ESP 2021

FOREWARD

Praise and thank to Allah SWT for giving the writer convenience so that
the writers can complete the book entitled "English For Specific Purpose (ESP)"
which is presented to students of the English Language Education study program,
the Faculty of Teacher Training and Education at State or Private Universities in
North Sumatra in particular and in Indonesia in general.
Alhamdulillah we say the presence of Allah SWT, because of the
knowledge and guidance of Allah SWT, the author can compile this book, as well
as shalawat and greetings continue to be bestowed on the Prophet Muhammad
SAW. English For Specific Purpose (ESP) book is indispensable for English
Language Education students at PTN/ PTS. By reading, understanding, and
following the instructions contained in this book, it is hoped that the learning
process can be carried out well. Of course in its preparation, this book has flaws
and weaknesses. Hopefully this book can provide the highest benefit to all
academicians. The writers certainly realize that this book is far from perfect and
there are still many mistakes in it. For this reason, the writers expect criticism and
suggestions from readers for this book, so that this book can become a better book
and if there are errors in this book the writers apologize. English for specific
purposes (ESP) has become a vital and innovative activity within the teaching of
English as a foreign or second language movement. It is an approach to language
teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner‘s
reason for learning. ESP is communication not only because it is learner-centered
but also because teaching language as communication is an innovative activity.
Based on this point of view, ESP instructors characteristically use problem-
solving methods and techniques to promote the appropriate communicative
development of individuals in particular contexts of implementation.
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is often underestimated because of
teachers' attitudes which are often characterized either by condescension or
reluctance. This is manifested in the belief that often prevails among teachers that
ESP is for those who cannot teach the "real" language. A good example of this
situation is "English in other departments" or "The Language Unit" at university
where teaching this component of the students' program of studies is generally the

1
ESP 2021
responsibility of junior members of staff and where it is a "slot-filling" subject in
the teachers' time-tables. This underestimation may be due to the fact many
language teachers are not aware of what it means to be an ESP teacher, and what it
takes to be successful in this practice. English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is a
learner- centered approach to teaching English as an additional language which
focuses on developing English communication skills in a specific discipline, such
as accounting, agrology, education, engineering, IT technology, and academic
learning. The English for Specific Purposes (ESP) Program offers classes that
focus on developing the language skills needed for success on the job, at college,
or in university programs.

2
ESP 2021

CHAPTER I

A LEARNING CENTERED APPROACH:

ENGLISH FOR SPESIFIC PURPOSE

INTRODUCTION

English for Specific Purposes offers the teacher a new perspective on this
important field. The main concern is effective learning and how this can best be
achieved in ESP courses. The authors discuss the evolution of ESP and its position
today; the role of the ESP teacher; course design, syllabuses, materials, teaching
methods, and evaluation procedures. It will be of interest to all teachers who are
concerned with ESP. Those who are new to the field will find it a thorough,
practical introduction while those with more extensive experience will find its
approach both stimulating and innovative. Natural languages are vehicles for
communication in which syntactically structured and acoustically realized objects
transmit meaningful messages from one speaker to another. To understand the
ability of natural languages to serve as instruments for the communication of
thoughts and ideas we must understand what it is that permits those who speak them
consistently connect the right sounds with the right meaning. English becomes the
most important language to be mastered. The foreign language especially English is
as an international language which is very important in global relationship). In
another words it can be said that English will affect someone relationship
universally that mastering English will improve someone ability to master the
advancement of science and technology globally, as a result it is the most important
foreign language to master by learners in Indonesia.
ESP, like any form of language teaching, is primarily concerned with
learning. ESP has paid scant attention to the question of how people learn, focusing,
instead on the question of what people learn. It has, in other words, been language
centered approach. ESP must be founded in the first instance on sound principles of
learning. It covers subjects varying from accounting or computer science to tourism
and business management. The ESP focal point is that English is not taught as a
subject separated from the students‘ real world or wishes; instead, it is integrated
into a subject matter area important to the learners. An ESP program, might, for

3
ESP 2021
example, emphasize the development of reading skills in students who are repairing
for graduate work in business administration, or it might promote the development
of spoken skills in students‘ who are studying English in order to become tourist
guides. As a matter of fact, ESP combines subject matter and English language
teaching. Such a combination is highly motivating because students are able to
apply what they learn in their English classes to their main field of study, whether it
be accounting, business management, economics, computers science or tourism.
Being able to use the vocabulary and structures that they learn in a meaningful
context reinforces what is taught and increases their motivation. The
students‘abilities in their subject-matter fields, in turn, improve their ability to
acquire English. Subject-matter knowledge gives them the context they need to
understand the English of the classroom. In the ESP class, students are shown how
the subject-matter content is expressed in English. The teacher can make the most of
the students‘knowledge of the subject- matter, thus helping them learn English
faster.
The term Specific in ESP refers to the specific purpose for learning English.
Students approach the study of English through a field that is already known and
relevant to them. This means that they are able to use what they learn in the ESP
classroom right away in their work and studies. The ESP approach enhances the
relevant of what the students are learning and enables them to use the English they
know to learn even more English. Since their interest in their field will motivate
them to interact with speakers and text. ESP assesses need and integrates
motivation, subject matter and content for the teaching of relevant skills. In the
following pages, this book shall explain what this shift in focus entails for the ESP
practitioner.
This book is divided into four chapters:

1. Chapter I is an overview of the origins and development of ESP and

considers the question of how ESP fits into the general landscape of
English Language Teaching.
2. Chapter II looks at the basic principles and techniques in course
design. How, in other words, do you create a course to fit the needs
of a particular group of learners?

4
ESP 2021
3. Chapter III is concerned with the practical applications of the course
design in the form of a syllabus, materials, methodology and
assessment. Put briefly, having completely your course design, what
do you do with it?
4. Chapter IV considers the role of the ESP teacher and provides
information about resources to help the teacher.
5. And the end of the day, English for specific purpose concentrates
more on language in context than on teaching grammar and
language, structures. English for Specific purpose program is
therefore built on as assessment of purpose and needs and the
functions for which English required.

5
ESP 2021

CHAPTER II

A LEARNING CENTERED APPROACH

WHAT IS ENGLISH FOR SPESIFIC PURPOSE

In Japan, teacher of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) have up to the

present been mostly university English professors The subjects they have taught
include English for business communication and English for science and
technology However, people who are not university English professors but
specialists in such areas as foreign trade, finance, industry, science, technology or
medicine have also been asked to teach ESP. It is strongly hoped that ESP is taught
at universities and other higher educational institutions, before students find
employment in corporations or laboratories and receive in-house training there.
Furthermore, the contents of the syllabus of each specific purpose of English, for
example, Financial English, should meet the actual needs of those taking that
particular course. As a non-native speaker of English I would also like to point out
the unique merit of ESP; It is the method of international communication among
people in similar work fields or those belonging to the common academic world.
One can rather comfortably communicate with other members of similar fields by
using ESP. ESP includes English for Science and Technology, and English for
some other academic or professional purposes. In Japan, even though Business
English has been taught as a job skill, the teaching methodology of Business
English seems to remain rather vague. The major emphasis has been laid on
business letter writing for foreign trade. English for Specific Purposes (ESP)
describes such fields as English for Medical Studies, English for Technicians,
English or Economics, English for Secretaries, English for Psychology, and English
for Teaching.
What is ESP? This book explains that "ESP is an approach to language
teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner's
reason for learning." Before discussing what ESP is, it would be appropriate to
consider why ESP is needed. This explanation emphasizes the need for a learning
centered approach, i.e., what we want to discover is not competence in a language,
but how someone acquires that competence. Therefore, it would not be very

6
ESP 2021
appropriate to think that ESP is a "Special or Specific English." Actually, ESP is
English for Specific Purposes. There are always concrete purposes for learning,
such as technical professional or academic studies. Emphasis is laid on teaching
methodology, not on the contents of ESP itself. ESP materials such as texts
and exercises are very important. As Mary J. Schleppegrell points out in her treatise
on ESP program design, when selecting texts (spoken or written), it is necessary to
identify the language skills that are needed by the learner to perform the task, and
that are reflected in the text.
Hutchinson and Warters also claim that both the ESP learning situation and
the target situation will influence the nature of the syllabus, material, methodology
and evaluation procedures, and that the course design needs to have built-in
feedback channels to enable the course to respond to changes in the students' needs.
There are several kinds of ESP textbooks available to overseas students, such books
as English for Careers (Career English), Instrumental English, Professional English
and Special English, published in England and the United States. They, however,
do not always meet the need of a particular country's students. The various fields of
ESP such as The EAP Vocabulary Corpus (EAP Voc Corpus) excludes the words
designated as Junior School (where Japanese students begin Learning English)
Vocabulary (Jr High Voc) as Well as their in flexional forms, according to a
separate principle Furthermore, personal and place names and their derivations,
some foreign loan words, hyphenated words and abbreviations have been
eliminated from the database. The EAP Vocabulary accounts for a very high
percentage within each academic discipline. The contributors assert: If it is
reasonable to assume a close relationship between reading comprehension and
knowledge of vocabulary, the findings presented above indicate that university
level reading skill depends to a great degree on the recommended EAP Vocabulary.

7
ESP 2021
Effectiveness of EAP as International English the above study points to the
effectiveness of language teaching in such a way as to have someone get
accustomed to the common vocabulary of a particular field of study. Undoubtedly,
there exists a pre-university level vocabulary. It will be worthwhile to learn at
universities an essential English vocabulary of a specific field of academic study,
especially for non-native speakers of English. English for Academic Purposes
(EAP) is an area of English for Specific Purposes (ESP), and as EAP deals with a
variety of fields, EAP will also prove to be useful as a means of international
communication ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES (ESP) AND THE
TEACHING OF FINANCIAL ENGLISH. Various fields of ESP there are several
materials that explain various fields covered by ESP. Here, I'll cite two examples
which I think show the width of ESP coverage. One is Longman Dictionary of
Business English which gives the following 25 fields: Accounts, Advertising,
Agriculture, Banking, Commerce, Commodity exchange, Computers, Economics,
Economic history, Economic theory, Finance, Industry, Industrial relations, Indus-
trial safety, Insurance, Law, Management, Marine insurance, Public finance,
Quality control, Shipping, Stock exchange, Taxation, Tourism, and Transport.
The other is the Macmillan Career English Series which includes kinds of
textbooks, i.e. Agriculture (1), Aviation (2), Business - Banking, General Business,
International Trade, Computers (3), Engineering (4), Hotel Personnel, Medicine
(5), Restaurant Employees, Secretaries, and Tourism. Students are allowed to select
three to five fields from the 25 fields of the dictionary. They make cards, give
headings to the cards, and add explanations in Japanese, which will become their
Japanese – English glossary for a certain profession. I think that such an
individually made collection of technical terms will become valuable assets for the
students' future careers in business, no matter what profession they may actually
take up. Finance is a broad term including banking, but we usually use the
expression "banking and finance" to show a wide spectrum of such business
activities.

8
ESP 2021
There are many textbooks about Financial English which have been
published in England and the U.S.A. These include : Materials for Language
Practice Bank on Your English, Pergamon Press, 1984 World at Work Banking,
Longman, 1982 Business Banking, Macmillan Career English, 1984 Instrumental
English for Banking and Finance, McGraw- Hill, 1983 Berlitz -----English for
Banking, Accounting & Finance, 1979 BBC English-----Financial English, The
Economist, 1986 English for Careers-----The Language of International Finance in
English : Money and Banking, Regents Publishing, 1976 English for International
Banking and Finance, Cambridge University Press, 1990 I think, however, that
these textbooks are not always compiled on the basis of English Language
Teaching (ELT) and ESP theories. In either case, learning Financial English will go
a long way toward promoting understanding between native and non-native
speakers of English, especially in the area of international business. I, therefore,
encourage my students to have a greater knowledge of English on as many specific
fields of business as possible. The Vocabulary of ESP and Financial English 109 In
the earlier part of my paper I dealt with the vocabulary of English for Academic
Purposes (EAP) which runs from about 2000 to 5000 words, depending on the field
of study. The situation is thought to be more or less similar in the case of English
for Specific Purposes (ESP), so I'll deal here mainly with the vocabulary of
Financial English. In the case of banking terminology, Elsevier’s Banking
Dictionary in seven languages lists 2765 technical terms in the field in the 1990
edition. This limited word list indicates that if one has a fundamental knowledge of
General English, one can pretty comfortably communicate with the other members
of a similar profession, once one is equipped with such ESP words. Other
dictionaries in this field include Banking Terminology, American Bankers
Association, 1982. Dictionary of Banking Terms, Barron's, 1990, and Dictionary of
Banking & Financial Services, Wiley, 1985. These Three are glossaries of banking
terms for the English speaking readers. We, therefore, need to make a further study
in order to compile a Financial English glossary especially designed to meet the
need of non-native speakers of English.

9
ESP 2021
McGraw-Hill has the merit of providing a section on departmental
conversation and a section on grammar, each of which progresses step by step as
the course develops. Also, "English for International Banking and Finance" is a
recommendable book. This is a conversational textbook with separate cassette
tapes. In additon, M.-L. Leisewitz's "English in Banking and Finance of Foreign
Trade" published in Germany is also a good book of over 500 pages. I think that an
ESP textbook should incorporate the following three features: A. basic sentence
structures, expressions and a vocabulary of Gen-eral English. B. Fundamental
knowledge of Business English As a core field of ESP C. a glossary of a certain
basic technical terms used in a particular field I have so far published four
textbooks on Financial English. I'm now coauthoring a book with an American,
which will become a rather thorough text book of some 350 pages. Financial
English dictionaries In 1991 I published an 865-page Dictionary of English Usage
for Business and Finance. It is the result of my ten years' work and includes some
5300 entries. It incorporates some 23000 examples of phrases and sentences in the
field of business and finance. With my experience gained in the course of
compiling this dictionary, I have started editing a glossary of financial terms. After
completing the glossary I hope to compile a real dictionary of Financial English
incorporating basic General and Business English expressions as well as Financial
English usage for non-native speakers of English, particularly for Japanese students
and business people.

The Historical Growth of English for Specific Purpose (ESP)

There does not seem complete agreement about the historical growth of
ESP, though several research studies have been undertaken by different researchers
in this regard. Most of the studies have concluded that 1960‘s was the dawn of this
ELT approach but several studies mentioned the traces of ESP much before the
above-mentioned period (Romo, 2006). Hutchinson and Waters (1987) traced back
an ESP book in the sixteenth century. This book was written for tourists and it
was published in 1576. ―German for Science Students‖was another example of
ancient ESP material (Tickoo, 1976 cf. Romo, 2006). This early phase of ESP lasted
roughly till the start of 1960 and whatever ESP material was produced during this
period, it mainly consisted of authentic material related to different fields of
specialization (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987).
10
ESP 2021

Most of the linguists declared that the real beginning of ESP set in about in the
sixties of twentieth century (Dudley-Evans and St. John, 1998; Hutchinson and
Waters, 1987; Anthony, 1997; Gatehouse, 2001; Mackay and Mountford, 1978).
Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998: 19) mentioned that "it was undoubtedly in the
mid- to late 1960's, however, that various influences came together to generate the
need and enthusiasm for developing ESP as a discipline "There were certain factors
that contributed to the rise and rapid growth of ESP. The arrival of Huguenot and
Protestant refugees in 16 th century in England started the era of "business English in
ELT‖ from the 19th century (Dudley-Evans and St. John, 1998 cf. Howett, 1984).
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) enumerated three main reasons for this rapid growth.
They were the ―demands of a Brave New World‖, a revolution i n l i n g u i s t i c s ‖
and ― focus o n t h e l e a r n e r ‖. Hymes ( 1972) identified the rapid expansion in
scientific, technical and economic activities in English speaking countries and the
linguistic trends as the main contributing factors in this regard. Dudley-Evans and
St. John (1998, p. 19) also reported that growth of science, technology and business
played an important role in the development of ESP and "an enormous number‖
of students came to the UK, USA and Australia and this factor initiated "a new era
of teaching English for different scientific and business disciplines‖ and English was
given the status of the "international language of science, technology and business".
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) specified two important historical factors that were
largely instrumental in the rapid expansion of the scope and range of ESP.
According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987, p. 6), the end of the Second
World War (SWW) initiated an ―age of enormous and unprecedented
expansion in scientific, technical and economic activity on an international scale for
various reasons, most notably the economic power of the United States in the post-
war world, the role fell to English‖. In the post SWW era, the USA became the hub
of scientific, technical and economic activities and, consequently, English was
assigned the role of an international language to facilitate all these activities.

