FlexTables 292
label 206 external tool manager 40
labels 293, 294 external-source data 130
moving 199 extreme heads 269
pasting 200 extremes reports 271
report period 207
selecting 198
type 205, 206

HAMMER User's Guide Index-459

F

F FlowMaster 444
format
favorites 49 data 43
field measurements 264 figure 43
file formats 165 graph 43
file I/O tab 177, 178 line 303
files shade 303
input and output 166 format data 303
filter format display 203
resetting 288 format graph 300, 302
filter FlexTables 287 formatted reports 120
filtering friction 391
criteria 288 friction coefficient 208
finding elements 201 friction loss 381
first law of thermodynamics 345 quasi-steady 185
fitting loss coefficients 428, 429 steady-state 184
FlexTables 273, 276 transient 185
copying data 291 unsteady 185
customizing 290 friction method 183
deleting 280, 281 friction methods 250
editing 281
editing column headings 282 G
editing globally 284
editing units 283
gas vessel 409
exporting data 292
definition 247
filter 287
gas vessels 244, 250
filtering 289
generate animation data 166, 305
FlexTable window 278
generate animations 41, 305
global editing 284
generate output database 120
globally editing data 285
getting started 105
navigating in 283
global edit 284
ordering column data 286
Global Edit dialog box 285
ordering columns 286
global editing
printing 292
FlexTables 284
reports 292
global HAMMER options 176, 329
saving as text 292
graph annotation 301
shortcut keys 283
graph formatting 300, 301
sorting 287
graph settings 303
sorting column data 286
graph type 301
sorting column order 286
grid lines 302
FlexUnits 41, 177, 181, 188
grids 300
defined 187
ground elevation 211
manager 187
groundwater well 321
flow 208, 240, 246
maximum and minimum 208
flow control equipment 206 H
flow decreasing characteristics 380
flow emitters 260, 325
Haestad Methods

Index-460 HAMMER User's Guide

 I

about us 437 I
knowledge base 327
program update 21 Image Settings dialog box 92
training 445 import 173
Haestad Methods products 437 .mdb 130
HAMMER 28 database 174
about 1, 2 EPANET 130, 174, 315
capabilities 333 GIS 174
datastore 166 PIPE2000 130, 176, 315
getting started 23, 105 Surge2000 130, 315
learning 23, 24 tips 310
lessons 105 WaterCAD 130
preferences 41 WaterCAD/WaterGEMS 175
tutorials 105 WaterGEMS 130
HAMMER main window 31 WaterGEMS/WaterCAD 314
HAMMER viewer 32 import EPANET 141
Hazen-Williams 184 import PIPE2000 142
Hazen-Williams equation 382 import Surge2000 142
coefficients 427 independent papers 445
roughness values 426 index 48
head inertia 221, 227, 412
maximum and minimum 208, 209 pumps 220, 221
head loss coefficient 211, 245, 246, 247 inflow diameter 242
head losses 245 infrastructure 255
Helmholtz 360 initial air volume 242
help initial flow 225
using 47 initial typical flow 215
See also online help. initial volume of gas 247
HGL 267, 347 initial water level 245, 246
HGL profile 267 input files 166
hiding symbols 187 interior points 272
high-speed sensors 264 introduction 1
history 300
history table 269
hydrant discharge 325 J
hydraulic element reference 205
hydraulic elements junction
reuse 330 defined 209
hydraulic grade 347
hydraulic transient
numerical simulation 251 K
See also transient.
hydraulic transient analysis 249 K coefficients 428, 429
hydraulic transients k values 325
overview 335 kinematic viscosity 384
hydraulically close tanks 323 knowledge base 327
hydropneumatic tanks 320 knowledgebase 21

HAMMER User's Guide Index-461

L

L maximum value 191

mean value 210
labels 293 measurements 264
display 329 menus 31, 35
graph 300 edit 38
node 294 file 36
pipe 294 format display 45
short 294 format graph 43
large files 316 help 42
lessons 105 tools 40
network risk reduction 142 view 39
one 106 method of characteristic (MOC) 351
pipeline protection 106 method of characteristics (MOC) 252
three 142 methods for solving transient flow 337
two 130 metric 181, 188
working with data from external sources 130 Microsoft Access 120, 130, 270
Levenberg-Marquardt method 373 minimum value 191
line minor losses 381, 387
thicknesses 155 fitting 428, 429
line formatting 303 modeling tips 317
liquid 182 moment of inertia 238
liquid properties 182 momentum equation 350
lock 202 morphing elements 197
lock aspect ratio 46, 203 mouse button 331
lock drawing pain 39 moving
lock drawing pane 186 FlexTable columns 286
log file 269 moving elements 199
logo 293, 328 msaccess.exe 120
logs multiple
view 40 pump curve 373
loss 381
losses 245, 387 N
minor 388
losses ratio 211
Navier-Stokes 252
navigating in a FlexTables 283
M network topologies 366
network topology 260, 265
magnify 202 new elements 196
main window 31 new features 4
maintenance hole 211 node reports 272
maintenance procedures 421 nodes 209
manhole nodes at pipe ends 208
maintenance hole 211 consumption 210, 261
Manning’s equation 184, 385 dead end 210
roughness values 424 periodic head or flow 210
typical values 427 to 208
maps nominal flow 225, 226, 313
color 295 nominal head 225, 313

