LESSON 7: NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

UNIT 1: Definitions in Nuclear Chemistry

Introduction:

Before we delve deeper into nuclear chemistry, a clarification of terms used in nuclear science is
in order. Many terms have similar uses but have different meanings when they are correctly
defined. This is also to help remove the confusion when using these terms.

Learning Objectives:

After successful completion of this lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Define common terms used in nuclear chemistry.

2. Describe particles involved in a nuclear reaction.

Course Materials:

Nuclear reactions are reactions that involve the changes of atoms from one element, to atoms
of another element. This could be achieved by either letting an unstable isotope release its energy
along with other particles to achieve stability, or an element is bombarded by a particle, thereby
inducing changes in its nucleus.
This concept is very sought after, especially in the medieval times where alchemists sought after
what is called as the philosopher’s stone; an object that will be able to change one element into
another. These alchemists already thought that mercury would be the element that will transmute
into gold, a very prized element in those times, and tried a lot of things to do this conversion.
Modern alchemists have already done that through nuclear reactions (yet are unable to
commercialize it since the process of conversion is very expensive as compared to the price of
the yielded metal).
UÒp
RVHg + n
V
→ UÒÛ
RVHg + γ
UÒÛ
RVHg + e
ê
→ UÒÛ
ÛÒAu + v˜

These nuclear reactions are the basis of a sub-branch of chemistry called nuclear chemistry.
The term nuclear is derived from the nucleus, in which most of these changes are involved. This
branch also deals with other terms that are important to remember.
Nuclear decay is a nuclear reaction in which an unstable isotope of an element (a radioisotope)
disintegrates into a more stable form, releasing energy via radiation. These disintegrations would
be further discussed in the text.
Nuclear radiation is the transmission of energy from a nuclear reaction, through space, or even
through some sort of material. Some of these radiations could penetrate through walls.
Nuclear reactions have a bad reputation because of the usage of the nuclear bombs during World
War II, and the accidents that happened on several nuclear reactors, most notably the Chernobyl
reactor. Most of the problems encountered in the past have already been addressed and
improved upon nowadays, and nuclear energy is now one of the more desirable alternative
energies; it is relatively clean, it’s yield is more favorable as compared to other sources of energy,
and is relatively cheaper (it has a high building cost, but has very low maintenance cost) compared
to other common sources. A comparison of costs of nuclear energy to other forms is shown in
Figure 1.

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Nuclear reactions involve particles that are otherwise not seen in standard chemical reactions.
Table 1 shows the common particles and subatomic particles involved in a nuclear reaction. This
is shown so to avoid confusion in the text. Familiarization on these terms would be useful in
learning nuclear chemistry.

Figure 8 Comparative Levelized Costs of Electricity (LCOEs) and system costs in four countries
(2014 and 2012). LCOE plant costs have been taken from Projected Costs of Generating
Electricity 2015 Edition. System costs have been taken from Nuclear Energy and Renewables
(NEA, 2012). A 30% generation penetration level for onshore wind, offshore wind and solar PV
has been assumed in the NEA estimates of system costs, which include back-up costs, balancing
costs, grid connection, extension, and reinforcement costs. A discount rate of 7% is used
throughout, which is therefore consistent with the plant level LCOE estimates given in the 2015
edition of Projected Costs of Generating Electricity. The 2015 study applies a $30/t CO2 price on
fossil fuel use and uses 2013 US$ values and exchange rates. Taken from The World Nuclear
Association website (https://www.world-nuclear.org/)

Table 1 List of particles involved in nuclear reactions. Also shown is a comparison of their masses
and relative charges.
Particle Symbol Mass (kg) Rel. Charge (C)
proton p˘ , UUp 1.6726 × 10–27 +1

neutron nV , UVn 1.6749 × 10–27 0

V V 9.1094 × 10–31
electron êUe, êUβ –1

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 neutrino v˜ ~0 0

antineutrino v̊˜ ~0 0
alpha particle α , 6=He 6.6447 × 10–27 +2
V V
positron Ue, Uβ 9.1094 × 10–31 +1
gamma ray γ 0 0

Activities and Assessments:

1. Which of the following particles would attract each other? Would repel each other?
2. Rank the particles from most to least massive.
3. Using the comparison shown in Figure 1, would you advocate in the use of nuclear
energy? Why or why not?

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LESSON 7: NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
UNIT 2: Types of Nuclear Decay
Introduction:

Nuclear decays are reactions that are spontaneous naturally. These types of reactions are the
usual source of radioactivity that we get, albeit they usually give off small amounts of it in the
public.

Learning Objectives:

After successful completion of this lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Describe the five common types of nuclear decay.

2. Predict the product of a nuclear decay reaction.

Course Materials:

There are five simple types of nuclear decay: alpha decay, beta decay, gamma decay, electron
capture, and positron emission. Each of these reactions would be discussed in this part of the
text.
Alpha decay is a nuclear reaction in which an alpha particle is ejected from a nucleus of a
radioisotope. By doing so, the result would be a nuclide with an atomic number decreased by two,
and a mass number decreased by four.

Examples:
U6Ò U6\ 6
p6Gd → p=Sm + =He
=Q= ==R 6
ÒVTh → RRRa + =He
=UV =Vp 6
RpRn → R6Sm + =He
In general, for an alpha decay:
%
→ %ê6
$X
6
$ê=X′ + =He
where X is the element symbol corresponding to the atomic number Z and X′ is the
element symbol corresponding to the atomic number Z − 2.

Sample Problem 1
===
Predict the resulting nuclide when RRRa undergoes alpha decay. Show also the
complete nuclear reaction.
Ø Since we know that an alpha decay would result in a nuclide with Z − 2 and A − 4,
we have:

Z − 2 = 88 − 2 = 86
A − 4 = 222 − 4 = 218
=UR
The element that has ( = 86 is Radon, so the resulting nuclide is RpRn. The
complete reaction is
=== =UR
RRRa → RpRn + 6=He

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In a beta decay, a neutron decays into a proton and an electron. The electron is then emitted by
the nucleus, and this emitted electron is now called as a beta particle, hence the symbol and the
name. Additional studies about this reaction (as theorized by Wolfgang Pauli) has shown that
another particle, with no charge and a very small mass that it was thought of before as zero mass,
is emitted from a beta decay. This particle is called an antineutrino. Overall, the reaction would
result in an increase of one in the atomic number, while keeping the mass number intact. This is
due to the neutron converting into a proton, emitting both a beta particle and an antineutrino.

Examples:
UQU UQU V
\QI → \6Xe + êUβ + v̊˜
U6 U6 V
pC → ÛN + êUβ + v̊˜
=Q6 =Q6 V
ÒVTh → ÒUPa + êUβ + v̊˜
In general, for a beta decay:
%
→ $˘U%X′ + êUVβ + v̊˜
$X
where X is the element symbol corresponding to the atomic number ( and X′ is the
element symbol corresponding to the atomic number ( + 1.