11
ESP 2021

According to them, the Oil Crises of 1970‘s was the second factor in this
regard. Oil-rich countries opened their doors to the Western knowledge and wealth
and naturally a new era of ELT commenced in the gulf region. As it was mainly
scientific and technical knowledge that was needed to be transferred, ESP emerged
as the most appropriate discipline to accept the challenge. This new ELT approach
had to address the specific needs of the learners and ―whereas English had
previously decided its own destiny, it now became subject to the wishes, needs
and demands of people other than language teachers‖ (ibid., p. 7). Dudley-Evans and
St. John (1998) pointed out that late 1970's and early 1980's was the period that
consolidated ESP. ―The Revolution in Linguistics was another major factor that
paved way for the emergence and rapid growth of ESP during the 1960‘s and early
1970‘s: the second stage in the growth of ESP (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987). This
period witnessed a transformation of traditional linguistics of merely describing the
features of language into the study of Register Analysis (RA) which focused on the
ways language was used in real communication. Hutchinson and Waters (1987)
highlighted the difference between written and spoken language as an example of
RA. Mainly scientific and Technical English was focused more in this second
phase of ESP. RA was carried out on the assumption that certain grammatical and
lexical forms were more frequently used in scientific and technical language as
compared to General English (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987; Dudley-Evans and St.
John, 1998). Hutchinson and Waters (1987) elaborated the process of RA in
identifying these specified forms and developing teaching materials based on these
forms. The main objective of those ESP books was to acquaint the learners with the
language forms that were relevant to their various fields of specializations. Those
register analysis-based ESP textbooks relieved the learners of the unnecessary
burden of irrelevant grammatical and lexical items. As a result, materials produced
under the banner of RA focused on a restricted range of grammar and vocabulary
instead of language use and communication (Dudley-Evans and St. John,
1998).This stage was the initial phase of NA where the general needs of specific
subjects were considered for the development of ESP course contents (Gatehouse,
2001 cf. Perren, 1974). But there were certain voices of disagreement and some
linguists advocated that instead of merely following RA, the emphasis should have
been on learner‘s communicative competence in various linguistic situations
12
ESP 2021
(Widdowson, 1979). The ESP material produced during that period mainly
concentrated on specific grammatical and lexical items instead of real
communication (Dudley-Evans and St. John, 1998). Widdowson, (1979) declared
that realization of this deficiency laid the foundation of rectifying efforts that led to
Discourse Analysis (DA) and Hutchinson and Waters (1987) called it the third stage
of ESP growth which was marked by the shift from RA to the study of ―discourse
and rhetorical analysis‖. This phase addressed the learners‘difficulties that were
caused by the unfamiliarity with the use of English. It was stated that
―consequently, their needs could only be met by a course that developed the
knowledge of how sentences were combined in discourse to make meanings‖ (Mo,
2005 cf. Allan and Widdowson, 1974: 3). Hutchinson and Waters (1987, p. 20)
suggested that the main aim of discourse and rhetorical analysis was to identify
organizational patterns in texts that formed the basis of ESP syllabus that included
―rhetorical functions for communicative purposes‖. Mackey and Mountford (1978)
recognized defining, identifying, comparing, classifying etc, as important rhetorical
functions. ―The assumption of this stage was that underlying all language use there were
common reasoning and interpreting processes, which, regardless of the surface
form, enabled us to extract meaning from discourse (Mo, 2005 cf. Hutchinson and
Waters, 1987, p. 4). Mo (2005) reported that this stage did not confine itself to the
teaching of language but rather addressed to the thought processes as well. Teaching
of language skills was focused by the ESP teachers in this phase of ESP teaching
(Dudley-Evans and St. John, 1998). The fourth stage of ESP growth heralded with
further precision of its focus on the ―target situation‖.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) defined the
―target situation as the one in which learners would use the specific language they
were learning. Learning-centered‖ (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987) and ―learner-
centered‖ (West, 1984) were the key terms during this phase of ESP growth and a lot
of emphasis was given to NA. The main objective of ESP course contents was thus
to make the learners achieve linguistic competence by enabling them to acquire the
ability to use language accurately and efficiently in different situations. It was stated
that linguistic competence included grammatical, cultural, pragmatic, strategic and
communicative sub- competencies.

13
ESP 2021

This emphasis on linguistic competence broadened the horizon of ELT and

various other dynamics of learning situations and learners‘situations were
considered to make the learners acquire the required linguistic competence. ―It
involves considering the process of learning and motivation, working out what is
needed to enable students to reach the target, and taking into account the fact that
students learn in different ways‖(Mo, 2005 cf. Dudley-Evans and St. John, 1998, p.
4). This discussion offered useful insights into the reasons that why learner and his
specific social and psychological situations were also given due importance to
achieve the target learning outcomes. Similarly, it was recognized that not only
different specializations (medicine, humanities, physics, geology, business etc.) but
also different sub-fields of a main specialization needed different communicative
functions in terms of syntax, morphology, semantics, phonology, vocabulary and
discourse (Douglas, 2002). The linguistic needs of a lab assistant in a hospital
would be different from the needs of a nurse, a receptionist, a ward boy and an X-
ray technician. These precise linguistic needs were the key factors in determining
the type of curriculum necessary for ESP courses. According to Hutchinson and
Waters (1987), fifth stage of ESP growth was marked with the mental processes
which implied the use of language and ESP curricula focused on developing the
skills and strategies learners needed to acquire a second language instead of
depending upon the surface form of the language. The focus shifted to the
underlying strategies that would help the learner extract meaning from the external
forms.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) quoted the ability to guess meaning of a word
from the context as an example of applying underlying strategies to the external
form of the lexical items. They suggested that all ESP curricula should involve the
learners from the beginning to determine their learning needs and LS so that they
might be able to effectively apply underlying strategies to achieve their learning
objectives. Discussing the question whether ESP courses were more successful than
General English courses in preparing students for working or studying in English,
"war stories and romances‖(Dudley-Evans and St. John, 1998 cf. Bowyers, 1980)
presented various reports about the success of different ESP courses during 1970's
and 1980's. Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998, p. 25) mentioned Foley (1979) who
also discussed "the ESP Program at the University of Petroleum and Minerals in
14
ESP 2021
Saudi Arabia‖ and provided "concrete evidence for the validity of the ESP
approach". It has been stated that early stages of ESP were strongly linked with
"Register Analysis, Discourse and Rhetorical analysis, Skills-Based Approaches and
the Learning-Centered Approach‖ (Dudley-Evans and St. John, 1998, p. 30) but after
achieving maturity, no dominating movement has existed in ESP and many different
approaches and a willingness to mix different types of material and methodologies
have been accepted in the realm of this flexible approach: ESP. They have
mentioned that ESP has been transformed.

The Characteristics of English for Specific Purpose (ESP)

ESP has a relatively long time to mature and so we would expect the ESP
community to have a clear idea about what ESP means. Strangely, however, this
does not seem to be the case. In October this year, for example, a very heated debate
took place on the TESP-L e-mail discussion list about whether or not English for
Academic Purposes (EAP) could be considered part of ESP in general. At the Japan
Conference on ESP also, clear differences in how people interpreted the meaning of
ESP could be seen. Some people described ESP as simply being the teaching of
English for any purpose that could be specified. Others, however, were more
precise, describing it as the teaching of English used in academic studies or the
teaching of English for vocational or professional purposes.
At the conference, guests were honored to have as the main speaker, Tony
Dudley-Evans, co-editor of the ESP Journal mentioned above. Very aware of the
current confusion amongst the ESP community in Japan, Dudley-Evans set out in
his one hour speech to clarify the meaning of ESP, giving an extended definition of
ESP in terms of 'absolute' and 'variable' characteristics (see below). ESP seems quite
flexible discipline and different people have defined it differently. We can count as
many definitions as the number of linguists who have defined it. All these
definitions appear to cover various characteristics of this approach (Sifakis, 2003 cf.
Rogers, 1989; Rogers, 1996). Anthony (1997, p. 1) mentioned the ―clear
differences in how people interpreted the meaning of ESP‖ at "The Japan Conference
on ESP‖ held on November 8th, 1997 at Aizu University in Aizuwakamatsu. He
pointed out that the participants were divided into two groups. One group held the
view that ESP was teaching of English for any purpose that could be specified

15
ESP 2021
whereas the other group of participants ascribed to it as―the teaching of English
used in academic studies or the teaching of English for vocational or professional
purposes‖(ibid., p. 1). This particular example of differing views regarding its
definition offers clear insights about the general truth in relation to this controversy.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) have defined ESP as an ―approach‖ rather than a
―product‖ – meaning that ESP does not necessarily involve any particular kind of
language, teaching material or methodology. The fundamental function of ESP is:
―Why does this learner need to learn a foreign language‖ (Milavic, 2006 cf.
Hutchinson and Waters, 1987)? The rationale of learning English, thus, became the
crux of ESP.
Robinson (1980) has defined it as the teaching of English to the learners who
have specific goals and purposes. According to him, these goals might be
professional, academic, scientific etc. Mackay and Mountford (1978, p. 2) have
referred to it as the teaching of English for ―clearly u t i l i t a r i a n purposes‖.
These specific purposes are the above- mentioned academic, professional or
scientific ones that clearly depend on the learners‘ needs. Both these definitions do
not confine ESP to any specific field, discipline or profession and recognize its
broader area of action. A rather comprehensive approach to define ESP has been
tried.
Absolute Characteristics

1. ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners (Maslow's

hierarchy of needs).

2. ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the

discipline it serves.

3. ESP is centered on the language appropriate to these activities in

terms of grammar, lexis, register, study skills, discourse and genre.

4. ESP practitioners are also becoming increasingly involved in

intercultural communication and the development of intercultural
competence.

16
ESP 2021

Variable Characteristics

Strevens' (1988): ESP may be, but is not necessarily:

a. Restricted as to the language skills to be learned (e.g. reading

only).

b. Taught according to any pre-ordained methodology (pp.1-2).

Anthony (1997):

a. ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines.

b. ESP may be used, in specific teaching situations, a different

methodology from that of general English.

c. ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at the

college level institution or in a professional work situation. It
could, however, be for learners at a high school level.

d. ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced

students.

e. Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the

language system, but it can be used with beginners (1997, pp.
4-5).

The Types of English for Specific Purpose (ESP)

Dudley-Evans and St. John, (1998) have divided EAP into two divisions:
English for General Academic Purposes (EGAP) and ESAP. EGAP is related to the
teaching of language skills that are common in different disciplines but ESAP refers
to the teaching of language features that are specific for various disciplines.
Research has offered insights into the mutual relationship of EGAP and ESAP.
Skills and language functions learnt in EGAP programs may be transferred to
specific disciplines in ESAP programs (ibid.). Many researchers have discussed
about the types of ESP and most of them have grouped ESP into two main
categories: English for Occupational Purposes (EOP) and EAP (Hutchinson and
Waters, 1987; Robinson, 1991) whereas Carter (1983) has identified the following

17
ESP 2021
three types of ESP:

 English as a restricted language

 English for Academic and Occupational Purposes (EAOP)
 English with specific topics.

Mackey and Mountford (1978) clearly defined the concept o f ―restricted

language‖ in their following statement, the language of international air-traffic
control could be regarded as 'special', in the sense that the repertoire required by the
controller is strictly limited and can be accurately determined situational, as might be the
linguistic needs of a dining-room waiter or air-hostess. However, such restricted
repertoires are not languages, just as a tourist phrase book is not grammar. Knowing a
restricted 'language' would not allow the speaker to communicate effectively in novel
situation, or in contexts outside the vocational environment‖ (Gatehouse, 2001 cf. Mackey
and Mountford, 1978, pp. 4-5). The scope and canvas of this first type of ESP is extremely
limited which allows the learners learn English language for very restricted purposes and
it trains the learners to handle specific situations in extremely limited linguistic settings.
This kind of ESP teaching restricts itself to "limited number of phrases and expressions
and these learners remain unable to use English in any setting other than the one they have
been trained for. EAOP has been recognized as the second kind by Carter (1983) whereas
majority of other researchers have confined their classification of ESP to EAP and EOP.
Robinson (1991) has also included these two types in his classification of ESP. Kennedy
and Bolitho (1985) have added English for Science and Technology (EST) in their list of
types of ESP. It seems to transpire that ESP has been separated from EOP and EAP
because of the fact that it was basically scientific and technological knowledge that this
new approach of ELT was supposed to transfer to non-native speakers of English
(Hutchinson and Waters, 1987; Gatehouse, 2001; Dudley-Evans and St John, 1998;
Strevens, 1977).

The Purpose of English for Specific Purpose (ESP)

English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is a learner-centered approach to

teaching English as an additional language which focuses on developing English
communication skills in a specific discipline, such as accounting, agrology,
education, engineering, IT technology, and academic learning. The English for

18
ESP 2021
Specific Purposes (ESP) Program offers classes that focus on developing the
language skills needed for success on the job, at college, or in university programs.
English for Specific Purposes is an international peer-reviewed journal that
welcomes submissions from across the world. English for Specific Purposes offers
the teacher a new perspective on this important field. The main concern is effective
learning and how this can best be achieved in ESP courses. An ESP program is
therefore built on an assessment of purposes and needs and the functions for which
English is required. ESP is part of a larger movement within language teaching
away from a concentration on teaching grammar and language structures to an
emphasis on language in context. The ESP focus means that English is not taught as
a subject divorced from the students' real world; instead, it is integrated into a
subject matter area important to the learners. An ESP program, might, for example,
stress the development of reading skills in students who are preparing for graduate
work in engineering; or it might stress the development of conversational skills in
students who are studying English in order to become tour guides. ESP integrates
subject matter and English language instruction. Such a combination is highly
motivating because students are able to apply what they learn in their English
classes to their major field of study, whether it be computer science, accounting,
business management, economics, or tourism. Being able to use the vocabulary and
structures that they learn in a meaningful context reinforces what is taught and
increases students' motivation. The students' abilities in their subject-matter fields,
in turn, enhance their ability to acquire English.
Subject matter knowledge gives them the context they need to understand
the English of the classroom. The ESP class takes subject-matter content and shows
students how the same information is expressed in English. The teacher can exploit
the students' knowledge of the subject matter in helping them learn English faster.
ESP - English for Specific Purposes: This term refers to teaching a specific
genre of English for students with specific goals. Examples include English for
Academic Purposes (students will enter an English-speaking university), business
English (for business people), medical English (for nurses, doctors, other health care
professionals). ESP can be (as the name implies) very specific a growing market is
English language computer support personnel. In sum, ESP is English for
vocational purposes, where the word vocation is used loosely to include education
19
ESP 2021
and all kinds of employment. The "Specific" in ESP refers to the specific purpose
for learning. Students approach the learning of English through a field that is
already known and relevant to them. This means that they are able to use what they
learn in the ESP classroom right away in their work and studies.
ESP as simply being teaching of English for any purpose that could be
specified. However, were more precise, describing it as the teaching of English used
in academic studies or the teaching of English for vocational or professional
purposes. Certainly, a great deal about the origins of ESP could be written.
According to Hutchinson, T., & Waters (2003:32) said that ESP has been defined
differently by different authors. Some regard it as an approach to language teaching
in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner‘s reason for
learning Notably, there are three reasons common to the emergence of all ESP: the
demands of a Brave New World, a revolution in linguistics, and focus on the
learner. ESP (English for Specific Purposes) has been referred to as "applied ELT"
as the content and aims of any course are determined by the needs of a specific
group of learners. ESP is often divided into EAP (English for Academic Purposes)
and EOP (English for Occupational Purposes). Further sub-divisions of EOP are
sometimes made into business English, Professional English (e.g. English for
doctors, lawyers) and vocational English (e.g. English for tourism, nursing, aviation,
and bricklaying). ESP practitioners are also becoming increasingly involved in
intercultural communication and the development of intercultural competence.
Dudley-Evans (2001:51-54) the defining characteristic of ESP is that
teaching and materials are based on the results of a needs analysis. The key
questions are:
1. What do students need to do with English?