Index-462 HAMMER User's Guide

 O

normalize 186 overflows 256

normalize symbol size 39 overview
numerical calibration 262 transients 335
numerical simulation 251

P
O
page setup 46
one-way surge tank 245 page view 45, 203, 304
online book pan 39, 202
using 47 parallel pipes 322
online help parallel pumps 322
favorites tab 49 parameters 41
index tab 48 paste graph settings 303
navigation buttons 50 paste symbols 44
previous/next buttons 50 pasting elements 200
related topics 48, 50 path 298
search tab 49 definition 33
topics 50 path list 299
using 47, 48 paths
open HAMMER 29 copying 91, 330
operating point 370 pdf 47
operating rule 211, 216, 229 percent efficiency 227
operation 284 turbine
operation classification 363 efficiency 238
operation procedures 421 performing calculations of transient flow and
operation time 363 head 368
operational rule 239 period 211
options 294 periodic flow 210
ordering periodic head 210
FlexTable column data 286 phase 211
FlexTable columns 286 pipe
orifice at branch end 217, 261 bonding nodes 208
orifice between two pipes 218 pipe breaks 256
orifice demand 260 pipe elasticity 359
orifice diameter 211 pipe elasticity and celerity 361
orifice to atmosphere 217, 261 pipe elevations
orifices adjustment 258
rating curve 218 pipe layout mode 196
reference 217 pipe materials 361
oscillation period 211 PIPE2000 130, 173, 315
other options 329 import 142, 176
outflow diameter 242 pipes 207
output 269 check valve 208
tables 273 diameter 207
output database 41 friction coefficient 208
output files 166 length 207
output manager 40 pipes reports 272
output variable 41 piping design 399

HAMMER User's Guide Index-463

Q

piping layout 399 control variable 228

PLC 225 curve 226
plot 298, 300 diameter 227
pocket reports 272 efficiency 220, 227
point element reference 225
design/duty 219 elevation 220
point histories 299 flow 225, 226
Poisson’s ratio 361 fundamentals 219
precision 189 head 225
preferences 41 inertia 220, 221, 227
prescribed quantity 210 operating point 370
pressure 226 operating rule 229
head 347 pressure 226
maximum and minimum 209 protection 412
pressure relief valves 240 quadrants 224
pressure wave 363 reverse spin 227
pressurized systems 335 shut after time delay 219
previews 304 specific speed 220, 222
print preview speed 220, 225, 227
FlexTables 292 theory 369
print previews 304 time delay 227
printing time to close 227, 228
FlexTables 292 variable speed 372
profile 298 variable speed (VSP) 224
profile plot 300 variable speed between two pipes 219
profile setup 298
program maintenance 21
programmable logic controller 225 Q
project options 176, 329
projects quadrant representations 224
copying paths 330 quadrants 313
ProjectWise 169 quasi-steady friction 389
closing projects 169 quasi-steady friction loss 185
general guidelines for using 169 quick filter 288
using background layer files with 172 quick start 105
viewing status in SewerGEMS 170
protection devices 401
protection equipment 239, 343 R
publications 445
pump curves 313 RAM 316
pump quadrants 313 ranking
pumping systems 366 data in FlexTable column 286
pumps 313 FlexTable columns 286
behavior 370 rating curve 218
bypass 413 ratio of losses 211, 245, 247
characteristics 370 reference 205
constant horsepower 373 pumps 225
constant speed at reservoir 219 references 432
constant speed between 2 pipes 219 references and textbooks 445

Index-464 HAMMER User's Guide

 S

registration 20 S
related topics 48
defined 50 SAV 243
relative flow 225, 313 save animation as 306
relative head 225, 313 save preset 297
remove saving FlexTables as text 292
columns 275 SCADA 264
report scale intervals 297
printout suppressed 207 scale limits 297
report history after time 269 scenario management 311
report paths 54, 298 scientific notation 190
report pipes 299 screen layout 203
reports 267 searching for elements 201
extremes 271 second law of motion 353
FlexTables 292 selecting elements 198
formatted 120 selection set options 187
nodes 272 series pumps 322
pipes 272 setting run duration 180
pockets 272 settings 41
summary 271 model 41
tabulated 269 system 41
view 40 SewerCAD 442
reservoir 211 SewerGEMS 438
reset 288 short label display 294
FlexTable filter 288 shortcut keys
reverse flow 240 FlexTables 283
reverse spin 227 shortcut menu 331
Reynolds number 384 show extreme heads after 268
rigid column simulation 251 show frame 45, 203
rigid column theory 349, 353, 356 show title bar 46, 203
risk management 255 shutoff 220
rotating equipment 206, 218 SI 188
rotational speed 227, 238 simulation
roughness elastic 252
coefficient 424 rigid column 251
roughness height 384, 385, 425 sizing text 96
roughness values slow closing air valve 243
Colebrook-White 425 small outflow diameter 242
Darcy-Weisbach 425 snapshot tables 269
Hazen-Williams 426 software
Manning’s 424 suggestions 28
typical 427 upgrades 21
rounding 190 sorting
rule 211 FlexTable column data 286
run duration 179, 180 FlexTable columns 286
runout 220 specific speed 225, 238
rupture disk 248 equation 222
pumps 220, 222