Sample Problem 2
Complete the following nuclear reaction:
? → UQÛ V
\pBa + êUβ + v̊˜
Ø For a beta decay, we keep A intact while increasing Z by one. However, since the
original nuclide is missing, we must do the opposite. So, we need to subtract one
from Z.

( − 1 = 56 − 1 = 55
The element with ( = 55 is Cesium. So, the complete nuclear reaction is
UQÛ UQÛ
\\Cs → \pBa + êUVβ + v̊˜

For a gamma decay, a high energy photon is released, which we call as a gamma ray. This
usually happens when a neutron in an excited state releases energy (in the form of the gamma
ray) to achieve a ground state. Gamma decay does not change both the atomic number and the
mass number. They usually accompany other types of decay, most notably beta decays of most
nuclei. They can usually be omitted in writing a nuclear reaction.
In an electron capture, an electron in the first shell is captured by the nucleus. This in turn would
convert one proton in the nucleus into a neutron. This would also release a non-charged, very
small particle called a neutrino. Overall, this would result in a decrease of one in the atomic
number while keeping the mass number constant, which is the opposite of a beta decay.

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 Examples:
==
UUNa + êUVe → ==
UVNa + v˜
pÛ
QUGa + êUVe → pÛ
QVZn + v˜
In general, for an electron capture:
% V %
$X + êUe → $êUX′ + v˜
where X is the element symbol corresponding to the atomic number ( and X′ is the
element symbol corresponding to the atomic number ( − 1.

Sample Problem 3
If URÒF could hypothetically do both electron capture and positron emission, what
would be the nuclear reactions?
Ø For both these reactions, a decrease of 1 in ( would occur while s is constant.
Therefore

(−1=9−1=8
The element Oxygen has ( = 8. So, writing the reactions:
Electron capture:
UR
ÒF + êUVe → UR
RO + v˜

Positron emission:
UR UR
ÒF → RO + VUβ + v˜

Lastly, a positron emission happens when a proton in the nucleus decays into a neutron and a
positron, which is then emitted out. This also yields a neutrino. Electron capture and positron
emission have the same results: a decrease of one in the atomic number while keeping the mass
number constant, although they have different mechanisms in doing so.

Examples:
6V 6V V
UÒK → URK + Uβ + v˜
RQ pÛ V
QRSr → QÛRb + Uβ + v˜
In general, for a positron emission:
% % V
$X → $êUX′ + Uβ + v˜
where X is the element symbol corresponding to the atomic number ( and X′ is the
element symbol corresponding to the atomic number ( − 1.

131
 Additional Information
The antineutrino and the positron are examples of antiparticles in physics.
Antiparticles are usually defined as having similar mass and spin compared to their
counterparts (antineutrino is the antiparticle of a neutrino, while positron is the
antiparticle of an electron), but with opposite charges. Some particles, like a
photon, are their own antiparticle.
One particular trait of a particle – antiparticle pair is that when they collide,
annihilation occurs. Annihilation produces other particles; in the case of an
electron – positron annihilation,
V V
êUe + Ue → γ + γ

Activities and Assessments:

Write the nuclear equations for the following:

1. The beta decay of thorium–234

2. The alpha decay of radon–222
3. The positron emission of manganese–51
4. The electron capture of silver–106
5. The decay of bismuth–212 to polonium–212
6. The decay of radium–226 to radon–222
7. The decay of beryllium–7 to lithium–7

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LESSON 7: NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
UNIT 3: Kinetics of Nuclear Reactions
Introduction:

Studying the rate of our nuclear reactions would add to the understanding of their applications.
Some of these nuclear reactions are very unstable and would disintegrate in a fraction of a
second, while some have very long times before having a significant loss in amount.

Learning Objectives:

After successful completion of this lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Compute for the half – life or the decay constant of a nuclear reaction.
2. Apply the use of radioactivity to predict the amount of a sample to the emitted radiation of
the sample.

Course Materials:

Radioactive decay always follows first order kinetics.

Recall
For the first order reaction of a single reactant, which is designated as A, the
integrated rate law is
[A]3 [A]V
ln = −kt ⟹ ln = kt
[A]V [A]3
or
[A]3 = [A]V eê73
in which [A]3 is the concentration of at a time t, while [A]V is the initial concentration,
and k is the rate constant.
A first order reaction would give a linear plot when ln[A]3 is plotted against t as
shown in Figure 2.
Solving for the half – life (the time it takes for half of the substance to disintegrate):
[A]V [A]V
ln = ktU/= ⟹ ln = ktU/= ⟹ ln 2 = ktU/=
[A]3±/¶ 1
[A]V
2
ln 2 0.0693
tU/= = ≈
k k

133
Figure 9 Simulated graphs of a first order reaction in a [s]Ä vs. # plot (top left), a C%[s]Ä vs. # plot
(right), and a 1/[s]Ä vs. # plot (bottom left). Notice the linearity in the right plot.

Sample Problem 4
Gold–198 ( UÒR ÛÒAu) undergoes a beta decay to form stable
UÒR
RVHg. This reaction has a
half – life of 2.697 days.
a. What is the decay constant of gold–198?
b. When will a 25.00 g sample of gold–198 have a remaining mass of 10.00 g?
Ø To obtain the decay constant, we use the formula
ln 2 ln 2
tU/= = ⟹k=
k tU/=
ln 2
k= = 0.2570 day êU
2.697 days
Ø Applying the obtained rate constant, we can use
[A]
[A]V ln V
[A]3
ln = kt ⟹ t =
[A]3 k
where [A]3 = 10.00 g, and [A]V = 25.00 g.
25.00 g
ln 10.00 g
t= = 3.565 days
0.2570 day êU

We could also apply the integrated rate law to the activity (R) of the sample. The activity of a
sample is defined as the rate in which a sample decay. For nuclear activity, or radioactivity, we
use the SI unit of becquerel (Bq), defined as one nucleus decaying per second. An older unit
called the curie (Ci) is also used. The conversion of becquerels to curies is given by the following
equation:
1 Ci = 3.7 × 10UV Bq
The integrated rate law is now transformed:
134
 N = NV eê<3
in which N is the number of nuclei at time t, while NV is the initial number of nuclei, and λ is the
decay constant.
The half – life equation is similar:
ln 2 0.0693
tU/= = ≈
λ λ
The activity is defined as
ΔN
R=
Δt
and it can be shown that
N ln 2
R=
tU/=

This equation is very con venient in some problems in nuclear chemistry.