2. Which of the skills do they need to master and how well?

3. Which genres do they need to master either for comprehension or

production purposes?
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is known as a learner-centered
approach to teaching English as a foreign or second language. It meets the needs of
(mostly) adult learners who need to learn a foreign language for use in their specific
fields, such as science, technology, medicine, leisure, and academic learning. This

20
ESP 2021
course is recommended for graduate students and foreign and second language
professionals who wish to learn how to design ESP courses and programs in an area
of specialization such as English for business, for Civil Engineering, for Academic
Purposes, and for health service purposes. ESP is centered on the language
appropriate to the activities of a given discipline. English for Specific Purposes
(ESP) or English for specific purposes is a new approach to teaching and using
English for specific fields and studies that are suitable for the needs of the field of
science and the profession of English users.
Fields of science and professions such as English for law, medicine,
mechanical engineering, economics, or maritime and so on. Robinson then said "It
(here ESP) is generally used for teaching and learning there is no doubt." Thus,
teaching English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has different approaches and
assumptions from General English (GE) for example. ESP's goal is for students to
be able to master English in the fields they study. For example chemistry students,
then they must understand English for chemistry, or if they are engineering students,
they must know English for engineering, or if they work in hospitality, then they
must master English language hospitality, if they are maritime students, then they
must mastering maritime English.
ESP is generally used in teaching foreign languages for certain uses in
certain fields of science and professions. This goal is generally understood as a
benefit in the role of English as a means of communication both oral and written.
Therefore, ESP should be seen as an approach, concept and method that is different
from general English (General English). ESP is an English teaching approach that
has a different approach, perception, design, material, evaluation and purpose. ESP
material refers to the needs of students (students' needs) and users of the graduates
themselves. The same thing was also said by Mc Donough about the definition and
concept of ESP. He believes "ESP courses are those where the syllabus and
materials are determined in terms of the communication needs of the learners."
Donough's opinion indicated that the material and syllabus and objectives of
the ESP should be designed and developed based on the needs of students and
graduate users because students both when they go to college and when they are
going to work teaching materials or teaching materials must match their needs. So
the ESP approach is a bottom-up approach (button up approach). With the above
21
ESP 2021
description, it can be concluded that ESP is not a new product, but an approach to
learning English that is different from general English. ESP refers to learning
English that is oriented towards special needs of learners in accordance with the
field of science and work. ESP material is based and developed based on needs
analysis.

The Development of ESP

The development of ESP it is now in a fourth phase with a fifth phase of

development starting to emerge from it is previous three main phases of
development started in the early beginnings of 1960s.

The Concept of Special Language: Register Analysis

In linguistics, a register is a variety of a language used for a particular

purpose or in a particular social setting. Register analysis is an analysis of
grammatical and lexical features of the language used for particular purpose or in
particular social setting. This concept comes from the principle of ESP that English
of a specific science differs from each other in terms of its grammatical and lexical
features of the registers. By register analysis, the lecturer or teacher can produce a
syllabus which gave high priority to the language forms students would meet in
their Science studies and in turn would give low priority to forms they would not
meet. Ewer and Hughes- Davies (1971), for example, compared the language of the
texts their Science students had to read with the language of some widely used
school textbooks. They found that the school textbooks neglected some of the
language forms commonly found in Science texts, for example, compound nouns,
passives, conditionals, anomalous finites, (i.e. modal verb). Their conclusion was
that the ESP course should, therefore, give precedence to these forms. This stage
operates on the basic principle that the English, of, say, Electrical Engineering
constituted a specific register different from other registers such Biology or of
General English. The aim of the analysis was to identify the grammatical and lexical
features of the registers. The main motive behind register analyses such as Ewer and
latorre‘s was the pedagogic one of making the ESP course more relevant to learners
needs. The aim was to produce a syllabus which gave high priority to the language
forms students would meet in their Science studies and in turn would give low
priority to forms they would not meet.
22
ESP 2021

Beyond the Sentence: Rhetorical or discourse analysis

In this stage, the second phase of development shifted attention to the level
above the sentence, as ESP became closely involved with the emerging field of
discourse or rhetorical analysis. It focuses to understand how sentence were
combined in discourse to produce meaning. The concern of research, therefore, was
to identify the organizational patterns in texts and to specify the linguistic means by
which these patterns are signaled. These patterns would then form the syllabus of
the ESP course. Stages of ESP development:
1. First stage focused on language at the sentence level.
2. Second phase shifted attention the level above the sentence (putting into
play discourse or rhetorical analysis).

As in stage 1 there was a more or less tacit assumption in this approach that
the rhetorical patterns of text organization differed significantly between specialist
areas of use: the rhetorical structure of science text was regarded as different from
that of commercial texts. The typical teaching materials based on the discourse
approach taught students to recognize textual patterns and discourse markers mainly
by means of text-diagramming exercises. If we take this simple sentence: ― I don‘t
have enough money ‖and we put it into two different dialogues, we can see how the
meaning changes.
 Do you want a cup of milk?
 I don‘t have enough money
 Have you get lunch?
 I don‘t have enough money
On the second phase of development, ESP became closely involved with the
emerging field of discourse or rhetorical analysis. This phase gives more
understanding how sentences were combined in discourse to produce meaning. The
basic hypothesis of this stage, expressed by Allen and Widdowson (1974): ‗The
difficulties which the students encounter arise not so much from a defective
knowledge of the system of English, but from unfamiliarity with English use, and
that consequently their needs cannot bemet by a course which simply provides
further practice in the composition of sentences, but only by one which develops a
knowledge of how sentences are used in the performance of different
23
ESP 2021
communicative acts.‘ Register analysis had focused on sentence grammar, but in
rhetorical or discourse analysis, the attention and focus is to understanding how
sentences were combined in discourse to produce meaning. The concern of research
therefore was to identify the organizational patterns in texts and to specify the
linguistic means by which these patterns are signaled. These patterns would then
form the syllabus of the ESP course. The typical teaching materials based on the
discourse approach taught students to recognize textual patterns and discourse
markers.
Target Situation Analysis
According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987), target situation analysis was
aimed to take student‘s existing knowledge and setting it on a more scientific basis
by establishing procedures for relating language analysis more closely to learners‘
reasons for learning. In ESP course, there will be a process of knowing students‘
purpose to learn English known as need analysis or target situation analysis. Target
situation analysis will lead the teacher to form a syllabus. John Munby in
Communicative Syllabus Design, produces a detailed profile of the learners‘need in
term of communication purposes, communicative setting, the means of
communication, language skills, functions, structures, etc. On the third phase
development of ESP, it aimed was to take the existing knowledge and set it on a
more scientific basis, by establishing procedures for relating language analysis more
closely to learner‘s reasons for learning. The ESP course design process should
proceed by first identifying the target situation and then carrying out a rigorous
analysis of the linguistic features of that situation. The identified features will form
the syllabus of the ESP course. This stage process is usually known as needs
analyses, but according to Chambers‘(1980) term of target situation analysis‘, it is
more accurate description of the process concerned.

24
ESP 2021

Skills and Strategies

In this stage, we concern to the two things, thinking process underlie

language use and focus on underlying interpretative strategies. Some experts have
made significant contributions to work on reading skill to describe about this
process where the medium of instruction is the mother tongue but students need
read a number of specialist texts which are available only in English. The principal
idea behind the skill centered approach is that underlying all language use there are
common reasoning and interpreting processes, which, regardless of the surface
forms, enable us to extract meaning from discourse.
The focus should rather be on the underlying interpretative strategies, which
enable the learners to cope with the surface forms, for example guessing the
meaning of words from context, using visual layout to determine the type of the
text, exploiting cognates, (i.e. words which are similar in the mother tongue and the
target language), etc. A focus on specific subject registers is unnecessary in this
approach, because the underlying processes are not specific subject to any subject
register. The fourth stage of ESP has seen an attempt to look below the surface and
to consider not the language itself but the thinking processes that underlie language
use.
The principal idea behind the skill-centered approach is that underlying all
language use there are common reasoning and interpreting processes, which,
regardless of the surface forms, enable the students to extract meaning from
discourse. The focus should be on underlying interpretive strategies, which enable
the learner to cope with the surface forms, for example guessing the meaning of
words from context, using visual layout to determine the type of text, exploiting
cognates (words which are similar in the mother tongue and the target language). A
focus on specific subject registers is unnecessary in this approach, because the
underlying processes are not specific to any subject register. As has been noted, in
terms of materials this approach generally puts the emphasis on reading or listening
strategies. The characteristic exercises get the learners to reflect on analyze how
meaning is produced in and retrieved from written or spoken discourse.

25
ESP 2021

A learning-Centered Approach

The importance and the implications of the distinction that we have made
between language use and language learning will hopefully become clear as we
proceed through the following chapters. There are some main points that to be main
focus in this stage:
1. This is anyhow not the main concern of ESP since describing and
exemplifying what people do with language will not automatically enable
someone to learn it.
2. Therefore, a valid approach to ESP must be based on an understanding of
the processes of the language learning.

All of the stages outlined so far have been fundamentally flawed, in that they
are all based on descriptions of language use. Whether this description is of surface
forms, as in the case of register analysis, or of underlying processes, as in the skills
and strategies approach, the concern in each case is with describing what people do
with language. A truly void approach to ESP must be based on an understanding of
the processes of language learning. All of the stages described so far are the stages
of the development of ESP from it is started in the early beginnings on the 1960s
until today‘s uses. These stages started by identifying and analyzing
learners‘register and focused on sentence level, and on second stages. ESP became
closely involved with the emerging field of discourse or rhetorical analysis. On third
stages, what to aim to do was to take the existing knowledge and set it on a more
scientific basis, by establishing procedures for relating language analysis more
closely to learners‘reasons for learning. On the fourth stages the focus is in
underlying strategies. English for Specific Purposes (ESP) courses focus on
developing English communication skills in a specific discipline, such as finance,
marketing, management, human resources, engineering and strategic thinking.
Emphasis is given to the language and communication requirements in a particular
professional field. This field specific language communication training enables
participants to master relevant communication and professional skills and, in so
doing, meet the needs of industry locally and internationally.

26
ESP 2021

Knowledge and technical know-how are clearly important, but these must be
presented with an excellent standard of communication skills. After all, success is
not only based on what you know but also on how you can communicate it. Indeed,
communication skills are considered one of the best career enhancers. In fact,
evidence suggests that employers in all occupational fields place greater value on
employees‘ communication skills than they do on their technical skills and rate it as
a top priority for both securing and retaining employment.

Join an ESP course and you will be able to:

1. Access the specific vocabularies of your company, industry and

functional area and understand how to employ such vocabulary in
specific business situations
2. Use appropriate style and tone for your professional discipline
3. Convert technical knowledge into compelling presentations and
reports
4. Enhance your productivity, job performance and self-confidence -
Advance your career
English for Specific Purposes offers the teacher a new perspective on this
important field. The main concern is effective learning and how this can best be
achieved in ESP courses. The authors discuss the evolution of ESP and its position
today; the role of the ESP teacher; course design; syllabuses; materials; teaching
methods, and evaluation procedures. It will be of interest to all teachers who are
concerned with ESP. Those who are new to the field will find it a thorough,
practical introduction while those with more extensive experience will find its
approach both stimulating and innovative. A non- English Speaking Country, for
example, in China, Russia, Germany, Brazil, France or Viet Nam. If you study
English as a Second Language (ESL), it means that you do it in an English-
Speaking Country such as the UK, Ireland, Canada, Australia, South Africa or the
USA, or you want to go to live or study there. EFL and ESL are similar but not
exactly the same. ESL is often country-specific – you learn more about everyday
life and social welfare of the English-speaking country you are in, or want to work
27
ESP 2021
or get a degree in, that is it frequently means that you need English for Immigration
or Academic purposes, whereas EFL is rather meant for international business
communication and travel.
EGP stands for English for General Purposes or Everyday English. ESP
stands for English for Specific Purposes. There are several varieties. One of its
branches is known as English for Occupational Purposes. In plain English it
means that you want to study English for your job. There are two types of Business
English out there:

1. When you study English for General Business Purposes, you learn
about things that people of various occupations have to know.

2. The other variety – English for Careers – is subdivided into a zillion

smaller ones. It is possible to study English for virtually any job, even an
unusual one. Professional EFL/ESL teachers can design English courses for
all kinds of occupations. Traditionally, English for Science and
Technology (EST) is treated as a separate variety of ESP. If you are into
research, the English you need will be rather like EAP, whereas if you are
into selling your products and services and making money, it is rather
English for Occupational Purposes. It is not uncommon to need to study a
little bit of both. Due to their significance and peculiarity, English for Law
and English for Medicine are treated as separate varieties of ESP.

EAP stands for English for Academic Purposes. It means you need English
in order to study in an English-Speaking Country, or rather pass an Academic
English examination such as IELTS (Academic Module), TOEFLiBT, FCE, CAE or
CPE. It might also mean that you need to pass a Business English examination such
as BEC Higher, ILEC (International Legal English Certificate) or ICFE
(International Certificate in Financial English). EAP is also a subdivision of ESP. It
often happens so that you wish to study English for your job and an exam as well as
need conversation practice at the same time. It is not easy and sometimes it is
impossible to find a suitable ready-made English course book that contains
everything you need. Yet, the good news is that it is possible to have a UNIQUE
English course designed to your needs on EnglishLab.Net. In order to do that you
have to tell your course tutor (see the contact details at the bottom of this page)
28
ESP 2021
WHAT TOPICS you want to cover and HOW LONG you want your course to be.
You will have to take part in your course design to make it happen – if YOU ARE
SPECIAL, it means that there is no perfect book out there that contains everything
you need, so your tutor will have to USE DIFFERENT MATERIALS to design
a VIP ENGLISH COURSE ESPECIALLY FOR YOU. If you want to read
about VIP courses that may be ordered on EnglishLab.Net, for standard ESP Course
Descriptions go here. However, ESL and ESP diverge not only in the nature of the
learner, but also in the aim of instruction. In fact, as a general rule, while in ESL all
four language skills; listening, reading, speaking, and writing, are stressed equally,
in ESP it is a needs analysis that determines which language skills are most needed
by the students, and the syllabus is designed accordingly. An ESP program, might,
for example, emphasize the development of reading skills in students who are
preparing for graduate work in business administration, or it might promote the
development of spoken skills in students who are studying English in order to
become tourist guides. As a matter of fact, ESP combines subject matter and
English language teaching. Such a combination is highly motivating because
students are able to apply what they learn in their English classes to their main field
of study, whether it be accounting, business management, economics, computer
science or tourism. Being able to use the vocabulary and structures that they learn in
a meaningful context reinforces what is taught and increases their motivation.
The students’ abilities in their subject-matter fields, in turn, improve their
ability to acquire English. Subject-matter knowledge gives them the context they
need to understand the English of the classroom. In the ESP class, students are
shown how the subject-matter content is expressed in English. The teacher can
make the most of the students' knowledge of the subject matter, thus helping them
learn English faster. The term "specific" in ESP refers to the specific purpose for
learning English. Students approach the study of English through a field that is
already known and relevant to them. This means that they are able to use what they
learn in the ESP classroom right away in their work and studies. The ESP approach
enhances the relevance of what the students are learning and enables them to use the
English they know to learn even more English, since their interest in their field will
motivate them to interact with speakers and texts. ESP assesses needs and integrates
motivation, subject matter and content for the teaching of relevant skills.
29
ESP 2021
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is a learner-centered approach to
teaching English that focuses on developing communicative competence in a
specific area such as: accounting, aviation, business, IT, teaching, engineering,
medicine and so on. Learners are also exposed to English workplace cultural
terminologies and real world English skills practice. ESP programmes are different
from general English language courses as they tend to focus on specific areas and
needs:
1. Designed to meet the specific needs of the learners
2. Related in content (themes and topics) to particular disciplines or
occupations

3. Use authentic work-specific documents and materials

4. Promote cultural awareness and seeks to improve intercultural
competency
5. Deliver intermediate and advanced level language training

By the term English for Specific (or Special, Specified, Specifiable)