HAMMER User's Guide Index-465

T

speed tables
pumps 220 column headings 282
spherical valve 238 editing FlexTables 281
spring constant 243 units 283
SRV 243 WaterObjects to HAMMER conversion 63
start EPANET 40 tabular report 273
start HAMMER 29 tabulated report 269
status bar 32 tanks
defined 102 hydraulically close 323
steady state flow 346 top feed/bottom discharge 323
steady-state friction loss 184 technical journals 445
sticky tools 178 text 269
StormCAD 442 text sizing 96
suggestions 28 The 445
summary reports 271 thickness of a line 155
summary tab 179 threshold pressure 211, 215, 243, 248
surge anticipator 241 tick marks 302
surge anticipator valve 243 ticks 300
surge control 398 time delay 227
surge control equipment 206 time history 267
surge control strategy 398 time of operation 215
surge protection 402 time step
surge relief valve 243 selection 259
surge relief valves 415 time to close 216, 217, 227, 228, 243
surge tank 407, 409 time to open 243
surge tanks 244, 250 tips
Surge2000 130, 173, 315 display 328
import 142 import/export 310
Swamee and Jain equation 384 modeling 317
symbol title bar 31
size 39 titles 302
symbol visibility 187 to node 208
symbols toolbars 31, 94
hiding 187 tooltips tab 177
normalize 186 top feed tank 323
system boundaries 210 topics
system pipes 299 online help 50
system settings 41 training 445
transient flow equations 348
transient friction 391
T transient friction loss 185
transient head 208, 209
Table transient heads 250
Properties 274 transient history 300
Setup 274 transient pressure 209
Type 274 transient pressure pulses 264
table transients
filtering 288 causes 338
manager 275 effects 341

Index-466 HAMMER User's Guide

 U

initiation 339 valve of various types between two pipes 216

overview 335 valve to atmosphere 215
theory 344 valve with linear area change between two pipes
transition volume 242 216
transmission pipelines 364 valves 375
troubleshooting air inlet 241
knowledge database 21 air release 242
turbine 238 air vacuum 242
inertia 238 ball 216
operational rule 239 bodies 376
rotational speed 238 butterfly 216
specific speed 238 check 240
turbine element reference 238 circular gate 216
tutorials 105 closing characteristics 378
See also lessons. combination air 242
types of networks 366 globe 216
types of pumping systems 366 needle 216
types of valve 376 operating rule 216
typical flow 225 pistons 376
typical pressure 248 pressure relief 240
regulating 240
selection 375
U sizing 375
slow closing 243
U.S. customary 181, 188 surge anticipator 241, 243
unit system 181 surge relief 243, 415
units 41, 181, 188 theory 374
editing for FlexTables 283 time to close 216, 217
unsteady friction 391 types 376
unsteady friction loss 185 user-specified 216
unsteady state vacuum breakers 241
equations 348 vapor 256
updating via the Web 21 vapor pockets 256
upgrade 21 vapor pressure
upstream pipe 215 adjustment 257
using help 47 vapor volume 209
using with SewerGEMS 169 vapor volume maximum 209
variable speed pumps 224, 326, 372
version number 20
V view
logs 40
vacuum 256 reports 40
vacuum breakers 241 tabular 273
validation 260, 262, 266 view menu 202
value ranges 191 VSP 224, 326
valve
spherical 238
valve closing pattern 378
valve of check type at wye branch 215

HAMMER User's Guide Index-467

W

walk 298
water column separation 256
WaterCAD 130, 173, 441
import 175, 314
WaterCAD to HAMMER elements 63
WaterGEMS 130, 173, 440
import 175, 314
WaterGEMS to HAMMER elements 63
WaterObject 175
WaterObjects 314
wave propagation 363
wave reflection 364
wave speed 179
adjustments 258
wave velocity 208
wear-and-tear 255
Web updates 21
weir coefficient 245
what HAMMER is 2
What’s New in this Release 4
white
table columns 281
workshops 24
World Wide Web
See Web. 21
WYSIWYG 304

yellow
table cells 282
Young’s modulus 361

zoom 39, 202

Index-468 HAMMER User's Guide