135
Sample Problem 5
The Goiânia incident in Brazil happened in September 13, 1987 after a forgotten
radiotherapy source was taken from an abandoned hospital site in the city. This
source has an estimated radioactivity of 1400 Ci of UQÛ
\\Cs which then contaminated
around 250 people and killed four. Given that the half – life of UQÛ
\\Cs is 30.2 years,
calculate the mass of \\Cs inside the source, in g. The molecular weight of UQÛ
UQÛ
\\Cs is
136.907089 g/mol.
Ø Using the activity equation
N ln 2 RtU/=
R= ⟹N=
tU/= ln 2

Substituting the given:

1400 Ci(30.2 years)
N=
ln 2
3.7 × 10UV Bq 3.16 × 10Û s
1400 Ci A H (30.2 years) A
1 Ci 1 year H
N=
ln 2
Note: 1 Bq = 1 s êU
N = 7.13 × 10==
After obtaining N, we can now use Avogadro’s number and the molecular
weight to obtain the mass:
?@ CD
particles AB moles A⎯B mass
1 mol 136.907089 g
m = 7.13 × 10== particles × =Q
×
6.022 × 10 particles 1 mol
m = 1.62 g
Note: Imagine that few amounts had affected that many people, and even
killed four. Compare that to the Chernobyl incident which registered
approximately 6.00 MCi, or around 70 kg of UQÛ \\Cs (you can verify this by
computation). No wonder there is stigma against nuclear energy. This is also
not necessary the total amount in the container, but the amount that has
possibly caused radiation by its decay. Sources say that here is about 93 g in
the container but remember that UQÛ \\Cs has a half – life of 30.2 years.

136
Activities and Assessments:

1. When will a 1.00 g sample of thorium–232 have a mass of 1.00 mg, knowing that the half
– life of thorium–232 is 1.405 × 1010 years?
2. A 1.00 L sample of water near a nuclear plant registered a 2.55 pCi of iodine–131. What
is the concentration of iodine–131 is dissolved in the sample (in parts per million), given
that the half – life of iodine–131 is 8 days, and its isotopic mass is 130.9061246 g/mol?
3. A sample of cobalt–60 was labelled as having an activity of 3.25 mCi, but upon inspection,
it registers an activity of 1.50 × 107 Bq. How long ago did someone labelled the sample as
having an activity of 3.25 mCi? Cobalt–60 has a half – life of 5.27 years, and has an
isotopic mass of 59.9338222 g/mol.

137
LESSON 7: NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
UNIT 4: Nuclear Stability
Introduction:

Most of the known isotopes are unstable, and experimentally, it has been proven that nuclear
decays are a way to achieve stability. These experiments have been collected into what is known
as a nuclide chart.

Learning Objectives:

After successful completion of this lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Predict if a nuclide is stable, or what type of decay it will undergo if unstable.

2. Describe a radioactive series using the nuclide chart.
4. Evaluate if a positron emission or a beta decay would happen in a given decay.

Course Materials:

Most of the known nuclides are unstable and would probably to radioactive decay until they
achieve stability. Most experimental evidences of these radioactive decays and the stable
nuclides are collected in what is called as a chart of nuclides. One such chart is shown in Figure
3.
The black area of the chart is defined as either the valley of stability, or the peninsula of stability.
Every other colored marks around it is a member of the sea of instability. Some scientists define
the top right dark areas that are separated to the other stable nuclides as the island of stability.
The other colors of the chart shows the preferred modes of decay of the unstable nuclides: ●
yellow indicates an alpha decay, ● cyan indicates a beta decay, ● pink indicates a positron
emission or an electron capture, ● light blue indicates a neutron emission, ● orange indicates a
proton emission, ● green indicates spontaneous fission. Fission would be discussed at a later
part of the module.
The chart of nuclides is used to predict what modes of decay would a given nuclide have.
For the chart, we could summarize the reactions as the following movements in the chart:
● yellow - alpha decay, go down twice and left twice
● cyan - beta decay, go up once and left once
● pink - positron emission or electron capture, go down once and right once
● orange - proton emission, go down once
● light blue - neutron emission, go left once

138
Figure 3 The Karlsruhe Nuclide Chart. The gray lines represent increments of ten, with the x-axis
as the number of neutrons, while the y-axis is the number of protons. Calcium-48 and Lead-208
are shown as examples. Obtained from Sóti, Z., Magill, J., & Dreher, R. (2019). Karlsruhe Nuclide
Chart – New 10th edition 2018. EPJ Nuclear Sciences & Technologies, 5, 6.
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 Sample Problem 6
Predict the mode of decay of the following nuclides.
a. Magnesium–23
b. Helium–5
c. Iodine–127
d. Neptunium–237

Ø For magnesium–23, =Q U=Mg, it has 12 protons and 11 neutrons. Locating this in the
nuclide chart, we have a pink box, which indicates a positron emission or electron
capture. The reaction would be
GH ~Ö ˜.I.
=Q
U=Mg A⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯B =Q
UUNa
Ø For helium–5, \=He, it has 2 protons and 3 neutrons. Locating this in the nuclide chart,
we have a light blue box, which indicates a neutron emission. The reaction would be
\
=He → 6=He + UVn
U=Û
Ø For iodine–127, \QI,
it has 53 protons and 74 neutrons. Locating this in the nuclide
chart, we have a black box, which indicates that it is a stable nuclide. No decay is
expected.

Ø For neptunium–237, =QÛÒQNp, it has 93 protons and 144 neutrons. Locating this in the
nuclide chart, we have a yellow box, which indicates an alpha decay. The reaction
would be
=QÛ =QQ
ÒQNp
→ ÒUPa + 6=He
All these answers are seen in Figure 4.

=Q
U=Mg
=Q 6 \
UUNa =He =He

=QÛ
ÒQNp
U=Û
\QI
=QQ
ÒUPa

Figure 10 Nuclide Chart Diagrams: positron emission of magnesium–23 (top left), neutron
emission of helium–5 (top right), stable iodine–127 (bottom left), and alpha decay of neptunium–
237 (bottom right).

This chart can also be used to predict what we call as a decay series, reactions that unstable
nuclides would react until a stable nuclide form.

140
Sample Problem 7
Write the whole decay series of Lutetium–151.
Ø Lutetium–151, U\U
ÛULu, has 71 protons and 80 neutrons. In the nuclide chart, it is
colored orange, suggesting a proton emission.
U\U U\V
ÛULu → ÛVYb + UUp
U\V
From ÛVYb(70 protons, 80 neutrons), positron emissions or electron captures (pink
boxes) would happen until U\V
p6Gd.

GH ~Ö ˜.I.
U\V
ÛVYb A⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯B U\V
pÒTm + v˜
GH ~Ö ˜.I.
U\V U\V
pÒ Tm A⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯B pREr + v˜
H
G ~Ö ˜.I.
U\V U\V
pREr A⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯B pÛHo + v˜
H
G ~Ö ˜.I.
U\V U\V
pÛHo A⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯B ppDy + v˜
GH ~Ö ˜.I.
U\V U\V
ppDy A⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯B p\Tb + v˜
GH ~Ö ˜.I.
U\V
p\ Tb A⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯B U\V p6Gd + v˜
From U\V
p6Gd (64 protons, 86 neutrons), alpha decays (yellow boxes) would happen
until we reach the stable U6=
pVNd nuclide.