Purposes is meant that type of language learning which has its focus on all aspects
of language pertaining to a particular field of human activity (Wright, 98 1992: 3).
In other words, it is a way of teaching/learning English for specialized subjects with
some specific vocational and educational purposes in mind. In ESP syllabus, the
teaching content is geared to the special language 'repertoire' pertaining to the
specialized aims that are required of the learners. ESP is a relatively new discipline
within Applied Linguistics that bids a new learner-centered approach to English
language teaching whose methodology is based on the specific needs of the learner.
Kennedy and Bolitho (1984: 3) point out that ESP is based on „an investigation of
the purposes of the learner and the set of communicative needs arising from these
purposes‟. ESP is contrasted with EGP, or English for General Purposes. If English
is taught as a second language along with other subjects for educational purposes as
some useful subject to the learners in the future, then this is EGP. In this type of
learning, there is generally no immediate requirement for the learners to use English
for any real communicative purposes. In contrast, if English is taught for specialized
learners with some specific vocational and educational purpose in mind, then this is
ESP. ESP is learning and learner oriented, with a conception and preference for

30
ESP 2021
communicative competence. Defined to meet the specific needs of the learners, ESP
makes use of methodology and the activities of the discipline it serves by focusing
on the language appropriate to these activities. As a specific approach to language
teaching, ESP requires that all decisions as to content and method be based on the
learner‘s reason for learning (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 19). An ESP program,
might, for example, emphasize the development of reading skills in students who
are repairing for graduate work in business administration, or it might promote the
development of spoken skills in students‘ who are studying English in order to
become tourist guides. As a matter of fact, ESP combines subject matter and
English language teaching. Such a combination is highly motivating because
students are able to apply what they learn in their English classes to their main field
of study, whether it be accounting, business management, economics, computers
science or tourism. Being able to use the vocabulary and structures that they learn in
a meaningful context reinforces what is taught and increases their motivation. The
students‘abilities in their subject-matter fields, in turn, improve their ability to
acquire English. Subject-matter knowledge gives them the context they need to
understand the English of the classroom. In the ESP class, students are shown how
the subject-matter content is expressed in English. The teacher can make the most of
the students‘knowledge of the subject- matter, thus helping them learn English
faster.
A learner-centered approach provides opportunities for students to practice
critical and creative thinking, problem solving, and decision making. This involves
recall, application, analysis, synthesis, prediction and evaluation; all of which
contribute to the development and enhancement of conceptual understandings. A
learner-centered approach also encourages students to demonstrate ownership of
their ideas and to reflect on and monitor their thinking as they make decisions and
take action. In the key learning area of EFL, learning experiences should be adjusted
as required to meet the abilities, needs, and interests of individuals and groups of
students. This may mean providing different amounts of time, space or materials,
and offering a range of levels and types of support to students. Students may engage
in experiences in different ways, or make choices from a range of options so that
learning is relevant and meaningful. This approach can involve both students and
teachers in the design of learning and assessment opportunities, and requires
31
ESP 2021
negotiation and flexibility (Wajnryb, 1992: 124). It has been stated that ESP is an
approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to syllabus content and
method are based on the learners‟ reasons for learning. Though the needs for using
English are varied, all learners need to use a specific area of the English language in
the shortest term possible. After identifying a target situation - the need for a
specific segment at school - the learners' needs have to be identified; and their
current situation and 101 the target situation must also be analyzed. Additionally,
learners potentials require to be identified, as well as the skills and knowledge
needed to attain the target situation without losing sight of such constraints as
aptitude, time, and technical resources. With these data in mind, a course is
designed and the materials are then chosen and organized. Finally, evaluation is a
very important tool so that learning strategies can be redefined and results
improved.

32
ESP 2021

CHAPTER III

KEY NOTIONS OF ESP

The Three Key Issues Of English For Specific Purpose:

i).The distinction between the absolute and variable characteristics of ESP,

ii) Types of ESP, and

iii)The characteristics of ESP courses.

Three Types of ESP:

1. English as a restricted language;

2. English for academic and occupational purposes;

3. English with specific topics.

The types of ESP identified by Carver (1983) is English for Academic and
Occupational Purposes. English for Specific Purposes (ESP) can be defined as the
teaching of English for students who need to learn English in their specific field.
Moreover, Esimaje (2012: 24) states that English for Specific Purposes (ESP)
is the language used for a utilitarian purpose, whether occupational, vocational,
and academic or professional‖. ESP is divided into two major areas, namely English
for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). In
terms of the terminology, English for Academic Purposes is English for academic
purposes is defined as a set of skills that include a formal academic style, a general
academic English register, proficiency in English, as well as English study skills
(Jordan, 1997; Gunduz, 1999). Besides, English for Occupational Purposes (EOP)
has its focus and its own characteristics in which regarding the definition English
for Occupational Purposes (EOP), Sezer (2004) defined English for Occupational
Purposes [as] a recent and developing branch of English Language Teaching
which aims to meet occupational English language needs of learners in their
occupational settings. Therefore, English for Specific Purposes also has sub-
category i.e. English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational
Purposes (EOP).

33
ESP 2021

English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is known as a learner-centered

approach to teaching English as a foreign or second language. It meets the needs of
(mostly) adult learners who need to learn a foreign language for use in their specific
fields, such as science, technology, medicine, leisure, and academic learning. This
course is recommended for graduate students and foreign and second language
professionals who wish to learn how to design ESP courses and programs in an area
of specialization such as English for business, for Civil Engineering, for Academic
Purposes, and for health service purposes. In addition, they are introduced to ESP
instructional strategies, materials adaptation and development, and evaluation. Its
objectives include:

 To develop an understanding about the factors that led to the

emergence of ESP and the forces, both theoretical and applied, that
have shaped its subsequent development.
 To assist students develop needs assessments and genre analyses for
specific groups of learners.
 To provide guidelines to adapt or create authentic ESP materials in a
chosen professional or occupational area and to critically evaluate
currently available materials, including technology-based ones.
 To become knowledgeable about assessment procedures appropriate
for ESP and apply this knowledge in developing course and lesson
evaluation plans in their professional or occupational area.
 To assist students in preparing a syllabus, lesson and assessment
plan based upon their needs assessments and genre analyses.

Characteristics of ESP Courses Carver (1983) states that there are three
features common to ESP courses: a) authentic material, b) purpose-related
orientation, and c) self-direction. If one accepts Dudley- Evans' (1997) claim that
ESP should be offered at an intermediate or advanced level, then the use of
authentic learning materials is entirely feasible. Indeed, the use of authentic content
materials, modified or unmodified in form, is one feature of ESP, particularly in
self-directed study and research tasks. Purpose-related orientation refers to the
simulation of communicative tasks required of the target setting. Carver (1983:
101) cites student simulation of a conference, involving the preparation of papers,

34
ESP 2021

reading, note taking, and writing. At Algonquin College, English for business
courses have involved students in the design and presentation of a unique business
venture, including market research, pamphlets and logo creation. The students have
presented all final products to invited ESL classes during a poster presentation
session. For 108 the Health Science program, students attended a seminar on
improving the listening skills. They practiced listening skills, such as listening with
empathy, and then employed their newly acquired skills during a fieldtrip to a local
community center where they were partnered up with English-speaking residents.
A large component of the student evaluation was based on an independent study
assignment in which the learners were required to investigate and present an area of
interest. The students were encouraged to conduct research using a variety of
different resources, including the Internet. Finally, self- direction is characteristic
of ESP courses in that the ― point of including self-direction is that ESP is
concerned with turning learners into users‖ (Carver, 1983: 134). In order for self-
direction to occur, the learners must have a certain degree of freedom to decide
when, what, and how they will study. Carver (1983: ibid.) also adds that there must
be a systematic attempt by teachers to teach the learners how to learn by teaching
them about learning strategies. As for the question of whether or not it is necessary
to teach high-ability learners - such as those enrolled in the health science
program about learning strategies, the answer is not. Rather, what is essential for
these learners is learning how to access information in a new culture.

A English for specific purposes (ESP) has become a vital and innovative
activity within the teaching of English as a foreign or second language movement
(Howatt, 2000: 21). ESP is regarded as a ―approach‖ not as a ―product‖. It is an
approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are
based on the learner‘s reason for learning. Markee (2000:43) proposes that ESP is
communication not only because it is learner-centered but also because teaching
language as communication is an innovative activity. Based on this point of view,
ESP instructors characteristically use problem-solving methods and techniques to
promote the appropriate communicative development of individuals in particular
contexts of implementation. English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is often
underestimated because of teachers' attitudes which are often characterized either
by condescension or reluctance. This is manifested in the belief that often prevails
35
ESP 2021

among teachers that ESP is for those who cannot teach the "real" language. A good
example of this situation is "English in other departments" or "The Language Unit"
at university where teaching this component of the students' program of studies is
generally the responsibility of junior members of staff and where it is a "slot-
filling" subject in the teachers' time-tables. This underestimation may be due to the
fact many language teachers are not aware of what it means to be an ESP teacher,
and what it takes to be successful in this practice.
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is a learner-centered
approach to teaching English as an additional language which focuses on
developing English communication skills in a specific discipline, such as
accounting, agrology, education, engineering, IT technology, and academic
learning. The English for Specific Purposes (ESP) Program offers classes that focus
on developing the language skills needed for success on the job, at college, or in
university programs. English for Specific Purposes is an international peer-
reviewed journal that welcomes submissions from across the world. English for
Specific Purposes offers the teacher a new perspective on this important field. The
main concern is effective learning and how this can best be achieved in ESP
courses. An ESP program is therefore built on an assessment of purposes and needs
and the functions for which English is required. ESP is part of a larger movement
within language teaching away from a concentration on teaching grammar and
language structures to an emphasis on language in context. The ESP focus means
that English is not taught as a subject divorced from the students' real world;
instead, it is integrated into a subject matter area important to the learners. An ESP
program, might, for example, stress the development of reading skills in students
who are preparing for graduate work in engineering; or it might stress the
development of conversational skills in students who are studying English in order
to become tour guides. ESP integrates subject matter and English language
instruction. Such a combination is highly motivating because students are able to
apply what they learn in their English classes to their major field of study, whether
it be computer science, accounting, business management, economics, or tourism.
Being able to use the vocabulary and structures that they learn in a meaningful
context reinforces what is taught and increases students' motivation.

The students' abilities in their subject-matter fields, in turn, enhance their

36
ESP 2021

ability to acquire English. Subject matter knowledge gives them the context they
need to understand the English of the classroom. The ESP class takes subject-
matter content and shows students how the same information is expressed in
English. The teacher can exploit the students' knowledge of the subject matter in
helping them learn English faster. Dudley-Evans (2001:51-54) the defining
characteristic of ESP is that teaching and materials are based on the results of a
needs analysis. The key questions are:
1. What do students need to do with English?
2. Which of the skills do they need to master and how well?
3. Which genres do they need to master either for comprehension
or production purposes?

English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is known as a learner-centered

approach to teaching English as a foreign or second language. It meets the needs
of (mostly) adult learners who need to learn a foreign language for use in their
specific fields, such as science, technology, medicine, leisure, and academic
learning. This course is recommended for graduate students and foreign and
second language professionals who wish to learn how to design ESP courses
and programs in an area of specialization such as English for business, for Civil
Engineering, for Academic Purposes, and for health service purposes. ESP is
centered on the language appropriate to the activities of a given discipline.
According to Hutchinson, T and Waters (2003:42), "ESP is an approach to
language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on
the learner's reason for learning." In this connection, Dudley-Evans (2001:60)
explains that ESP may not always focus on the language for one specific
discipline or occupation, such as English for Law or English for Engineering.
University instruction that introduces students to common features of academic
discourse in the sciences or humanities, frequently called English for Academic
Purposes (EAP), is equally ESP. ESP has less to do with linguistics and
everything to do psychology. Rather than simply focus on the method of
language delivery, more attention was given to the ways in which learners
acquire language and the differences in the ways language is acquired. Learners
were seen to employ different learning strategies, use different skills, enter with
different learning schemata, and be motivated by different needs and interests.
37
ESP 2021

Therefore, focus on the learners' needs became equally paramount as the

methods employed to disseminate linguistic knowledge. Designing specific
courses to better meet these individual needs was a natural extension of this
thinking. To this day, the catchword in ESL circles is learner-centered or
learning-centered.
The teaching of ESP was primarily concerned with the linguistic aspects of
the language. Now, it has shifted towards developing communication skills and
learning is very much directed by specific learner's needs for mastering the
language, view of ESP points to the importance and roles of learners both in the
design of the course and its implementation in the teaching and learning processes.
ESP courses are similar to language instruction in general which puts more
emphasis on language use. The obvious difference is in the focus of interest. While
English for general purposes emphasizes language proficiency, ESP courses
emphasize "something outside of the language through the medium of language.
The interest and development of ESP has been very rapid since 1960s, the ESP
teaching should not be recognized as a separate development which is very much
different from language teaching in general.
Variable Characteristics of ESP:
1. ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines
2. ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different
methodology from that of General English
3. ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary
level institution or in a professional work situation. It could,
however, be for learners at secondary school level
4. ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced
students.
5. Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the
language system.
ESP should be seen simple as an 'approach' to teaching, or what describes as
an 'attitude of mind'. This is a similar conclusion to that made by Hutchinson, T &
Waters, A (2003:40) who state, "ESP is an approach to language teaching in which
all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner's reason for
learning". Language for Specific Purposes (LSP) has been primarily used to refer
to two areas within applied linguistics:
38
ESP 2021

1. One focusing on the needs in education and training.

2. One with a focus on research on language variation across a
particular subject field. A third approach, content or theme-based
language instruction (CBI) has also been confused with LSP. These
several uses of the label of LSP have caused some confusion
internationally.

LSP is a widely applied approach to second or foreign language teaching

and training that addresses immediate and very specific needs of learners who need
that language as a tool in their education, training or job. Needs analysis is the
underlying ―driver‖ for the development of LSP programs. For example, English
native speaking nurses who work in hospitals with a high percentage patient whose
native language is Spanish might have to study Spanish for the very specific
purpose of communication between nurses and patients. LSP can be used with any
target language needed by the learners as a tool for specific purposes, and has often
been applied to English (English for Specific Purposes, or ESP). Language for
Specific Purposes has also been used to refer to a branch of applied linguistics
which deals with a variety of language used by members of a particular subject
field, concentrating on its genres, stylistic features and technical lexis. This research
is relevant for such problem-based areas as language education, translation and the
design of specialized dictionaries. Some in the training area consider such research
on Professional Communications as LSP-related research when it is paired with or
applied directly to an LSP training program. Content-based language instruction
(CBI) is also sometimes confused with ESP. At the post-secondary level it is
frequently used to motivate groups of learners who may be interested in the same
professional field, providing meaningful communication opportunities. However, as
in their regular studies they are usually not studying through a foreign/ second
language (except for sheltered courses), they do not need English as a tool in
their immediate studies. ―Content- based instruction (CBI) is the integration of
selected content with language teaching aims‖ (Brinton & Snow 2002:32) Thus,
when trying to identify which approach being taken, it is critical to ask. ESP is an
approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are
based on the learners‘reasons for learning.

39
ESP 2021

Key Issues in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) Curriculum

Development
Based on insights gained from developing the curriculum for Language
Preparation for Employment in the Health Sciences and a review of the literature on
ESP, this paper is intended to offer theoretical support for ESL instructors
developing ESP curricula for ESL contexts.
Background Information and Statement of Purpose
In late 1999, I was asked to develop a content-based curriculum for a ten-
week course for a select group of immigrants living in Ottawa, Canada. The course
was held at Algonquin College of Applied Arts and Technology and was funded by
the Language for Employment Related Needs Project (LERN). The curriculum
consisted of two distinct phases: language delivery and employment awareness.
Although the employment awareness phase (independently developed and delivered
by Local Agencies Serving Immigrants) was an integral component of the program,
the focus of this paper is on insights gained from the language-delivery phase.
Dudley Evans and St. John (1998) identify five key roles for the ESP
practitioner:
 teacher
 course designer and materials provider
 collaborator
 researcher
 evaluator.
It is the role of ESP practitioner as course designer and materials provider that this
paper addresses. The premise of this paper is based on David Nunan's observations
about the teacher as a curriculum developer. It seems fairly obvious that if teachers
are to be the ones responsible for developing the curriculum, they need the time, the
skills and the support to do so. Support may include curriculum models and
guidelines · and may include support from individuals acting in a curriculum
advisory position. The provision of such support cannot be removed and must not
be seen in isolation, from the curriculum (Nunan, 1987, p. 75). Nunan recognized
that issues of time, skills and support are key for teachers faced with the very real
task of developing curricula. The intent of this paper is to provide the ESL
instructor as ESP course designer and materials provider with theoretical support.

