POWER ELECTRONICS:

CHOPPERS
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CHOPPERS
BASICS: 2.Choppin Frequency :
Choppers are DC-DC converters. They convert 3.The RMS output Voltage :
Fixed DC into Variable DC. They are two types
√
basically. 4.Effective input Resistance seen by
1.Step down chopper
the source :
2.Step –up Chopper
But according to the quadrants in which they 5.Output Power is :
are operating, choppers are classified into
following categories.
[Assumed Lossless Converter]
1.First Quadrant chopper
The duty cycle cannot be more than ‘1’.It is
2.Second quadrant chopper
varied from 0 to 1.It can be done either by
3.First and second quadrant chopper
varying ton, T or f. This chopper can be
4.Third and Fourth quadrant chopper
operated in either of following two modes,
5.Four quadrant chopper
1.Constant Frequency Operation
2.Variable
STEP-DOWN CHOPPER:
Frequency
As the name suggests it steps down the input
Operation
voltage. The important formulae to be kept in
mind have been listed below. We have to
STEP-
DOWN
CONVERTE
R WITH RLE LOAD:[If E =0,it is RL Load]
Here the current may be continuous or
discontinuous. It depends on the Load, Turn-
Off time, Low output voltage.
The condition for continuous current is :
( )
When the chopper is ON, the current rises
from a value I1and reaches a peak I2.This
keep in our mind that the current and power current is called i1.The Maximum Value of
depends on the type of load on the chopper. this current I2 is expressed as
The following are general formulae for ‘R’ ( ) ,
load
and
1.The Average output voltage :
( )
Peak to Peak ripple current

The maximum value of ripple

current is

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The Average Output voltage is

The ripple in Load current is

maximum when duty cycle is equal to 0.5
The critical value of inductance This step-up choppers are mainly used to
which is required for continuous current is transfer energy from one source to
influenced by “Load – Emf Ratio” which is another source. For stable operation of
given by this chopper under energy transfer mode
the following condition has to be satisfied.

Discontinuous current equation is not In nutshell, The input current is

given here. transferred to a voltage source whose
voltage is higher than the input voltage.
STEP-UP CHOPPER:
As the name suggests, this chopper steps- PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS:
up the input applied voltage. Here the The performance parameters of
chopper (the switch) is connected in both choppers are as follows,
parallel via a inductor. 1.Ripple current of inductor,
2.Maximum switching
frequency,
3.Condition for continuous or
discontinuous inductor current
4.Maximum value of inductor to
maintain continuous inductor current
5.Ripple content of the output
voltage and output current, THD
6.Ripple content of input current,
THD

RIPPLE FACTOR:
Ripple Factor is defined as

√
( )

FOUR QUADRANT OPERATIONS:

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CHOPPERS
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From the above picture, we can An external current pulse greater

understand different quadrants of than the load current created by a pre-
operation. The chopper, which is capable charged capacitor is applied to make
of operating in all four quadrants, is called anode current of SCR zero.
Class-E chopper or Four-quadrant Load Commutation:
chopper. Appropriate direction of Load This achieved in following ways.
current and Load voltage can also be (i)The load current flowing through
understood from the diagram. For conducting SCR becomes zero due to the
operation of Third and Fourth quadrant nature of load circuit parameters
operation, the internal voltage E must be (ii)By transfering the load current to
reversed. another device.

COMMUTATION OF CHOPPER: SWITCHED MODE REULATORS:

The process of “Turning-Off” or DC converters, that is Choppers,
“Switching-Off” of conducting switches can be used as switching-mode regulators
like SCR is called “Commutation”. Various to convert a DC voltage into a regulated
types of commutation have been listed DC output voltage. The switching
below. frequency is indirectly proportional to
1.Forced Commutation Efficiency of regulators. To maximise
(a)Voltage Commutation efficiency,
(b)Current Commutation The minimum oscillator period
2.Load Commutation 100(Switching time of transistor)
Forced Commutation: Four basic types of switching regulators
External elements such as L and C are,
are used to turn off SCRs. This achieved in 1.Buck Regulator
either in “Voltage Commutation” or 2.Boost Regulator
“Current Commutation”. 3.Buck-Boost Regulator
Voltage Commutation: 4.Cuk Regulator
Conducting SCR is turned off by Buck Regulator:
application of large reverse voltage. This The average DC output is less than the
reverse voltage applied via a pre-charged input voltage in this regulator, hence the
capacitor. name “Buck”.
Current Commutation:

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 There are two modes of ( )

( )

The average output voltage is

Where,

The Average input current is

Where,

The inductor current is

The average capacitor current is

The peak to peak ripple voltage is

( )

Condition for continuous inductor

operations available, namely Mode
1 and Mode 2. current and capacitor voltage:
 Mode 1 begins when transistor is To have continuous current , the
turned on. Mode 2 begins when inductor and capacitor values are found as
the transistor is turned off. follows,
 The freewheeling diode Dm
Where,
conducts due to energy stored in
the inductor.
( )
 It is assumed that the current rises
and falls linearly.
We know that
The following equations are used to
analyse the regulator. Use the adjacent
graph for understanding.
The rise time of the current is ADVANTAGES:
1. Requires only one transistor
The fall time of the current is 2. Simple
3. High Efficiency, greater than 90 .
( )

Peak to peak ripple current of inductor L is LIMITATIONS:

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1. The input current is discontinuous. The peak-to-peak ripple current of

Therefore, a smoothing filter is inductor is
normally required.
2. In case of short circuit across diode
path, protection circuitry The Average output voltage is
3. Unidirectional output current
BOOST REGULATOR:
The average input current is
 The output of the voltage is
greater than the input voltage,
hence the name Boost. The switching period T is given by
 The circuit operation can be
divided into two modes of ( )
operation. The peak to peak ripple voltage of the
 Mode 1 begins when the MOSFET capacitor is
is switched ON.
 The mode 2 begins when the
MOSFET is switched OFF. CONDITION FOR CONTINUOUS
INDUCTOR CURRENT AND CAPACITOR
VOLTAGE:
If the average inductor current and
inductor ripple voltage is related by

The critical value of the inductor is

( )

If the average capacitor voltage

and the capacitor ripple voltage are
related by

The critical value of capacitor is

ADVANTAGES:
1. Steps up voltage without
transformer
2. Due to single transistor, high
The rise time of the inductor current is
efficiency
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Though input current is
The fall time of the inductor current is
continuous, the high peak current
has to flow through the transistor.

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2. The output voltage is very sensitive the inductor transferred to the

to changes in duty cycle. It is load.
Difficult to stabilize it.
3. Large filter capacitor and Inductor The rise time of the inductor current is
than those of Buck regulator.
BUCK-BOOST REGULATOR:
The fall time of the inductor current is

The peak to peak ripple current of

inductor L is

The average output voltage is

The average input current is

The peak to peak ripple current of the

capacitor is

CONDITION FOR CONTINUOUS

INDUCTOR CURRENT AND CAPACITOR
VOLTAGE:
( )
 Its output voltage may be less than
or greater than the input voltage,
hence the name “Buck-Boost”.
 The output voltage polarity is ADVANTAGES:
opposite to that of the input 1. This regulator provides output
voltage. voltage polarity reversal without a
 This regulator is also known as transformer.
“Inverting Regulator”. 2. High efficiency
3. Output short circuit protection
 The circuit operation is divided
easier to implement.
into two modes.
4. The fault current is limited by the
 During mode 1, the transistor is
turned ON and the diode Dm is inductor L. It is given by,
reverse biased. DISADVANTAGES:
 During mode 2, the transistor is 1. The input current is discontinuous
turned off. The energy stored in

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2. High peak current flows through The falling current in inductor L2 is

transistor.
CUK REGULATOR:
The average output voltage is

CONDITION FOR CONTINUOUS

INDUCTOR CURRENT AND CAPACITOR
VOLTAGE:
( )

( )

ADVANTAGES:
1. Input current is continuous
2. Low switching losses
3. High Efficiency
DISADVANTAGES:
 Similar to Buck-Boost regulator,
1. The transistor has to carry high
the Cuk regulator provides an
peak current
output voltage that is less than or
2. This circuit require additional
greater than the input voltage.
capacitor and inductor.
 The output voltage polarity is
3. The ripple current in capacitor C1 is
opposite to that of the input
high.
voltage.
 The operation is divided into two
modes, Mode 1 and Mode 2.
 Mode 1 begins when the transistor
is turned ON. Mode 2 begins when
the transistor is turned OFF.
 The capacitor C1 is the medium for
transferring energy from source to
load.

The rise current of inductor L1 is

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