U\V U6p 6
p6Gd → p=Sm + =He
U6p U6= 6
p=Sm → pVNd + =He
The decay series of lutetium–151 (shown in Figure 5) is
MH ? ? ? ?
U\U
ÛU Lu AB U\V U\V U\V U\V
ÛVYb → pÒTm → pREr → pÛHo →
? ? N N
U\V U\V U\V U6p U6=
ppDy → p\Tb → p6Gd → p=Sm → pVNd

141
 U\U
ÛULu
U\V
ÛVYb

U\V
pÒTm
U\V
pREr
U\V
pÛHo
U\V
ppDy
U\V
p\Tb
U\V
p6Gd

U6p
p=Sm

U6=
pVNd

Figure 11 Nuclide Chart Diagram of the decay series of lutetium–151.

How do we know when an electron capture, or a positron emission would happen? A good thing
to remember is that electron capture would be favored mostly in heavier neutron – deficient
elements. This is because it would have a smaller change in mass if electron capture happens as
compared to a positron emission.
If the mass of the reacting nuclide is greater than the sum of the mass of the product nuclide and
the mass of two electrons, most likely that positron emission would take place.

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Sample Problem 8
Predict the type of reaction of the six decays in the previous problem, whether they
are positron emissions or electron captures.
Isotope Atomic Mass (u)
U\V
ÛVYb 149.95820
U\V
pÒTm 149.94996
U\V
pREr 149.93791
U\V
pÛHo 149.93350
U\V
ppDy 149.92559
U\V
p\Tb 149.92366
U\V
p6Gd 149.91866

Ø To solve this, we would need to compare the mass of the reactant nuclide to the
mass of the product nuclide plus two electrons. Knowing that the mass of electrons
in kg, we convert it to u.
1 u
9.1094 × 10–QU kg × = 0.00054858 u
1.66054 × 10ê=Û kg
Two electrons would then have a mass of
2 × 0.00054858 u = 0.00109716 u ≈ 0.00110 u.
We then add the mass of the two electrons to the product nuclides:
Reactant Atomic Product Atomic Mass + 2e
Nuclide Mass (u) Nuclide Mass (u) (u)
U\V U\V
ÛVYb 149.95820 pÒTm 149.94996 149.95106
U\V 149.94996 U\V 149.93791 149.93901
pÒTm pREr
U\V 149.93791 U\V 149.93350 149.93460
pREr pÛHo
U\V U\V
pÛHo 149.93350 ppDy 149.92559 149.92669
U\V U\V
ppDy 149.92559 p\Tb 149.92366 149.92476
U\V U\V
p\Tb 149.92366 p6Gd 149.91866 149.91976

143
 Sample Problem 8 cont.
All the masses of the reactant nuclides are larger than the masses of the
product nuclides plus two electrons. This would mean that all of them are
positron emission reactions. Updating the decay series of lutetium–151, we
have
MH GH GH GH GH
U\U
ÛULu AB U\V B U\V
ÛVYb A B U\V
pÒTm A B U\V
pREr A pÛHo A
B
GH GH N N
U\V U\V
pp Dy A
B p\ Tb AB U\V U6p U6=
p6Gd → p=Sm → pVNd
This procedure would also show that magnesium–23 would undergo
positron emission. (You could try to solve for that, with the isotopic mass of
magnesium–23 as 22.99412 u, and sodium – 23 has an isotopic mass of
22.98977 u.)

Additional Information
Never confuse unstable as fast reacting. An unstable nuclide could have a half –
life shorter than a second, while others could take years, or even several millennia
before reaching their half – life. These ones that have relatively high longevity are
referred to as metastable.
As an example, the isotope tantalum – 180m (the m here stands for metastable) is
an excited state nuclide but has a calculated half – life of at least 4.5 × 10Up years,
which is about three million times the current age of the universe.

Activities and Assessments:

Using the interactive nuclide chart, predict the most probable decay series of the following [take
note of the differences in color coding]; silicon–43, xenon–110, and protactinium–230.

144
LESSON 7: NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
UNIT 5: The Mass-Energy Equivalence
Introduction:

So how does a nuclear reaction release so much energy? We turn to one of the most famous
scientists of the twentieth century to find out: Albert Einstein, and his mass – energy equivalence.

Learning Objectives:

After successful completion of this lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Define nuclear binding energy and mass defect.

2. Apply the mass – energy equivalence equation to calculate energies contained in nuclear
reactions.

Course Materials:

The term “nuclear” is associated nowadays to a strong energy event, whether it is about the
energy sources of a nuclear power plant, or from the catastrophe that the atomic bombs did in
Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the tail end of World War II. Where do we get this energy?
We attribute the source of this energy from the nuclear binding energy. This energy is the
smallest amount of energy required to break down a nucleus of an atom into its elementary
particles. Having a higher nuclear binding energy means that the nucleus is more stable.
For a more accurate description of the stability of nuclides, we divide the nuclear binding energy
by the number of nucleons (total number of protons and neutrons, or simply mass number) to
obtain the binding energy per nucleon or BEN:

EP
BEN =
A

in which EP is the nuclear binding energy, and A is the mass number.

The graph of BEN for stable nuclei as a function of A is shown on Figure 6.

To obtain the binding energy, we need to know the source of this energy. Via careful
experimentation, it is shown that when you add all the individual masses of the protons, neutrons,
and electrons of an atom, it will be larger than the mass of the atom itself. This difference is termed
as the mass defect.

145
Figure 12 Graph of binding energy per nucleon of stable nuclei. Iron–56 is the most stable
nucleus, as shown in this graph. Being the most stable nucleus, smaller nuclei does fusion, while
larger nuclei does fission so that they can achieve the same stability or be near it. Both processes
are exothermic in nature. Obtained from
https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/Book%3A_University_Physics_(Ope
nStax) under a Creative Commons Attribution License (by 4.0).

So, how do we relate mass defect and nuclear binding energy? This was answered by one of the
most famous equations of Einstein: the mass – energy equivalence, or simply:
E = mc =
This equation relates the mass defect (Δm) and the nuclear binding energy (EP ), having the
square of the speed of light in a vacuum as the direct proportionality constant:
EP = (Δm)c =

Sample Problem 9
Tritium, QUH, is the radioactive isotope of hydrogen. It has an isotopic mass of
3.0160492 u. What is the binding energy of a tritium atom? What is the binding
energy of a mole of tritium atoms?
Ø First, we need to convert u to kg:

1.66054 × 10ê=Û kg
3.0160492 u × = 5.00827 × 10ê=Û kg
1 u
Calculating the sum of the individual masses of the nucleons in tritium (one
proton and two neutrons)
1.6726 × 10–=Û kg + 2(1.6749 × 10–=Û kg) = 5.0224 × 10ê=Û kg

146
 Sample Problem 9 cont.
The mass defect is:
Δm = 5.0224 × 10ê=Û kg − 5.00827 × 10ê=Û kg = 1.413 × 10ê=Ò kg
Solving for the nuclear binding energy:
EP = (Δm)c =
m =
EP = (1.413 × 10ê=Ò kg) l2.998 × 10R n = 1.27 × 10êU= J
s
The value is small, so we usually convert this into megaelectron volts (MeV).
1 MeV
EP = 1.27 × 10êU= J × = 7.94 MeV
1.60 × 10êUQ J
Ø For a mole of tritium atoms:
J
EP = 1.27 × 10êU= J × 6.022 × 10=Q molêU = 7.65 × 10UU
mol

Activities and Assessments:

Calculate the nuclear binding energy for a helium–5 atom (isotopic mass = 5.012057 u), a
sodium–22 atom (isotopic mass = 21.99443742 u), and a cobalt–60 atom (isotopic mass =
59.9338222 u).