40
ESP 2021

This paper begins with a discussion of the origins of ESP. Some key notions about
ESP are then addressed:
 absolute and variable characteristics
 types of ESP
 characteristics of ESP courses
 the meaning of the word 'special' in ESP
Key issues in ESP curriculum design are suggested:

a) Abilities required for successful communication in occupational

settings
b) Content language acquisition versus general language acquisition
c) Heterogeneous versus homogenous learner group
d) Materials development.

The Origins of ESP

Certainly, a great deal about the origins of ESP could be written. Notably,
there are three reasons common to the emergence of all ESP: the demands of a
Brave New World, a revolution in linguistics, and focus on the learner (Hutchinson
& Waters, 1987). Hutchinson and Waters (1987) note that two key historical
periods breathed life into ESP. First, the end of the Second World War brought with
it an age of enormous and unprecedented expansion in scientific, technical and
economic activity on an international scale · for various reasons, most notably the
economic power of the United States in the post-war world, the role [of
international language] fell to English" (p. 6). Second, the Oil Crisis of the early
1970s resulted in Western money and knowledge flowing into the oil-rich countries.
The language of this knowledge became English.
The general effect of all this development was to exert pressure on
the language teaching profession to deliver the required goods. Whereas English
had previously decided its own destiny, it now became subject to the wishes, needs
and demands of people other than language teachers (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987,
p.7). The second key reason cited as having a tremendous impact on the emergence
of ESP was a revolution in linguistics. Whereas traditional linguists set out to
describe the features of language, revolutionary pioneers in linguistics began to
focus on the ways in which language is used in real communication. Hutchinson and
41
ESP 2021

Waters (1987) point out that one significant discovery was in the ways that spoken
and written English vary. In other words, given the particular context in which
English is used, the variant of English will change. This idea was taken one step
farther. If language in different situations varies, then tailoring language instruction
to meet the needs of learners in specific contexts is also possible. Hence, in the late
1960s and the early 1970s there were many attempts to describe English for Science
and Technology (EST). Hutchinson and Waters (1987) identify Ewer and Latorre,
Swales, Selinker and Trimble as a few of the prominent descriptive EST pioneers.
The final reason Hutchinson and Waters (1987) cite as having influenced the
emergence of ESP has less to do with linguistics and everything to do psychology.
Rather than simply focus on the method of language delivery, more attention was
given to the ways in which learners acquire language and the differences in the
ways language is acquired. Learners were seen to employ different learning
strategies, use different skills, enter with different learning schemata, and be
motivated by different needs and interests. Therefore, focus on the learners' needs
became equally paramount as the methods employed to disseminate linguistic
knowledge. Designing specific courses to better meet these individual needs was a
natural extension of this thinking. To this day, the catchword in ESL circles is
learner-centered or learning-centered.

Key Notions about ESP

In this discussion, four key notions will be discussed. They are as follows: a)
the distinctions between the absolute and variable characteristics of ESP, b) types of
ESP, c) characteristics of ESP courses, and d) the meaning of the word 'special' in
ESP.
Absolute and Variable Characteristics of ESP
Ten years later, theorists Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) modified
Strevens' original definition of ESP to form their own. Let us begin with Strevens.
He defined ESP by identifying its absolute and variable characteristics. Strevens'
(1988) definition makes a distinction between four absolute and two variable
characteristics:
Absolute characteristics:

 Designed to meet specified needs of the learner

42
ESP 2021

 Related in content (i.e. in its themes and topics) to

particular disciplines, occupations and activities
 Centered on the language appropriate to those activities in
syntax, lexis, discourse, semantics, etc., and analysis of this
discourse
 In contrast with General English.
Variable characteristics:

 Restricted as to the language skills to be learned (e.g. reading only);

 Not taught according to any pre-ordained methodology (pp.1-2).

Anthony (1997) notes that there has been considerable recent debate about
what ESP means despite the fact that it is an approach which has been widely used
over the last three decades. At a 1997 Japan Conference on ESP, Dudley-Evans
offered a modified definition. The revised definition he and St. John postulate is as
follows:
I. Absolute Characteristics

 ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learner;

 ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the
discipline it serves;
 ESP is centered on the language (grammar, lexis, register),
skills, discourse and genres appropriate to these activities.

II. Variable Characteristics

 ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines;

 ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different
methodology from that of general English;
 ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a
tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation. It
could, however, be for learners at secondary school level;
 ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students;
 Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the
language system, but it can be used with beginners (1998, pp. 4-
5).

43
ESP 2021

Dudley-Evans and St. John have removed the absolute characteristic that
'ESP is in contrast with General English' and added more variable characteristics.
They assert that ESP is not necessarily related to a specific discipline. Furthermore,
ESP is likely to be used with adult learners although it could be used with young
adults in a secondary school setting.
As for a broader definition of ESP, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) theorize,
"ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and
method are based on the learner's reason for learning" (p. 19). Anthony (1997) notes
that, it is not clear where ESP courses end and general English courses begin;
numerous non-specialist ESL instructors use an ESP approach in that their syllabi
are based on analysis of learner needs and their own personal specialist knowledge
of using English for real communication.
Types of ESP
David Carter (1983) identifies three types of ESP:
 English as a restricted language
 English for Academic and Occupational Purposes
 English with specific topics.

The language used by air traffic controllers or by waiters are examples of

English as a restricted language. Mackay and Mountford (1978) clearly illustrate the
difference between restricted language and language with this statement, the
language of international air-traffic control could be regarded as 'special', in the
sense that the repertoire required by the controller is strictly limited and can be
accurately determined situational, as might be the linguistic needs of a dining-room
waiter or air-hostess. However, such restricted repertoires are not languages, just as
a tourist phrase book is not grammar. Knowing a restricted 'language' would not
allow the speaker to communicate effectively in novel situation, or in contexts
outside the vocational environment (pp. 4-5).

44
ESP 2021

The second type of ESP identified by Carter (1983) is English for Academic
and Occupational Purposes. In the 'Tree of ELT' (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987), ESP
is broken down into three branches: a) English for Science and Technology (EST),
b) English for Business and Economics (EBE), and c) English for Social Studies
(ESS). Each of these subject areas is further divided into two branches: English for
Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). An
example of EOP for the EST branch is 'English for Technicians' whereas an
example of EAP for the EST branch is 'English for Medical Studies'.
English for Occupational Purposes is a branch of ESP (English for Specific
Purposes) and covers situations in which learners are studying English for work
related reasons. The courses are based on an analysis of their specific
communicative needs in their work. For example, a waiter dealing with foreign
clients might need to:
1. Describe the content of dishes on the menu and the way they are cooked
(It's pasta with seafood cooked in a white wine and cream sauce).
2. Understand and respond appropriately to requests and orders (Can we
have a bottle of the house white?)
3. Ask about requirements (Would you like coffee?) etc.
EOP courses will therefore have often titles like: English for Nursing,
English for Shop floor Staff, and English for Accountants. Where communicative
needs become more complex, the courses may become more specific, not aiming to
deal with the full range of needs involved in the job, but just with one area. This is
particularly true in Business English, which may focus on e.g.: English for Sales
Presentation, English for Business Report, and Negotiation Skills in English
Alternatively, the courses may focus on the more general needs of a specific
industry: English for Banking and Finance, Legal English, English for Military
Purposes, English for the Oil Industry.

45
ESP 2021

2. English Occupational Function

The function of EOP is concern with enabling a learner function in English

particular job or profession. EOP design for someone who wants to ready for get
work. Functional analysis - the best approach to teaching occupational English. My
recommended starting point for teaching English for Specific Purposes is to
consider the functions of the specific language variety. This may be difficult to do
until you really get to know your learners and their duties, but there is quite a lot of
literature now on how particular varieties of English work. An appreciation of the
function of occupational registers, will make linguistic description of syntax, lexis
and phonological features much easier, because you will be able to bear in mind
why particular constructions, collocations and literary devices are being used.
Teaching special English is much more interesting than word-level vocabulary
study; in any case, good vocabulary practice materials, as exemplified by books in
the English Vocabulary in Use series go beyond the role of simple reference
dictionaries by marking out functional territory and supplying a framework for
language use.
English Occupational Purposes to the Implementation of ESP Course
Design in School
Qing (2014) states that the theoretical work on course design has provided
the foundation for evaluating workplace EOP program design effectiveness (p.27).
Therefore, what is the characteristic of EOP? One of the characteristics of EOP, like
ESP, is that it is learner-centered (Hutchinson and Waters 1987, 19), i.e., learner
wants and needs are taken into consideration in developing the curriculum (of
English as a subject) (see also Gatehouse 2001, 7). Thus, it is essential to ensure that
an ESP curriculum is not based on mere perceptions and intuitions, but on a proper
EOP needs analysis. Belcher (2004, 166) suggests that, because ESP pedagogy is
driven by needs analysis, unlike other more theory-based. Pedagogical approaches,
its practitioners should gather ―empirical needs assessment-data‖, to make sure that
learning materials meet the specific needs identified. Learners need to learn English
in order to improve their job performance that was the purpose of existence of EOP.

46
ESP 2021

Differentiating English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for

Occupational Purposes (EOP)
To begin with, English for Academic Purposes (EAP) English for academic
purposes (EAP), commonly known as Academic English, entails training students,
usually in a higher education setting, to use language appropriately for study. It is
one of the most common forms of English for specific purposes (ESP). While
English for Occupational Purposes has been mentioned above, it is a branch of ESP
(English for Specific Purposes) and covers situations in which learners are studying
English for work related reasons. Moreover, Tan (2016) in his thesis explained that
EAP is geared towards learners who are studying to enter professions focused on
academic language, whereas EOP is tailored for those who are already employed,
with an emphasis on the language used in job performance. An example to
distinguish between English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for
Occupational Purposes is in the case of biology students who are still pursuing their
bachelor degree, the branch of ESP course they will enroll is EAP in which they
need to hone English skills to support their study. Meanwhile, some workers who
are employed already in biology field and they have achieved their bachelor degree,
but they still need to enhance their English skills to support their job performance,
then the branch of ESP they are going to enroll will be EOP.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) do note that there is not a clear-cut
distinction between EAP and EOP: " People can work and study simultaneously; it
is also likely that in many cases the language learnt for immediate use in a study
environment will be used later when the student takes up, or returns to, a job" (p.
16). Perhaps this explains Carter's rationale for categorizing EAP and EOP under
the same type of ESP. It appears that Carter is implying that the end purpose of both
EAP and EOP are one in the same: employment. However, despite the end purpose
being identical, the means taken to achieve the end is very different indeed. I
contend that EAP and EOP are different in terms of focus on Cummins' (1979)
notions of cognitive academic proficiency versus basic interpersonal skills. This is
examined in further detail below. The third and final type of ESP identified by
Carter (1983) is English with specific topics. Carter notes that it is only here where
emphasis shifts from purpose to topic. This type of ESP is uniquely concerned with
47
ESP 2021
anticipated future English needs of, for example, scientists requiring English for
postgraduate reading studies, attending conferences or working in foreign
institutions. However, I argue that this is not a separate type of ESP. Rather it is an
integral component of ESP courses or programs which focus on situational
language. This situational language has been determined based on the interpretation
of results from needs analysis of authentic language used in target workplace
settings.

Characteristics of ESP Courses

The characteristics of ESP courses identified by Carter (1983) are discussed
here. He states that there are three features common to ESP courses: a) authentic
material, b) purpose-related orientation, and c) self- direction. If we revisit Dudley-
Evans' (1997) claim that ESP should be offered at an intermediate or advanced
level, use of authentic learning materials is entirely feasible. Closer examination of
ESP materials will follow; suffice it to say at this juncture that use of authentic
content materials, modified or unmodified in form, are indeed a feature of ESP,
particularly in self-directed study and research tasks. For Language Preparation for
Employment in the Health Sciences, a large component of the student evaluation
was based on an independent study assignment in which the learners were required
to investigate and present an area of interest. The students were encouraged to
conduct research using a variety of different resources, including the Internet.
Purpose-related orientation refers to the simulation of communicative tasks required
of the target setting. Carter (1983) cites student simulation of a conference,
involving the preparation of papers, reading, note taking, and writing. At Algonquin
College, English for business courses have involved students in the design and
presentation of a unique business venture, including market research, pamphlets and
logo creation. The students have presented all final products to invited ESL classes
during a poster presentation session. For our health science program, students
attended a seminar on improving your listening skills. They practiced listening
skills, such as listening with empathy, and then employed their newly acquired
skills during a fieldtrip to a local community center where they were partnered up
with English-speaking residents.
Finally, self-direction is characteristic of ESP courses in that the‖ point of

48
ESP 2021
including self-direction is that ESP is concerned with turning learners into users"
(Carter, 1983, p. 134). In order for self-direction to occur, the learners must have a
certain degree of freedom to decide when, what, and how they will study. Carter
(1983) also adds that there must be a systematic attempt by teachers to teach the
learners how to learn by teaching them about learning strategies. Is it necessary,
though, to teach high-ability learners such as those enrolled in the health science
program about learning strategies? I argue that it is not. Rather, what is essential for
these learners is learning how to access information in a new culture.

The Meaning of the Word 'Special' in ESP

One simple clarification will be made here: special language and specialized
aim are two entirely different notions. It was Perren (1974) who noted that
confusion arises over these two notions. If we revisit Mackay and Mountford's
restricted repertoire, we can better understand the idea of a special language.
Mackay and Mountford (1978) state: The only practical way in which we can
understand the notion of special language is as a restricted repertoire of words and
expressions selected from the whole language because that restricted repertoire
covers every requirement within a well-defined context, task or vocation (p. 4). On
the other hand, a specialized aim refers to the purpose for which learners learn a
language, not the nature of the language they learn (Mackay & Mountford, 1978).
Consequently, the focus of the word 'special' in ESP ought to be on the purpose for
which learners learn and not on the specific jargon or registers they learn.

Key Issues in ESP Curriculum Design

In this section, key issues in ESP curriculum design for ESL contexts are
examined. The issues explored here are a product of my professional experience
developing the curriculum for Language Preparation for Employment in the Health
Sciences. This experience has been supported with a review of the literature on
ESP.

Abilities Required for Successful Communication in Occupational

Settings

Cummins (1979) theorized a dichotomy between basic interpersonal

49
ESP 2021
communication skills (BICS) and cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP).
The former refers to the language skills used in the everyday informal language
used with friends, family and co-workers. The latter refers to a language proficiency
required to make sense of and use academic language. Situations in which
individuals use BICS are characterized by contexts that provide relatively easy
access to meaning. However, CALP use occurs in contexts that offer fewer
contextual clues. After having developed and taught the curriculum for Language
Preparation for Employment in the Health Sciences, I have reached the conclusion
that there are three abilities necessary for successful communication in a
professional target setting. I have added a third skill or ability to Cummins' theory in
order to complete the ESP picture. The first ability required in order to successfully
communicate in an occupational setting is the ability to use the particular jargon
characteristic of that specific occupational context. The second is the ability to use a
more generalized set of academic skills, such as conducting research and responding
to memoranda. With the health science group, this was largely related to
understanding a new culture. The third is the ability to use the language of everyday
informal talk to communicate effectively, regardless of occupational context.
Examples of this include chatting over coffee with a colleague or responding to an
informal email message.
The task for the ESP developer is to ensure that all three of these abilities are
integrated into and integrated in the curriculum. This is a difficult task due to the
incredible amount of research required. Close collaboration between content experts
and the curriculum developer was not possible during the development stages for
the health science curriculum. In retrospect, the experience and knowledge of health
science faculty would have lessened the workload in this area tremendously.
Fortunately, there does exist a wealth of information on academic and general
language skills. The trick involved in the interweaving process is to develop a
model that best integrates the restricted repertoire with the academic and general for
the learners in question. In the case of Language Preparation for Employment in the
Health Sciences, there were so many possible potential future occupational settings
to research and I had to cope with limited development time. I simply opted to
identify academic skills that were transferable to most health science occupational
settings. This required an inventory of all possible health science occupations,
50
ESP 2021
identification of the past occupational experiences of the learners in the pilot
program, and identification of academic language skills. All of this information was
then cross-referenced with the general language objectives for the identified group
of learners. It is my opinion that because ESP requires comprehensive needs
analysis and because the learning-centered curriculum is not static, it is impossible
to expect that the developer be in a position to identify the perfect balance of the
abilities noted above for any particular group of learners. In reality, a large part of
this responsibility is that of the instructors; it is the instructors who are in the best
position to identify changing learner needs and who are in the best position to
ensure that all students receive a balanced diet of language.

Content Language Acquisition versus General Language Acquisition

When I first received the proposal for the health science pilot program, the
ratio of content to language instruction had already been identified: 2 hours of
content lecture for every 23 hours of language/content instruction. Given this
starting point, one of the central questions that needed to be answered was how
much time would be devoted to vocabulary and content knowledge acquisition, as
opposed to the time spent developing general and academic language skills.
Although a tentative balance was drafted prior to classroom delivery, the balance
shifted on a daily basis. In the end, it was determined by both instructors that more
time need be allotted for pure content and more time need be created for team-
taught activities. The final weekly breakdown of 25 hours consisted of the
following:
 8 hours of Integrated Language Learning (ESL instructor)
 6 hours of Health Science Lectures (content instructor)
 4 hours of Workplace Communication (jointly facilitated)
 3 hours of Medical terminology (content instructor)
 2 hours of Path physiology (content instructor)
 2 hours of Applied Computer Skills (ESL instructor)

The first thing that is apparent from this breakdown, is that time devoted to
developing general language and academic skills far outweighs the time devoted to
the acquisition of content knowledge. However, it was recommended that the

51
ESP 2021
content instructor be present for a considerable more amount of time; it was
observed that there was such an overlap between content knowledge, academic
proficiency, and general language that we could better interweave many of the
activities as a team. The learners indicated that they desired more opportunity to
interact with the content instructor, in addition to attending the old-style lecture
format. Indeed, both instructors noted that the students were highly motivated to
attend the content lectures and yet additional support from the ESL instructor was
required because, in order to meet the learners' needs, we could not teach the
restricted repertoire in isolation. What is more, it was highly unreasonable to
assume that the content instructor would take on the role of ESL instructor.
Finally, it was observed that the majority of the students with post-
secondary training in the health sciences possessed a basic knowledge of Greco-
Latino terminology. Consequently, we determined that less time would be devoted
to learning terminology in order to follow the content lectures. Most of the students
could already recognize meaning, but not produce it. It was determined that more
time should be allotted for work on pronunciation and learning the spelling of health
science terminology. Moreover, much more time would be spent on communication
for the workplace; in this way, they students would be afforded ample opportunity
to integrate and practice the restricted repertoire acquired in content lectures and the
everyday language acquired in the language classes.

Heterogeneous Learner Group versus Homogeneous Learner Group

There are a number of variables which characterize a heterogeneous learner
group. I argue that variations in language level, prior education and work experience
can be accommodated only to a certain extent. Minimum entrance standards must be
established in the areas of language level, motivation, and prior education and
experience. Most importantly, these standards must be strictly enforced at the time
of placement. Due to the limited time frame for the development of the health
science pilot program curriculum and the fact that the program was scheduled to
begin in the middle of the academic term, the minimum general language entrance
requirement was dropped from high to low intermediate in order to generate a large
enough pool of suitable candidates. Although no pre or post-test was to be
administered by evaluation team, I was required to recruit twice the number of

52
ESP 2021
students to be admitted to the program: 20 students would be in the pilot group and
20 would be in the control group. In the end, 16 students formed each group. The
result was that there were some genuinely intermediate students mixed in with a
majority of high intermediate, and a few advanced students. Based on observations
of a four-week English for Business course, Yogman and Kaylani (1996) conclude
that there appears to be a minimum proficiency level that is required for students to
participate in predominately content-related activities. This supports my finding that
those students who were struggling to catch up with general language proficiency
simply found the content activities to be overwhelming. One student in the health
science program commented that she had to learn both the language and the content
at the time. This particular student was at such a disadvantage because, whereas the
other students were doctors and dentists, she had no prior education or work
experience in health science. Another student was an experienced doctor, but
possessed a very low level of language proficiency. Either case would have been
frustrating for anyone. One strategy we began to employ was to have the
intermediate students focus on developing their listening skills during the content
lecture. Those students without the background knowledge, who possessed the
language skills, were to ask for clarification from their peers or instructors. The
advanced students were encouraged to record as much detail as possible, carry out
supplemental reading that pertained to the lecture topics and to assist their peers
whenever possible.

Materials Development
Those foreign language teachers who are faced with a need to create large
bodies of teaching materials for the students know that this work is a time-
consuming, exhaustive and frustrating process of self-training as teacher-preparation
programs in Slovakia do not include a specific training in the techniques of writing
separate teaching materials or textbooks. Thus, the process is accompanied by trials
and errors, by success or failure. Preparation of teaching materials in local
conditions of the faculties or universities in Slovakia is even a more complicated
process which verifies author’s professional skills as well as his enthusiasm. There
is a good choice of commercially prepared English textbooks for both business and
technical English on the Slovak book market, but in spite of that we were not able to

53
ESP 2021
find a single textbook which suited our requirements for the following reasons: they
are too general or too specific books for our purposes. It is almost impossible to find
one common book for both business English and technical English teaching. While
using the textbooks available on the Slovak book market, we may find out that some
exercises do not work well, or some types of texts and exercises are missing.
Traditionally, the process of course design suggests that materials design or
selection should come at a later stage of the process. The sequence of a course
design can be summarized as the linear model: needs analysis – goals and objectives
– syllabus design – methodology/materials, testing and evaluation. [8] The
procedure shows how the teaching contexts and learners' needs provide a framework
for the objectives and consequently methods and materials are being chosen. Many
teachers may find this method not to be representative and propose more familiar
sequence instead. First, institution draw up a very general profile of a particular
group of learners where the characteristics of the learners are defined in terms of the
learners' preference for a course and the level of their proficiency based on the tests
administrated at the beginning of the course. The objective of the course is usually
represented in the name of the course (e.g. First Certificate Preparation Course, Oral
Communication 1). Secondly, materials are being selected based on available course
books. The stages such as needs analysis, goals specifications, and syllabus design
and methodology consideration happen prior to materials selection. Exploring
teachers‘need is crucial when the role division between the materials producers
become more evident. The tailored materials may correspond to the needs of
language learners, but the colorful appearance of commercial course books is more
eyes catching. Tailored materials are more specific for learning situation, have
greater face validity in terms of the language dealt with and the contexts it is
presented. Even though the approaches towards ―tailor-made textbooks for special
purposes are different, we have chosen this alternative after years of experimenting
and searching for appropriate texts. When adapting materials, the following criteria
were taken into consideration: importance of information needed for our
students‘future career, language adequacy of study material as well as application of
already mastered communication skills in different contexts. ESP courses
worldwide are very often oriented towards development of reading comprehension.
Undoubtedly, such an orientation is appropriate if the students ideas of their future
54
ESP 2021
careers have more or less clear contours expecting that they will get a job in some
engineering branch. Many of our future graduates can hardly predict the sphere of
their professional activities. This reality has to be taken into account when
formulating the principal objective of the English language course at the Faculty – a
proportional development of all language skills. In accordance with the current
social trends, we should get rid of a rather one- sided view of an engineer as an
expert in some scientific field using his English knowledge entirely for reading
scientific literature. Engineering activities involve much broader repertoire. We
suppose that, in general, the most common macro – activities, in which technicians,
scientists, or business persons using English as a foreign language will likely find
themselves, are: reading technical publications, handbooks, or journals to keep
abreast of professional developments, writing technical publications and technical
reports, giving presentations, contacts with business partners from abroad through
business correspondence, telephoning, taking part in technical discussions at
conferences, seminars, exhibitions and other technical meetings or international
events, travelling, social and professional conversations with English speaking
clients and visitors. The basic study material has been carefully selected and adapted
in close cooperation with the technically oriented departments of our faculty. The
project ―Application of e-learning in foreign language teaching at the Faculty of
Manufacturing Technologies‖ is focused on the implementation of modern
technology and the improvement of teaching in the study branches and
Technologies.
Do ESP textbooks really exist? This is central question Johns (1990)
addresses. One of the core dilemmas he presents is that "ESP teachers find
themselves in a situation where they are expected to produce a course that exactly
matches the needs of a group of learners, but are expected to do so with no, or very
limited, preparation time" (Johns, 1990, p. 91). In the real world, many ESL
instructors/ESP developers are not provided with ample time for needs analysis,
materials research and materials development. There are many texts which claim to
meet the needs of ESP courses.
Johns (1990) says that ESP text can live up to its name. He suggests that the
only real solution is that a resource bank of pooled materials be made available to
all ESP instructors (Johns, 1990). The only difference between this resource bank
55
ESP 2021
and the one that is available in every educational setting -- teachers' filing cabinets
-- is that this one is to include cross- indexed doable, workable content-based
(amongst other) resources. It is my experience that this suggestion is not doable. If
teachers are so pressed for time, will they have the time to submit and cross-index
resources? Rather, I believe that there is value in all texts - some more than others.
Familiarizing oneself with useful instructional materials is part of growing as a
teacher, regardless of the nature of purpose for learning. Given that ESP is an
approach and not a subject to be taught, curricular materials will unavoidably be
pieced together, some borrowed and others designed specially. Resources will
include authentic materials, ESL materials, ESP materials, and teacher-generated
materials. Note that an excellent point of departure for novice ESP curriculum
developers is with lists of ESL publishers which have been made publicly available
on-line. Browsing publishers' sites takes a few minutes, review copies can be
requested immediately and copies can be sent express.

Concluding Remarks
This paper has discussed the origins of ESP, addressed key notions about
ESP and examined issues in ESP curriculum design. The content of the paper was
determined by a need identified based on my professional experience as an ESL
instructor designing and delivering the content-based language program - Language
Preparation for Employment in the Health Sciences. These issues, where possible,
have been supported by current and pertinent academic literature. It is my sincerest
hope that these observations will lend insight into the challenges facing the ESL
instructor acting as ESP curriculum developer.

56
ESP 2021

CHAPTER IV
THE ORIGIN OF ESP
According to Tom Hutchinson & Alan Waters Lancaster (1986), ―English for
Specific Purposes is teaching which has specified objectives‖. English Language world
got a long well enough without it for many years, so why has ESP became such an
important part of English Language Teaching? In ESP students hope by learning ESP can
serve as a guide to all present and future and inhabitant of ESP, revealing both the
challenges and pleasures to be enjoyed there and the pitfalls to be avoided. The writer
make this book in order we will not only explain our reason for writing it but will also be
able to presents a plan of the itinerary we shall follow, the ESP is related to learning
central approach because in development ESP has paid scant attention to the questions of
how people learn, focusing instead on the question of what people learn. Besides, ESP
divided into several focuses there are ESP for Science and Technology (EST) divided into
two English Academic Purposes (EAP) English for Occupational Purposes (EAP). In
English Academic Purposes (EAP) there is English for Medical Studies, and English for
Occupational Purposes (EAP) there is English for Technicians. English for Business and
Economics (EBE) divided into two are EAP there is English for Economics and EOP
English for Secretaries. In English for Social Sciences (ESS) divided into two EAP there
is English for Psychology and EOP (English for Teaching). However, in ESP will discuss
into several chapters such as the origin ESP, The Development of ESP, and ESP:
Approach not Product, Language Description, Theories of Learning, Needs Analysis, and
Approaches to Course Design, The Syllabus, Materials Evaluation, Materials Design,
Methodology, Evaluation and Orientation. The Curriculum Development consisted of
two distinct phases: language delivery and employment awareness. Dudley Evans and St.
John (1998) identify five key roles for the ESP practitioner:

 Teacher
 Course designer and materials provider
 Collaborator
 Researcher
 Evaluator.
It is the role of ESP practitioner as course designer and materials provider
that this paper addresses. It seems fairly obvious that if teachers are to be the ones
responsible for developing the curriculum, they need the time, the skills and the
57
ESP 2021
support to do so. Support may include curriculum models and guidelines · and may
include support from individuals acting in a curriculum advisory position. The
provision of such support cannot be removed and must not be seen in isolation, from
the curriculum. Nunan, D (2002:42) recognized that issues of time, skills and
support are key for teachers faced with the very real task of developing curricula.
The intent of this paper is to provide the ESL instructor as ESP course designer and
materials provider with theoretical support. This paper begins with a discussion of
the origins of ESP.

The Demands of a Brave New World

The end of the Second World War in 1945 heralded an age of enormous and
unprecedented expansion in scientific, technical and economic activity on an
international scale. This expansion created a world unified and dominated by two
forces (technology and commerce) which in their relentless progress soon generated
a demand for an international language. For various reasons, most notably the
economic power of the United States in the post-war world, this role fell to English.
English was the key to the international currencies of technology and commerce and
it became the accepted international language of technology and commerce. Then it
created a new generation of learners who knew specifically why they were learning
a language. For the example the doctors who needed to keep up with developments
in their field. The development was accelerated by the OIL Crises of the early
1970s, which resulted in a massive flow of funds and Western expertise into the oil-
rich countries. Time and money constraints created a need for cost-effective courses
with clearly defined goals. English now became subject to the wishes, needs and
demands of people other than language teachers.

Revolution in Linguistics
At the same time as the use of English which was growing up for specific
needs, it also influenced the study of language itself. In the past, the purpose of
Linguistics was only for the usage of the language which is well known as
grammar. However, as the time goes by the early studies began to find out that the
usage of language grammatically is actually different from the real life usage, one
of the example is the way we speak and write the language.
58
ESP 2021
It can be explained that in the real life there are some differences of the
usage of language in some parts of life e.g engineering, hospital, and more. Then it
developed that if the use of language varies from one situation to another, it should
be possible to decide the features of specific situations and make these features as
basis for learning the language. Since then, especially in the late 60‘s and 70‘s, the
research were developed into the varieties of language. In conclusion, by analyzing
linguistic characteristics of the specialist area of language study, particular group of
learners could be identified. This is as the principle of ESP that ―Tell me
what you need English for and I will tell you the English that you need‖.

Focus on the Learner

The developments in educational psychology contribute to the rise of ESP,
by emphasizing the central importance of the learners and their attitudes to learning.
Learners were seen to have different needs and interest, which would have an
important influence on their motivation to learn and therefore on the effectiveness
of their learning. This lent support to the development of courses in which relevance
to the learners need and interest was paramount. The assumption underlying this
approach was that the clear relevance of the English course to their needs would
improve the learners‘motivation and thereby make learning better and faster. The
growth of ESP was brought about by a combination of three importance factors. The
expansion of demands for English to suit particular needs and developments in the
fields of linguistics and educational psychology. All three factors seemed to point
towards the need for increased specialization in language learning.
The Concept of Special Language: Register Analysis
This stage took place mainly in the 1960s and early 1970s and was
associated in particular with the work of Peter Strevens (Halliday Melcintosh and
Stevens, 1964), Jack Ewer ( Ewer and Lattore, 1969) and John Swales (1971).
Operating on the basic principle that the English of, say, electrical engineering
constituted as specific register different from that of, say, biology or of general
English, the aim of the analysis was to identify the grammatical and lexical future of
these registers. Teaching materials then took these linguistic features as their
syllabus. A good example of such a syllabus is that of A Course in Basic Scientific
English by Ewer and Latorre (1969). The aim was to produce a syllabus which gave

59
ESP 2021
high priority to the language forms students would need in there. Sciences studies
and in turn would give low priority to forms they would not meet.
Ewer and Hughes-Davies (1971), beyond the sentence: Rhetorical Or
Discourse Analysis “ESP had focused on language at the sentence level, the second
phase of development shifted attention to the level about the sentence, as ESP
become closely involved with the emerging field of discourse or rhetorical
analysis”.

Target Situation Analysis.