147
LESSON 7: NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
UNIT 6: Nuclear Transmutation
Introduction:

We now discuss nuclear reactions that are not necessarily naturally occurring, and usually
requires an input of energy to start. Nuclear transmutations are thought of as the modern alchemy
procedures that the scientists of old have no ability to do so.

Learning Objectives:

After successful completion of this lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Describe a nuclear transmutation.

2. Apply the shorthand notation on describing a nuclear transmutation.
3. Predict missing components of a nuclear transmutation.

Course Materials:

Nuclear transmutation is defined as the transformation of one nuclide into another, via
bombardment of particles. It is essentially the opposite of a nuclear decay. As such, these
reactions are nonspontaneous.
There are nuclear transmutations that are naturally occurring in our environment. One such
reaction is the production of carbon–14 in the atmosphere. It is formed by the absorption of
neutrons (from cosmic rays in the upper atmospheres) by the nitrogen–14 atoms.
U6 U U6 U
ÛN + Vn → pC + Up
We classify transmutations based on what particle is used to bombard the nuclide (as it usually
requires high energy) and what particle is released by the nucleus after bombardment. For the
neutron bombardment of nitrogen–14, we call them as an (n,p) reaction since the neutron is
absorbed by the nucleus, and a proton is released by the nucleus. This type of reactions can be
written in a shorthand notation: writing, in order, the reacting nuclide, the bombarding particle, the
ejected particle and the product nuclide. We enclose the particles inside parentheses. For the
previous reaction, the shorthand is
U6 U6
ÛN (n, p) pC
Remember that to balance these equations, the total Z and A should be equal in both sides.

148
Sample Problem 10
Write the shorthand notations of the following nuclear transmutations:
U=Ò U UQV V
• \QI + Vn → \6Xe + êUβ
=QÒ 6 =6= U
• Ò6Pu + =He → ÒpCm + Vn
UV U Û 6
• \B + Vn → QLi + =He

Ø For the first reaction, we have a neutron as the absorbed particle, and a beta
particle as the ejected particle. Thus, the shorthand would be
U=Ò ê UQV
\QI (n, β ) \6Xe
Ø For the second reaction, we have an alpha particle as the absorbed particle, and
a neutron as the ejected particle. Thus, the shorthand would be
=QÒ =6=
Ò6Pu (α, n) ÒpCm
Ø For the third reaction, we have a neutron as the absorbed particle, and an alpha
particle as the ejected particle. Thus, the shorthand would be
UV Û
\B (n, α) QLi
Note: the first nuclear reaction shown in unit 1 is a nuclear transmutation, while
the second one is an electron capture reaction. Following our shorthand notation,
we would have
UÒp UÒÛ
RVHg (n, γ) RVHg

Sample Problem 11
Predict the missing nuclide / particle and write the complete reactions of the
following shorthand nuclear transmutations:
Up
• RO (p, α) ?
=Û =6
• UQAl (? , α) UUNa
UQ U6
• pC (n, ? ) pC
UÛ
• ? (α, p) RO

Ø We write the first reaction as

Up
+ UUp → ? + 6=He
RO
To balance this, we determine the totals of both sides: The left side has
ZS = 8 + 1 = 9, and AS = 16 + 1 = 17. The right side has ZT = Z + 2, and
AT = A + 4. Since ZS = ZT and AS = AT , Z = 9 − 2 = 7 and A = 17 − 4 =
13. The element with seven as its atomic number is nitrogen, so the
missing nuclide is nitrogen–13. Therefore, the reaction is
Up U UQ 6
RO + Up → ÛN + =He
Ø We write the second reaction as
=Û =6 6
UQAl + ? → UUNa + =He
To balance this, we determine the totals of both sides: The left side has
ZS = 13 + Z, and AS = 27 + A. The right side has ZT = 11 + 2 = 13, and
AT = 24 + 4 = 28. Since ZS = ZT and AS = AT , Z = 13 − 13 = 0 and A =
28 − 27 = 1. A neutron is described by having a zero atomic number and
one as its mass
149
 Sample Problem 11 cont.
number. We then write the reaction as
=Û U =6 6
UQAl + Vn → UUNa + =He
Ø We write the third reaction as
UQ U U6
pC + Vn → pC + ?
Notice that the identity of the element did not change. This means that the
atomic number did not change. We can also see that the mass number of
the product nuclide is equal to the sum of the mass numbers of the reactant
side. This means that the missing nuclide has Z = 0 and A = 0. This
pertains to a gamma ray. The reaction, therefore, is
UQ U U6 V
pC + Vn → pC + Vγ
We again attribute the release of the gamma ray as a way for the excited
nuclide to relax, and release energy.

Ø We write the fourth reaction as

? + 6=He → UÛRO + UUp

To balance this, we determine the totals of both sides: The left side has
ZS = Z + 2, and AS = A + 4. The right side has ZT = 8 + 1 = 9, and AT =
17 + 1 = 18. Since ZS = ZT and AS = AT , Z = 9 − 2 = 7 and A = 17 − 4 =
13. Nitrogen has an atomic number of seven. Therefore, the reaction would
be written as
UQ 6 UÛ U
ÛN + =He → RO + Up
This reaction is generally known as the first induced nuclear transmutation,
credited to Ernest Rutherford in 1919 about his experiments conducted in
the University of Manchester. This also led to the discovery of the proton as
a subatomic particle. It is not a surprise that Rutherford is known nowadays
as the father of nuclear physics.

Activities and Assessments:

Complete the following shorthand notations:

• ? (p, α) pQLi
• QU Q6
U\P (α, ? ) UpS
• =6=ÒpCm (α, n) ?
• =\ =6
U=Mg (? , p) UUNa

150
LESSON 7: NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
UNIT 7: Nuclear Fission and Fusion
Introduction:

The types of reactions that are thought of as the ones with the most energy output are fission and
fusion type reactions. These reactions, therefore, are very important, especially their applications
to society in both beneficial and harmful ways.

Learning Objectives:

After successful completion of this lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Describe a nuclear fission reaction and a nuclear fusion reaction.