The stage that we come to consider now did not really add anything new to
the range of knowledge about ESP. What it aimed to do was to take the existing
knowledge and set it on a more scientific basis, by establishing procedures for
relating language analyzing more closely to learners‘ reasons for learning. Given
that the purpose of an ESP course is to enable learners to function adequately in a
target situation, that is, the situation in which learners will use the language they are
learning, then the ESP course design process should proceed by first identifying the
target situation and then carrying out a rigorous analysis of the linguistic features of
that situation. The identified features will form the syllabus of the ESP course. This
process is usually known as need analysis. However, we prefer to take
Chambers‘(1980) term of target situation analysis, since it is a more accurate
description of the process concerned. The most thought explanation of target
situation analysis is the system set out by John Munby in communicative Syllabus
Design (1978). The Munby model produces a detailed profile of the learners needs
in terms of communication purposes, communicative setting, the means of
communication, language skills, functions, structure, etc.

Skills and Strategies

The fourth stage of ESP has seen an attempt to look below the surface and to
consider not the language itself but the thinking processes that underlie language
use. There is no dominant figure in this movement, although we might mention the
work of Francoise Grellent (1981). The principal idea behind the skills centered
approach is that underlying all language use there are common reasoning
interpreting processes, which, regardless of surface forms, enable us to extract
meaning form discourse. There is, therefore, no need to focus closely to the surface

60
ESP 2021
forms of the language. The focus should rather be on the underlying interpretive
strategies, which enable the learner to cope with the surface forms, for example
guessing the meaning of words from context, using visual lay out to determine the
type of text, exploiting cognates (i.e. words which are similar in the mother tongue
and the target language) etc. A focus on specific subject registers in unnecessary in
this approach, because the underlying processes are not specific to any subject
registers.
Learning-Centered Approach
Our concern is with language learning. We cannot simply assume that describing
and exemplifying what people do with language will enable someone to learn it. A
truly valid approach to ESP must be based on an understanding of the processes of
language learning. The important and the implications of the distinction that we
have made between language use and language learning. In this section we have
identified the main factors in the origins of ESP and given a brief overview of its
development. We have note that the linguistic factor has tended to dominate this
development with an emphasis on the analysis of the nature of specific varieties of
language use. Probably this have been a necessary stage, but now there is a need for
a wider view that focuses less of differences and more on what various specialism
have in common is that they are all primarily concerned with communication and
learning. ESP should properly be seen not as any particular language product but as
an approach to language teaching which is directed by specific and apparent reason
for learning.

Absolute and Variable Characteristics of ESP

Ten years later, theorists Dudley & Evans (2002:23) argue that the original
definition of ESP to form their own. Defined ESP by identifying its absolute and
variable characteristics. The definition makes a distinction between four absolute
and two variable characteristics: As for a broader definition of ESP, Hutchinson, T
and Waters, A (2003:49) theorize, "ESP is an approach to language teaching in
which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner's reason for
learning". Anthony (2005:56) notes that, it is not clear where ESP courses end and
general English courses begin; numerous non-specialists ESLinstructors use an ESP
approach in that their syllabi are based on analysis of learner needs and their own
personal specialist knowledge of using English for real communication.
61
ESP 2021
Characteristics of ESP Courses
The characteristics of ESP courses identified by Carter, D (2003:20) are
discussed here. He states that there are three features common to ESP courses: a)
authentic material, b) purpose-related orientation, and c) self- direction. ESP should
be offered at an intermediate or advanced level, use of authentic learning materials
is entirely feasible. Closer examination of ESP materials will follow; suffice it to
say at this juncture that use of authentic content materials, modified or unmodified
in form, are indeed a feature of ESP, particularly in self-directed study and research
tasks. For Language Preparation for Employment in the Health Sciences, a large
component of the student evaluation was based on an independent study assignment
in which the learners were required to investigate and present an area of interest.
The students were encouraged to conduct research using a variety of different
resources, including the Internet. Purpose-related orientation refers to the simulation
of communicative tasks required of the target setting.
Carter, D (2003:30) notes that cites student simulation of a conference,
involving the preparation of papers, reading, note taking, and writing. At Algonquin
College, English for business courses have involved students in the design and
presentation of a unique business venture, including market research, pamphlets and
logo creation. The students have presented all final products to invited ESL classes
during a poster presentation session. For our health science program, students
attended a seminar on improving your listening skills. They practiced listening
skills, such as listening with empathy, and then employed their newly acquired
skills during a fieldtrip to a local community center where they were partnered up
with English-speaking residents. Finally, self-direction is characteristic of ESP
courses in that the ―point of including self-direction is that ESP is concerned with
turning learners into users", In order for self- direction to occur, the learners must
have a certain degree of freedom to decide when, what, and how they will study. He
also adds that there must be a systematic attempt by teachers to teach the learners
how to learn by teaching them about learning strategies. Is it necessary, though, to
teach high-ability learners such as those enrolled in the health science program
about learning strategies? Rather, what is essential for these learners is learning how
to access information in a new culture. ESP is an approach to language teaching in
which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner's reason for

62
ESP 2021
learning. Before discussing what ESP is, it would be appropriate to consider why
ESP is needed.

The author (Dudley: 2000: 19) further say that ESP is not a particular
language product but "an approach to language teaching which is directed by
specific and apparent reason for learning. This explanation emphasizes the need for
a learning centered approach, i.e., what we want to discover is not competence in a
language, but how someone acquires that competence. Therefore, it would not be
very appropriate to think that ESP is a "Special or Specific English." Actually, ESP
is English for Specific Purposes. As Mary J. Schleppegrell (1999 : 45) points out in
her treatise on ESP program design, when selecting texts (spoken or written), it is
necessary to identify the language skills that are needed by the learner to perform
the task, and that are reflected in the text. He also claim that both the ESP learning
situation and the target situation will influence the nature of the syllabus, material,
methodology and evaluation procedures, and that the course design needs to have
built-in feedback channels to enable the course to respond to changes in the
students' needs. There are several kinds of ESP textbooks available to overseas
students, such books as English for Careers (Career English), Instrumental English,
Professional English and Special English, published in England and the United
States. They, however, do not always meet the need of a particular country's
students.

The Meaning of the Word 'Special' in ESP

From Dudley & Evans' (2001:68) give definition, one can see that ESP can
be (though not necessarily so) concerned with a specific discipline, nor does it have
to be aimed at a certain age group or ability range. ESP should be seen simply as an
'approach' to teaching, or what Dudley-Evans describes as an attitude of mind. This
is a similar conclusion to that made by Hutchinson, T and Waters, A (2003:70) who
state, "ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content
and method are based on the learner‘s reason for learning‖. The definition of ESP as
an approach to language teaching which takes into account the learners' reasons for
learning in making decisions related to content and method. English for Specific
Purposes (ESP) is often underestimated because of teachers' attitudes which are
often characterized either by condescension or reluctance. This is manifested in the

63
ESP 2021
belief that often prevails among teachers that ESP is for those who cannot teach the
"Real" language. A good example of this situation is "English in other departments‖
or "The Language Unit" at university where teaching this component of the students'
program of studies is generally the responsibility of junior members of staff and
where it is a "slot-filling" subject in the teachers' time-tables. This underestimation
may be due to the fact many language teachers are not aware of what it means to be
an ESP teacher, and what it takes to be successful in this practice. One simple
clarification will be made here: special language and specialized aim are two
entirely different notions. Mackay, R and Mountford, A (2001: 33) state: the only
practical way in which we can understand the notion of special language is as a
restricted repertoire of words and expressions selected from the whole language
because that restricted repertoire covers every requirement within a well-defined
context, task or vocation. On the other hand, a specialized aim refers to the purpose
for which learners learn a language, not the nature of the language they learn.
Consequently, the focus of the word 'special' in ESP ought to be on the purpose for
which learners learn and not on the specific jargon or registers they learn.
Theoretical Issues:
E.S.P as an Academic Subject. Main issues:
1. The importance of the English language
2. The English language for specific purposes
3. E.S.P. – a revolution in language learning
4. The gradual building of E.S.P.

STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF E.S.P.

The importance of the English language, English has acquired a unique
status among the other languages of the world in that it has been acknowledged as a
global language‘. English is now spoken in over forty countries as a first language
and in over fifty-five countries as a second language, and the language seems to be
on an ever increasing and unstoppable trajectory of use‖. After the year 1950, more
and more people in the world have embarked upon studying it for various reasons
(be they documentary, cultural or educational). This continuously-growing interest
in the study of English has led to the expansion of the domain of English Language
Teaching (ELT), mainly concerned with the teaching of general English.
Nevertheless, new world factors brought about a particular (professional,
64
ESP 2021
occupational or vocational) interest in the study of a particular domain of the
English language. This background of interests resulted in the need of a new
methodological field, the study of English for a particular or specific purpose.
English has been in decline in recent decades in recent decades in terms of the
proportions of the global population who speak it as their first language. English has
been losing global market share. The creation and the development of a new branch
in the study of English, English for specific purposes or ESP from now on, represent
the effect of the worldwide interest in this language.
Among the factors paving the way for the creation of this academic subject,
Kennedy and Bolitho (1998:19) include:
- The introduction of governmental mass education programs ―with English
as the first, and sometimes only, foreign language;
- The need of English as a common medium of communication as a
consequence of the growth of business and increased occupational mobility;
- The facilitation of access to scientific and technical literature.

Materials Development
Do ESP textbooks really exist? This is central question by Strevens (1998:
43) note that one of the core dilemmas he presents is that "ESP teachers find
themselves in a situation where they are expected to produce a course that exactly
matches the needs of a group of learners, but are expected to do so with no, or very
limited, preparation time". In the real world, many ESL instructors/ESP developers
are not provided with ample time for needs analysis, materials research and
materials development. There are many texts which claim to meet the needs of ESP
courses. He also comments that no one ESP text can live up to its name. ESP that
the only real solution is that a resource bank of pooled materials be made available
to all ESP instructors. The only difference between this resource bank and the one
that is available in every educational setting -- teachers' filing cabinets -
- is that this one is to include cross-indexed doable, workable content-based
(amongst other) resources. It is my experience that this suggestion is not
doable. If teachers are so pressed for time, will they have the time to submit
and cross-index resources? Rather, we believe that there is value in all texts

- some more than others. Familiarizing oneself with useful instructional

65
ESP 2021
materials is part of growing as a teacher, regardless of the nature of purpose
for learning. Given that ESP is an approach and not a subject to be taught,
curricular materials will unavoidably be pieced together, some borrowed
and others designed specially. Resources will include authentic materials,
ESL materials, ESP materials, and teacher-generated materials.

English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is known as a learner-centered

approach to teaching English as a foreign or second language. It meets the needs of
(mostly) adult learners who need to learn a foreign language for use in their specific
fields, such as science, technology, medicine, leisure, and academic learning. This
course is recommended for graduate students and foreign and second language
professionals who wish to learn how to design ESP courses and programs in an area
of specialization such as English for business, for Civil Engineering, for Academic
Purposes, and for health service purposes. In addition, they are introduced to ESP
instructional strategies, materials adaptation and development, and evaluation.

Its objectives include:

 To develop an understanding about the factors that led to the

emergence of ESP and the forces, both theoretical and applied, that
have shaped its subsequent development.
 To assist students develop needs assessments and genre analyses for
specific groups of learners.
 To provide guidelines to adapt or create authentic ESP materials in a
chosen professional or occupational area and to critically evaluate
currently available materials, including technology-based ones.
 To become knowledgeable about assessment procedures appropriate
for ESP and apply this knowledge in developing course and lesson
evaluation plans in their professional or occupational area.
 To assist students in preparing a syllabus, lesson and assessment
plan based upon their needs assessments and genre analyses.

66
ESP 2021

CHAPTER V
COURSE DESIGN ESP

A syllabus is the guide to a course and what will be expected of you in the
course. Generally, it will include course policies, rules and regulations, required
texts, and a schedule of assignments. A syllabus can tell us nearly everything we
need to know about how a course will be run and what will be expected of us.
There are several syllabuses differed by its function:
1) The Evaluation Syllabus.
This kind of syllabus will be most familiar as the document that is
handed down by ministries or other regulating bodies. It states what
successful learner will know by the end of the course. In effect, it puts in
record the basis on which success or failure will be evaluated. It reflects an
official assumption as to the nature of language and linguistic performance.
For example, if the syllabus is framed in terms of grammatical structures,
this reflects a view that knowing a language consists of knowing the
constituent structures. It would be impossible to produce of an evaluation
syllabus without having a view of what language is and thus how it can be
broken down.
2) The Organizational Syllabus.
This syllabus states the order in which it is to be learnt. It is most
familiar in the form of the content page of a textbook. The organizational
syllabus differs from the evaluation syllabus in that it carries assumption
about the nature of learning as well as language, since, in organizing the
items in syllabus. The organizational syllabus, therefore, is an implicit
statement about the nature of language and of learning. It is necessary
consider factors which depend upon a view of how people learn, e.g.:
- What is more easily learnt?
- What is more fundamental to learning?
- Are some items needed in order to learn other items?
- What is more useful in the classroom?

67
ESP 2021

3) The Material Syllabus

The first person to interpret the syllabus is usually the materials
writer. So we get our third kind of syllabus – the material syllabus. In
writing materials, the author adds yet more assumptions about the nature of
language, language learning, and language use. The author decides the
context in which the language will appear, the relative weightings and
integration of skills, the number and type of exercises to be spent on any
aspect of language, the degree of recycling or revision. These can all have
their effect whether and how well something is learnt. For example, if
certain vocabulary items are presented in texts which appeal to the learner s,
they are more likely to be remembered, because the learners‘ attention will
be more involved.

4) The Teacher Syllabus

The second stage of interpretation usually comes through the teacher.
The great majority of students in the world learn language through the
mediation of a teacher. Thus we have the teacher syllabus (Breen, 1984).
The teacher can influence the clarity, intensity, and frequency of any item,
and thereby affect the image that the learners receive. Stevick (1984)
recounts how an inexperienced teacher would finish in two minutes an
activity that he would spend twenty minutes on. This kind of variability will
inevitably affect the degree of learning.
5) The Classroom Syllabus
As every teacher knows, what is planned and what actually happens
in a lesson are two different things (Allwright, 1984b). A lesson is a
communicative event, which is created by the interaction of a number of
forces. The classroom then creates conditions which will affect the nature of
a planned lesson. They might come from the learners as a group: perhaps
they are tired after a long day, excitable after an incident in the break.
Individual students might hold matters up by asking questions or distracting
the attention of the class. The classroom is a dynamic, interactive

68
ESP 2021

environment, which affects the nature both of what is taught and what is
learnt. The classroom thus generates its own syllabus (Breen, 1984).
6) The Learner Syllabus
The learner syllabus is the network of knowledge that develops in the
learner‘s brain which enables that learner to comprehend and store the later
knowledge. The learner syllabus belongs to the internal syllabus it is a
retrospective record of what will be learnt (Candlin, 1984). The importance
of learner syllabus lies in the fact that it is through the filter of this syllabus
that the learner views the other syllabuses.
Designing a course is fundamentally a matter of asking questions in
order to provide a reasoned basis for the subsequent processes of syllabus
design, materials writing, classroom teaching and evaluation. ESP is an
approach to language teaching which aims to meet the needs of particular
learners, this means in practice with designing appropriate courses for
various groups of learners. Course design plays a relatively minor part in the
life of the General English teacher, course design here usually being
determined either by tradition, choice of text book or ministerial decree for
ESP teacher. Course design is often a substantial and important part of the
workload. The object of a course in English for Academic Purposes is to
help overseas students overcome some of the linguistic difficulties involved
in studying in English.
In ESP design are suggested:

a) Abilities required for successful communication in occupational settings;

b) Content language acquisition versus general language acquisition;
c) Heterogeneous versus homogenous learner group and
d) Materials development. ESP curriculum designs are examined.
e)

Criteria which Are Needed in Organizing Syllabus

a. Topic Syllabus
Topic-based syllabus is based on topics which are selected from the
students‘ specialist studies and the language analyzed based on appropriate
syntax (Jordan, 1997). It is suggested that one objective of the ESP course

69
ESP 2021
may be to teach this specialist content (Robinson, 1991). Ex: health, engine.
b. Structural / situational syllabus
The focus of a structural syllabus is on aspects of grammar (e.g.,
verb, tenses, sentence patterns, articles, nouns, etc.) and then the gradation
of these aspects for teaching, supposedly from the simple to the complex,
and based on frequency and usefulness of these aspects (Jordan, 1997,
Robinson, 1991).

c. Functional / notional syllabus

Jordan (1997) points out, entails conceptual meanings: notions (e.g.,
time, space, and quantity) expressed through language (logical relationship)
and the communicative purposes (i.e., functions) for which we use language
(e.g., greetings, requests, apologies, description, comparisons, cause and
effects, etc.). As this approach focuses on communication, the processes of
communication (e.g., problem-solving, obtaining information, interacting
with people) are often used in the teaching/learning and therefore, it is often
referred to as the communicative approach (Jordan, 1997). Ex: request,
apology.
d. Skills syllabus
Skill-based syllabus is organized around the different underlying
abilities that are involved in using a language for purposes of such as
listening, speaking, reading, writing, (Thakur, 2013). As Robinson (1991)
suggests, a course in writing business letters, or in oral skills for business
people, or in academic reading can be examples of this syllabus. As Jordan
suggests, reading may be classified into a number of microskills (e.g.,
skimming, scanning, reading for information, ideas, opinions, etc. Ex:
negotiating, being interviewed, interviewing.
e. Situational syllabus
According to Taghizadeh (201) a situational syllabus is a collection of
real or imaginary situations in which language occurs or is used. The
primary purpose of a situational language teaching syllabus is to teach the
language that occurs in the situations such as in a business setting, seeing
the dentist, complaining to the landlord, buying a book at the book store,

70
ESP 2021
meeting a new student, and so on. Ex: situation in the classroom, post office,
front office in a hotel, etc.
f. Functional / task-based syllabus
A task-based syllabus is a series of complex and purposeful tasks that
the students want or need to perform with the language they are learning
such as applying for a job, talking with a social worker, getting housing
information over the telephone, and so on (Dincay, 2010).
g. Discourse / skills syllabus
Discourse /skills syllabus emphasizes the discourse which are
related with the context of its use.
h. Skills and strategies syllabus
Skills and strategies syllabus concerns to the strategies which can be
used to teach and assess students‘competence and comprehension.