2. Apply the mass – energy equivalence to demonstrate the energy release of these
reactions.

Course Materials:

Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in which a nuclide, usually large, is split into smaller nuclides
and particles, via decay or bombardment of particles. It also releases energy, and the total mass
of the products is less than the total mass of the reactants (as stated by the mass – energy
equivalence.
Some nuclides naturally decay via fission, as shown in the nuclide chart. These nuclides are
especially large and heavy nuclei. We term these decays as spontaneous fission. Some other
nuclei are capable of spontaneous fission, but it is not the necessarily the kinetically favored
reaction. Take for example, plutonium–244 can have spontaneous fission with a variety of
released product nuclides and particles, however 99.88% of the time, it will have an alpha decay,
as compared to 0.12% of it having spontaneous fission.
Induced fission reactions are fission reactions that require a high energy to conduct. This energy
can be via bombardment of a variety of particles or electromagnetic radiation via gamma rays,
causing the nuclide to be excited and undergo the fission process.
Commonly, neutrons are by-products of a fission reaction, along with the release of high amounts
of energy (from the change in mass, and application of the mass – energy equivalence) and
product nuclides. These neutrons, however, could start a new set of fission reactions, especially
when there is a good amount of available nuclides. We term this continuous process as a nuclear
chain reaction. The principle of these chain reactions are used in both nuclear power reactors
(controlled, safe) and in nuclear weapons (uncontrolled, dangerous).
To calculate the energy released in a nuclear reaction, we still need to obtain the change in mass.
In this case however, this change in mass is between the total mass of the reactants and the total
mass of the products.

151
Sample Problem 12
The spontaneous fission of californium–252 releases xenon–140 and ruthenium–
108. How many neutrons are released in this process?

Ø Writing the following reaction, we have

=\= U6V
ÒRCf → \6Xe+ UVR U
66Ru + ? Vn
Adding the atomic numbers, we could see that the totals are balanced. For
the mass numbers
252 = 140 + 108 + (x)(1)
in which x is the number of neutrons. Solving for x
252 = 248 + x ⟹ x = 252 − 248 = 4
Therefore, there are four neutrons that are products of the reaction. The
balanced reaction is
=\= U6V UVR U
ÒRCf → \6Xe + 66Ru + 4 Vn

Sample Problem 13
The induced fission of uranium–235 releases krypton–92 and barium–141. How
many neutrons are released in this process? How much energy does a mole of
uranium–235 would release via fission? Compare this to the natural alpha decay of
uranium–235.

Ø Writing the following reaction, we have

=Q\ U Ò=
Ò=U + Vn→ Qp Kr + U6U U
\pBa + ? Vn
Adding the atomic numbers, we could see that the totals are balanced. For
the mass numbers
235 + 1 = 92 + 141 + (x)(1)
in which x is the number of neutrons. Solving for x
236 = 233 + x ⟹ x = 236 − 233 = 3
Therefore, there are three neutrons that are products of the reaction. The
balanced reaction is
=Q\ U Ò= U6U U
Ò=U + Vn → QpKr + \pBa + 3 Vn

152
Sample Problem 13 cont.
Ø The isotope masses are shown below:

Isotope Atomic Mass (u)

=Q\
Ò=U 235.0439299
Ò=
QpKr 91.926156
U6U
\pBa 140.914412
=QU
ÒVTh 231.036304
6
=He 4.001506

A neutron would have a mass of

1 u
1.6749 × 10–=Û kg × = 1.0086478 u
1.66054 × 10ê=Û kg
For the change in mass of uranium – 235 fission, the total mass of the
reactants is
235.0439299 u + 1.0086478 u = 236.0525777 u
The total mass of the products is
91.926156 u + 140.914412 u + 3(1.0086478 u) = 235.8665114 u
The change in mass is
236.0525777 u − 235.8665114 u = 0.1860663 u
Converting this to kg:
1.66054 × 10ê=Û kg
0.1860663 u × = 3.089705 × 10ê=R kg
1 u
Using the mass – energy equivalence
E = (Δm)c =
m =
E = (3.089705 × 10ê=R kg) l2.998 × 10R n = 2.777028 × 10êUU J
s
For one mole of uranium–235,
J
2.777028 × 10êUU J × 6.022 × 10=Q molêU = 1.672326 × 10UQ
mol
Ø The alpha decay of uranium–235 is
=Q\ =QU
Ò=U → ÒVTh + 6=He
The change in mass is
235.0439299 u − (231.036304 u + 4.001506 u) = 0.0061199 u
1.66054 × 10ê=Û kg
0.0061199 u × = 1.016234 × 10ê=Ò kg
1 u
The energy released would be
m =
E = (1.016234 × 10ê=Ò kg) l2.998 × 10R n = 9.133915 × 10êUQ J
s
For one mole of uranium–235,
J
9.133915 × 10êUQ J × 6.022 × 10=Q molêU = 5.500444 × 10UU
mol

153
 Sample Problem 13 cont.
Notice that the uranium fission has a higher energy as compared to the
alpha decay of uranium by around thirty times. It is also important to know
that just by investing one neutron in the nuclear fission, three neutrons
would be produced, which in turn would initiate new nuclear fissions of
uranium–235 (provided that they are available in the reaction system). Alpha
decay of uranium–235 has a half – life of around 700 million years, so to
wait for one mole of uranium–235 would most likely be longer (and the
energy would be distributed on that time span) as compared to a fission
setup where the reaction would sustain itself (termed as a critical condition,
with the correct amount as the critical mass).
Do note that the Little Boy atomic bomb dropped in Hiroshima has this
reaction in concept.

Nuclear fusion happens when light nuclides are forced together, causing them to combine into
one or more nuclides and additional particles. Similar with fission, the total mass of the products
will be less than the total mass of the reactants, as the reaction also releases energy (as stated
by the mass – energy equivalence).
Important fusion reactions are still in the sun, as well as all stars in the universe. The origin of
virtually all elements is attributed to these stars, which we call the process as nucleosynthesis.

Sample Problem 14
One of the important synthesis reaction cycles to produce helium in stars is called
the Bethe–Weizsäcker cycle, or the CNO-I cycle. From carbon–12, the step – by –
step processes are a hydrogen fusion, a positron emission, two hydrogen fusions, a
positron emission, and a hydrogen fusion with a released alpha particle. Determine
the nuclear reactions.
Ø Starting with carbon–12, it is given that
U=
pC + UUH → ?
Since there are no side products, we just add both the atomic number and mass
number. We then have Z = 7 and A = 13. This pertains to nitrogen–13, so
U=
pC + UUH → UQÛN
Ø For the positron emission of nitrogen–13,
UQ
ÛN → ? + VUβ + v˜
Having a constant mass number, and subtracting one to the atomic number, we
know that carbon–13 is produced, so
UQ UQ V
ÛN → pC + Uβ + v˜

154
 Sample Problem 14 cont.
Ø With carbon–13 and its hydrogen fusion,
UQ
pC + UUH → ?
Since there are no side products, we just add both the atomic number and mass
number. We then have Z = 7 and A = 14. This pertains to nitrogen–14, so
UQ
pC + UUH → U6
ÛN
Ø The hydrogen fusion of nitrogen–14 is
U6
ÛN + UUH → ?
Since there are no side products, we just add both the atomic number and mass
number. We then have Z = 8 and A = 15. This pertains to oxygen–15, so
U6
ÛN + UUH → U\
RO
Ø For the positron emission of oxygen–15,
U\
RO → ? + VUβ + v˜
Having a constant mass number, and subtracting one to the atomic number, we
know that nitrogen–15 is produced, so
U\ U\ V
RO → ÛN + Uβ + v˜
Ø For the final reaction, it is given that
U\
ÛN + UUH → ? + 6=He
Computing for the missing nuclide, we have Z = 7 + 1 − 2 = 6 and A = 15 + 1 −
4 = 12. Therefore, the missing nuclide is carbon–12, thus completing the cycle.
The reaction is
U\
ÛN + UUH → U=
pC + 6=He
The overall cycle is

Most scientists believe that fusion reactors are the next step in nuclear power technology. They
determined that these reactors can be fueled by deuterium and tritium, both isotopes of hydrogen.
Deuterium is available in various sources of water, and so it is evaluated that the Earth has a
155
bountiful supply of it as long as there is water in Earth. The problem is that so far it is not feasible,
because of a lot of parameters that have not been met. We hope for a future where this type of
technology would be achievable.

Activities and Assessments:

1. Calculate the energy released by the reaction given in sample problem 12 and compare it
to the energy released by the alpha decay of californium–252.
=\= U6V UVR
ÒRCf → \6Xe + 66Ru + 4 UVn
=\= =6R 6
ÒRCf → ÒpCm + =He

Isotope Atomic Mass (u)

=\=
ÒRCf 252.081626
U6V
\6Xe 139.92165
UVR
66Ru 107.91017
=6R
ÒpCm 248.072349
6
=He 4.001506

2. The CNO-IV cycle is a related cycle to the CNO-I cycle but is only seen on massive stars.
It starts with an oxygen–18 nuclide and conducts the following steps: a hydrogen fusion
with a gamma ray release, a hydrogen fusion with a release of an alpha particle, a
hydrogen fusion with a gamma ray release, a positron emission, a hydrogen fusion with a
gamma ray release, and a positron emission. Determine the nuclear reactions and draw
a cycle that represents the CNO-IV cycle.

156
LESSON 7: NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
UNIT 8: Nuclear Radiation
Introduction:

Radiation has a bad reputation, as it is usually a related term to mutation, cancer and other terms
that are not necessarily a good thing. We need to correct those statements so that we could
correctly describe these radiations.

Learning Objectives:

After successful completion of this lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Describe the properties of radiation.

2. Compare the penetration capabilities of ionizing radiation.

Course Materials:

Almost all nuclear reactions deal with nuclear radiation. We can classify these radiations based
on what they give off as products. Alpha radiation happens when alpha particles are released,
beta radiation when beta particles are a product, and gamma radiation when gamma rays are
released. Fast neutrons could also be accounted for radiation but is seldom found outside nuclear
fission reactors.

We could classify radiation as a particle radiation, in which a particle is given off (alpha particles,
beta particles and neutrons), or an electromagnetic radiation, in which only pure energy is
radiated, without any mass whatsoever (gamma rays). X-rays are also classified as
electromagnetic radiation. They are very identical to gamma rays, but they usually have a non-
nuclear origin. We include x-rays in our discussion of radiation as a reference.

Additional Information
X-rays are produced by electrons, protons, or ions, with enough energy, that hit a
material that acts as the opposite electrode of the particle used. Medical x-ray tubes
usually use tungsten as the material target.

Another classification of radiation is if it affects matter that it hits or passes through. Non-ionizing
radiation would not have enough energy to break molecular bonding or remove an electron from
an atom. This is the typical radiations that we encounter; visible light, heat, radio waves and
microwaves are all examples of this radiation.

Ionizing radiation, however, has enough energy for bond breaking or electron removing. All the
particle radiations mentioned, as well as both gamma rays and x-rays are ionizing in nature.
The ionizing radiations have differing penetration capabilities.

• Alpha particles are the least penetrating, as it can be easily blocked by paper, or even the
air.
• Beta particles can pass through paper, and the human skin, but is blocked by thin sheets
of metal or plastic, or a thick piece of wood.

157
 • Both gamma rays and x-rays have higher penetration capabilities, and require a very thick
layer of concrete, or a thick layer of dense materials, like lead.
• Fast neutrons have exceptional penetrating power, requiring very thick layers of concrete
or water, which should also contain hydrogen, to neutralize their penetration capabilities.

The penetration capabilities of these radiations are shown in Figure 13.

This does not mean that it is always dangerous to be in the presence of ionizing radiation. Some
of these are beneficial in various applications, which we would discuss later.
As said before, becquerel and curie are units of the amount of radiation. They pertain to the
radiation emitted by a source. As we know, not all that radiation would reach a target. This means
that we need another measurement for radiation exposure dose, or the amount of radiation
absorbed, as applied to human beings.
We define a sievert (Sv) as the amount of radiation energy absorbed in a human’s body per unit
mass (J/kg). A comparison of absorbed doses is shown in https://xkcd.com/radiation/.

Additional Information
Some people use the banana equivalent dose (BED) as a more accessible unit for
comparison of radiation exposure dose. It is equivalent to 0.1 µSv, and is estimated as the
amount of radiation that the body absorbs after eating one banana.
How is a banana radioactive? It is because they naturally contain potassium–40, which is
radioactive. Do not be scared though, as this dose is very small. In fact, you need to eat
around 200 bananas to have an equivalent amount of radiation in a chest x-ray, a chest CT
scan would be equivalent to 70,000 bananas, and a sure fatal dose would be 80,000,000
bananas!
Another important thing to consider is that the body has natural regulation reactions when it
comes to potassium–40 (as the body can expel the radioactive isotope), so overall, its
amount inside the body is constant. Eat as much bananas as you like!

Figure 7 Degrees of Penetration of the Ionizing Radiation

Activities and Assessments:

How would you then design a house that can shield you from nuclear radiation in case there is
nuclear fallout in your vicinity? Would it be practical to do so?
158
LESSON 7: NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
UNIT 9: Applications of Nuclear Reactions
Introduction:

How do we now use the knowledge surrounding these nuclear reactions? It turns out that a lot of
convenient and important applications are, in principle, guided by the nuclear reactions that we
have studied so far. Let us look at some of them.

Learning Objectives:

After successful completion of this lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Describe types pf nuclear accidents by their scope.

2. Discuss various applications of nuclear reactions in medicine, food, and other industries.

Course Materials:

Nuclear reactions have already been utilized by various industries in the world. Most of its
controlled applications are beneficial, but again that control should be strictly implemented. Let
us discuss these applications.
Nuclear reactors are facilities that utilize controlled nuclear reactions (mostly nuclear fissions)
as a source of energy. They usually utilize uranium–235 as the primary source in the core. The
reaction is controlled in a way that the chain reaction would proceed, but the number of neutrons
produced is observed and adjusted accordingly. Too few of the yielded neutrons and the chain
reaction would stop. Too many neutrons would make the reaction uncontrolled and will most likely
result in damage and destruction via an explosion and / or what we call as a nuclear meltdown,
damages caused by overheating of the core.
Nuclear accidents are categorized using the International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale,
or simply INES. It is a logarithmic scale (like the Richter magnitude scale for earthquakes) in which
a level is usually perceived as ten times the intensity of a previous level. So far, there are eight
levels, from zero to seven.
• An event that has no safety relevance is considered as “out of scale”. One such example
is an unknown parcel, which is thought of as a bomb, was discovered near a nuclear plant
in the U.S. (1999)
• A 0 in the INES is called a deviation, in which no safety significance is registered. A
shutdown of a reactor in Argentina because of an increase in tritium in the compartments
of the reactor (2006) is an example.
• A 1 in the INES is an anomaly, which include overexposure more than the annual limit (1
mSv for a member of the public), or lower impact problems. An example would be
discoveries of cracks in graphite bricks above the limit in a nuclear power station in the
U.K. (2018)
• A 2 in the INES is an incident, with higher than 10 mSv exposure to the public or the
annual limit of workers (50 mSv), or significant failures in safety but with no actual
consequences. A short circuit causing the shutdown of a reactor in Germany because of
the weather (1977) is an example.
• A 3 in the INES is a serious incident, in which ten times the worker limit has been reached,
or near – accidents and loss of a radioactive source happened. An example would be a
fire in a nuclear reactor in Spain caused a shutdown because of the destruction of control
systems (1989).
159
 • A 4 in the INES is an accident with local consequences. This include at least one death
from radiation, or release of significant amounts of radioactive material that has high
probability of public exposure. Leakage of around 770,000 tons of highly radioactive water
in the Barents Sea due to a damage in nuclear facility in once known as the Soviet Union
(1982) is an example.
• A 5 in the INES is an accident with wider consequences. This include limited release of
radioactive material that require planned countermeasures, and several deaths from
radiation has occurred. The Goiâna accident in Brazil is classified as this.
• A 6 in the INES is a serious accident, in which a significant release of radioactive material
that require planned countermeasures has occurred. Only one of these has been
regarded, so far; the Kyshtym disaster of 1957.
• A 7 in the INES is a major accident, in which a major release of radioactive material that
require planned countermeasures has occurred. The Chernobyl disaster of 1986, and the
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster of 2011 are the only two events that are Level 7
accidents. They are also probably the two most famous nuclear accidents.
Nuclear reactors usually employ control rods for the regulation of the neutron flux. They are
usually made of boron or cadmium metal, and these absorb the neutrons. Raising or lowering
these rods would decrease or increase the neutron flux.
Some of the neutrons are also very energetic and fast, and they are aptly called as fast neutrons.
Nuclear reactors employ what we call as moderators to help lessen the energies of these
neutrons. Usually, water or deuterated water is used as a moderator. They also function as
coolants in this case, since the reactions all produce a lot of heat.
Positron Emission Tomography scans, or more commonly known as PET scans, are used to
image the physiological aspects of the body rather than the anatomy (as a CT scan would do). It
employs using radionuclides that have short half – lives for tracing of its activities in the body, and
are positron emissions, since the scanner employs electrons, and this particle – antiparticle pair
would produce two gamma rays that are detected in the scan. Most applications would be in
clinical diagnosis of certain diseases and disorders, especially the determination of benign or
malignant tumors. Table 2 shows the used nuclides for this type of scanning.

Table 2 Radionuclides used as tracers in PET Scans and their target uses
Nuclide Target
Carbon–11 Brain scan imaging
Nitrogen–13 Brain, heart, and liver scan imaging
Oxygen–15 Lung functions

Fluorine–18 Bone scanning and sugar metabolism in the brain

Copper–64 Diagnosis of lung and liver diseases
Krypton–79 Cardiovascular function assessments

Radiation therapy is the use of high doses of radiation to kill cancer cells and lessen the size of
tumors. It could be employed as an external beam radiotherapy (EBRT) where an outside source
of irradiation (usually x-rays, but gamma rays from cobalt-60 could also be used) is directed at
the tumor from outside the body, an unsealed source radionuclide therapy (RNT) where injection
or ingestion of radiopharmaceuticals (medicine using radioactive nuclides like iodine–131 for
thyroid conditions, radium–223, strontium–89, and samarium–153 for bone metastasis,

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phosphorus–32 for bone marrow conditions, and yttrium–90 for liver tumors, among others), or
via brachytherapy where a sealed radiation source (usually iodine–125 or cesium–131, inside a
protective capsule or wire that allows the radiation to take place without the contents dissolving
in the body fluids) is attached near the target tumor.

Food irradiation is the application of ionizing radiation in food. Contrary to some beliefs, it does
not make a food radioactive. It also maintains the nutritional quality and the consistency of the
food’s taste, texture, or appearance.

Food irradiation is employed because it extends the shelf life of food, and it improves the food’s
safety since it eradicates insects and microorganisms that can grow in the food itself. So far, there
have no proved long – term effects of consumption of irradiated food.
Food irradiation usually employs x-rays (non – nuclear origin) or gamma rays (sourced from either
cobalt–60 or cesium–137).

Radioactive dating is the employment of comparing abundance ratios of a radioactive isotope

to estimate the age of a material. Materials that are from living sources have their age tested using
carbon–14 as a basis (called carbon dating). This is because a dead source could not exchange
carbon from the environment it has, and so the intact carbon–14 in the sample would undergo its
radioactive decay; fewer carbon–14 than the typical ratio of carbon–14 to carbon–12 would mean
that the sample has gone into radioactive decay. Using the half-life of carbon–14 as a basis
(around 5730 years), we could estimate the age of the sample.
For non – living sources, other radionuclides are employed; uranium – lead dating (using the
decay series of uranium–235 to lead–207 and uranium–238 to lead–206) for zircon samples,
potassium – argon dating (uses electron capture / positron decay of potassium–40 to argon–40)
for micas, feldspars and hornblendes, and the iodine–129 – xenon–129 chronometer for meteorite
age dating.
The use of nuclear reactions in warfare is also extensive. Mine detectors employ sensors that
detect nitrogen radioactivity, which would differentiate them from just scraps of metal on the
ground. The usage of nuclear weapons and the destruction it caused towards the end of World
War II, and the Cold War threats from the development of these weapons, caused the signing of
the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, as a way to prevent the transfer of nuclear weapons (non-
proliferation), cessation of the nuclear arms race (disarmament), and the development of nuclear
energy for peaceful purposes.
Other uses that employ various nuclear reactions include the following: smoke detectors (which
contains americium–241 that releases alpha particles in the short range of air, maintaining a
circuit that would be obstructed by smoke), neutron activation analysis (usage of bombardment
of neutrons to determine concentration of a stable element in a sample, first applied in an iridium
sample attributed to an asteroid impact) now used to determine the amount of chemicals inside
paintings, and industrial applications like the use of gamma rays to evaluate the thickness of parts
in the automobile, aircraft and construction industries.

Activities and Assessments:

You are asked to give an opinion about whether the Bataan Nuclear Power Plant should be
reopened or not. Give both advantages and disadvantages of doing so, and by weighing these,
state if you are pro or anti in the reopening of the said power plant.

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