The Role of Syllabus in Course Design Approaches

According to Hutchinson and waters (1987) there are 4 course
design approaches, those are:
a. Language-Centered Approach
The syllabus is the prime generator of the teaching materials.
b. Skills-Centered Approach
The syllabus provides opportunities for the learners to employ and evaluate the
skills ads strategies considered necessary in the target situation
c. Learning-Centered Approach
The syllabus and the material evolve together being to inform the other.
d. The Post Hoc Approach

Questions
1. What is the definition of ESP?
2. Mention the three absolute characteristic of ESP?
3. ESP is centered on the language that is appropriate with?
4. What is the definition of ESP according to the Dudley-Evans?
5. Mention the variable characteristics of ESP?
6. What is the definition of ESP according to Thu Hutchinson?
7. What is the general effect of the demand of a brave new world?
8. What about English?
71
ESP 2021
9. What is the aim of linguistics?
10. What is the idea of development of English courses for specific group
of learners?
11. What will make the learners‘motivation and learning better and faster
improve?
12. Beyond the sentence, rhetorical or discourse analysis, ESP had
focused on what?
13. What is target situation analysis?
14. Why the target situation analysis approach didn‘t really change?
15. What is the principle idea behind the skills centered approach?

72
ESP 2021

CHAPTER VI
LANGUAGE DESCRIPTION

English Language focuses on the English Language in particular, and you'll

do solely English syntax and phonology. There's not as much theory because you're
applying it to just the English Language. You'll also have to do a lot of stuff with
accents and dialects. Linguistics however is a lot more abstract because it looks
generally at lots of different language and trying to capture generalizations from
language itself. Linguistics includes, for example, understanding of etymology, and
the physiology of word formations in the mouth, studies which would be absent
from Literary studies. Movements in Literary Theory, like Structuralism or
Deconstruction ism have gone some way toward a correlation of the two disciplines.
Formal linguistics studies the theory of the structure, phonetics and semantics of
language. Sociolinguistics studies the interaction and evolution of language in a
social context.
Linguistics is the scientific study of language, and involves an analysis of
language form, language meaning, and language in context. The earliest activities in
the documentation and description of language have been attributed to the 6th
century BC Indian grammarian Pāṇini, who wrote a formal description of the
Sanskrit language in his Aṣṭādhyāyī. Linguists traditionally analyses human
language by observing interplay between sound and meaning. Phonetics is the study
of speech and non- speech sounds, and delves into their acoustic and articulatory
properties. The study of language meaning, on the other hand, deals with how
languages encode relations between entities, properties, and other aspects of the
world to convey, process, and assign meaning, as well as manage and resolve
ambiguity. While the study of semantics typically concerns itself with truth
conditions, pragmatics deals with how situational context influences the production
of meaning.
Grammar is a system of rules which governs the production and use of
utterances in a given language. These rules apply to sound[9]as well as meaning, and
include componential subsets of rules, such as those pertaining to phonology (the
organization of phonetic sound systems), morphology (the formation and
composition of words), and syntax (the formation and composition of
73
ESP 2021
phrases and sentences). Modern theories that deal with the principles of grammar
are largely based within Noam Chomsky's framework of generative linguistics.

SIX MAIN STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT:

1. Classical or Traditional Grammar

"Traditional Grammar" term is applied to summarize the range of methods

found in the pre-linguistic era of grammatical study. The whole approach of this
method emphasizes on correctness, linguistic purism, literary excellence, the
priority of the written mode of language and the use of Latin models. The very
beginning of the twentieth century was typically marked by a new approach to
grammar as suggested by linguists such as Ferdinand de Saussure and American
linguist like Frantz Boas, Bloomfield and Edward Sapir. Their approach is called
structuralism whose aim was to arouse a reaction against the approach of the
traditional grammarians. Traditional grammarians considered Latin as their model
because English is a part of the Indo-European family of languages, and to which
Latin and Greek also belong. It did have similar grammatical elements. If you study
the form of traditional grammar, the rules of classical languages were followed
considering that English did not have grammar of its own and English followed
Latin grammar. Besides the parts of speech, traditional grammatical analysis also
makes use of numerous other categories, just like 'number', 'gender', 'person', 'tense'
and 'voice'. For example, gender was not natural. It was grammatical in traditional
grammar. As you see here "The man loves his bike". Gender, in this example, is
used for describing the agreement between 'man' and 'his'. In English, you need to
describe this relationship in terms of natural gender based upon a biological
distinction between male and female. Such biological distinction is different
compared to the common distinction found in languages which employ grammatical
gender. Traditional grammar has some limitations as it occurs with some static
verbs that do not occur in a progressive form, for instance "I am knowing" or in the
imperative mood like "Know!" Traditional grammar sometimes fails to account for
certain things like ambiguous sentences just like "While thinking about the queen
the Honda hit the fence".
In linguistics, traditional grammar is a cover name for the collection of
concepts and ideas about the structure of language that Western societies have

74
ESP 2021
received from ancient Greek and Roman sources. The term is used to distinguish
these ideas from those of contemporary linguistics, which are intended to apply to a
much broader range of languages, and to correct a number of errors in traditional
grammar. Although modern linguistics has exposed the limitations of traditional
grammar, it is still the backbone of the grammar instruction given to the general
population in Western countries. As such, while very few people have encountered
linguistics, nearly everybody in a modern Western culture encounters traditional
grammar. This is one of the big difficulties that linguists face when they try to
explain their ideas to the general public.

a. The Role of Traditional Grammar

Traditional grammar attempts, usually within a single language, to analyze
and elucidate the constituents of any given well-formed sentence. The focus of
attention is on surface structure, not meaning. The main benefit of traditional
grammar is that it gives learners a basic understanding of the building blocks of
language, which can help in improving their writing skills. While there is a large
overlap between traditional grammar and prescriptive grammar, they are not entirely
the same thing. Traditional grammar is best thought of as the set of descriptive
concepts used by nearly all prescriptive works on grammar. Linguists' critiques of
prescriptive grammar often take the form of pointing out that the usage prohibition
in question is stated in terms of a concept from traditional grammar that modern
linguistics has rejected.

b. Language- Specific Grammatical Traditions

Traditional grammar is not a unified theory that attempts to explain the

structure of all languages with a unique set of concepts (as is the aim of linguistics).
It is fragmented into different traditions for different languages, each of them with
its own traditional vocabulary and analysis. Each of them represents an adaptation
of Latin grammar to a particular European language. For example, what English
traditional grammar calls a direct object, in Spanish traditional grammar is called
complement direct; English traditional grammar doesn't call the notion "direct
complement," nor does Spanish call it "objeto directo."

c. Linguistics and Traditional Grammar

75
ESP 2021
Modern linguistics owes a very large debt to traditional grammar, but it
departs from it quite a lot, in the following ways (among others): Linguistics aims to
be general, and to provide an appropriate way of analyzing all languages, and
comparing them to each other. Traditional grammar is usually concerned with one
language, and when it has been applied to non-European languages, it has very
often proved very inappropriate.

 Linguistics has broader influences than traditional grammar has. For

example, modern linguistics owes as much of a debt to Panini's
grammar of Sanskrit as it does to Latin and Greek grammar.
 Linguistics is in many ways more descriptively rigorous, because it
goes after accurate description as its own end. In traditional
grammar, description is often only a means towards formulating
usage advice.

In education, as in most professional fields, methodologies and hot topics of

discussion take their place on center stage, make head-turning fashion statements,
and quickly disappear into dimly lit theater wings. But the teaching of grammar is
one of those hot topics that never completely leave the stage; and methodologies
abound for its teaching and even for its avoidance. Grammar means different things
to different people. Lois Powell, a fifth-grade teacher with a master of art in writing,
defines grammar as a collection of factors that include spelling, punctuation, syntax,
and sentencing that makes sense. ―A school administrator characterizes it as
―the correct usage of rules pertinent to a spoken language.‖ A fourth-grade student
declares grammar is ―what you learn so you don‘t make mistakes. ―Grammar
describes the body of rules and conventional linguistic behaviors governing a
particular language; it is what one learns to manipulate in order to convey meaning
and includes the parts of speech, the terms for those parts, as well as the structure
as a whole.
Teachers teach grammar because they have always done it.‖ Teachers can
teach students how to write and speak with greater clarity, and they can even teach
them about the structure of language. Increasingly over the past several decades,
educators have opened their eyes to new possibilities and have discovered
productive ways to teach communicative skills. Learning the grammar of one‘s own
76
ESP 2021
language is like learning a foreign language, probably one of the most difficult
intellectual feats for anyone above the age of twelve. And, like foreign language
study, it is impossible to retain what one is studying if one never has the
opportunity, or a reason, to use it outside of class. Describing a language for the
purposes of linguistic analysis does not necessarily carry any implications for
language learning. The purposes of the linguists and of the language teacher are not
the same.

Sterm (1998:33) sounds a note of caution, which ESP practioners would do

well to heed. Techniques of linguistic analysis may lend to linguistic research are
equally applicable to language teaching is of course open to question. Describing a
language is not the same as describing what enables someone to use or learn a
language. The importance of points can only be fully appreciated when we consider
the psychological processes that lie behind language use and language learning.
Describing development in learning theories and their implications for ESP.

STRUCTURAL LINGUISTICS
Traditionally, the aim of linguistics was to describe the rules of English
usage, i.e., the grammar, but language methodologists, such as Widdowson, (1978)
directed attention from defining the formal features of language usage to
discovering the ways in which language is actually used in real communication.
The author‘s major finding was that ―the language we speak and write varies
considerably, and in a number of ways from one context to another‖. Since language
varies depending on the situation of use, features of specific situations will be
detected and they will make the basis of the learner‘s course/textbook. Unlike the
preceding teaching methodology experience, whose main emphasis would fall on
the English language perse, with the new teaching requirements the learner‘s needs
started to represent the teacher‘s target. Therefore the direction of study went from
the learner to the language and not vice versa. If, we consider, for instance, the
study of English the children have to deal with, teachers will consider other factors,
such as age, education needs, ability to use their memory, etc.
Linguistics, scientific study of language, covering the structure morphology
and syntax see grammar, sounds phonology, and meaning semantics, as well as the
history of the relations of languages to each other and the cultural place of language
77
ESP 2021
in human behavior. Phonetics, the study of the sounds of speech, is generally
considered a separate but closely related to field from linguistics.
Structural linguistics is an approach to linguistics, stressed examining
language as a static system of interconnected units. Language is a self-contained,
non-referential system, and that the philosophical task was to seek out language‘s
necessary and universal structural features, those features taken to underlie and be
prior to the empirical, contingent features of language. Structural linguistics thus
involves collecting a corpus of utterances and then attempting to classify all of the
elements of the corpus at their different linguistic levels: the phonemes, morphemes,
lexical categories, noun phrases, verb phrases, and sentence types. One of
Saussure's key methods was syntagmatic and paradigmatic analysis that respectively
define units syntactically and lexically, according to their contrast with the other
units in the system. Structural linguistics is now overwhelmingly regarded by
professional linguists as outdated and as superseded by developments such as
cognitive linguistics and generative grammar. Markee (2002:67) states ―The most
important linguist of the century in Europe until the 1950s, hardly plays a role in
current theoretical thinking about language‖. While cognitive linguist according to
Markee (2002:67) reports that many of Saussure's concepts were "wrong on a grand
scale" He notes that "Saussure's views are not held, so far as we know, by modern
linguists, only by literary critics, Laconia‘s, and the occasional philosopher;" others
have made similar observations. The history of structural linguistics branches off in
two directions. First, in America, linguist Leonard Bloomfield's reading of
Saussure's course proved influential, bringing about the Bloomfieldean phase in
American linguistics that lasted from the mid-1930s to the mid-1950s. Bloomfield
"bracketed" all questions of semantics and meaning as largely unanswerable, and
encouraged a mechanistic approach to linguistics. The paradigm of Bloomfieldean
linguistics in American linguistics was replaced by the paradigm of generative
grammar with the publication of Noam Chomsky's Syntactic Structures in 1957.
Second, in Europe, Saussure influenced the Prague School of Roman Jakobson
and Nikolai Trubetzkoy, whose work would prove hugely influential, particularly
concerning phonology, and the School of Louis Hjelmslev. Structural linguistics
also had an influence on other disciplines in Europe, including anthropology,
psychoanalysis and Marxism, bringing about the movement known as structuralism.
78
ESP 2021
The foundation of structural linguistics is a "sign," which in turn has two
components: a "signified" is an idea or concept, while the "signifier" is a means of
expressing the signified. The "sign" is thus the combined association of signifier and
signified. Signs can be defined only in a state of contrast with other signs, in a
manner that is either syntagmatic (i.e., syntax) or paradigmatic (i.e., as part of a
related group). This idea contrasted drastically with the idea that signs can be
examined in isolation from a language and stressed Saussure's point that linguistics
must treat language synchronically. Paradigmatic relations are sets of units that exist
in the mind, such as the phonological set cat, bat, hat, mat, fat, or the morphological
set ran, run, running. The units of a set must have something in common with one
another, but they must contrast too, otherwise they could not be distinguished from
each other and would collapse into a single unit, which could not constitute a set on
its own, since a set always consists of more than one unit. Syntagmatic relations are
temporal and consist of a row of units that contrast with one another, like "the man
hit the ball" or "the ball was hit by the man". What units can be used in each part of
the row is determined by the units that surround them. There is therefore an
interweaving effect between syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. But whereas
paradigms are always part of the langue (French for "Language;" or an abstract,
Platonic ideal), Syntegra can belong to parole ("everyday speech"), and so the
linguist must determine how often they have been used before they can be assured
that they belong to the latter. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations provide the
structural linguist with a simple method of categorization for phonology,
morphology and syntax. Take morphology, for example. The signs cat and cats are
associated in the mind, producing an abstract paradigm of the word forms of cat.
Comparing this with other paradigms of word forms, we can note that in the
English language the plural often consists of little more than adding an S to the end
of the word. Likewise, through paradigmatic and syntagmatic analysis, we can
discover the syntax of sentences. For instance, contrasting the Syntegraje dois ("I
should") and dois je? ("Should I?") Allows us to realize that in French we only have
to invert the units to turn a sentence into a question. Saussure developed structural
linguistics, with its idealized vision of language, partly because he was aware that it
was impossible in his time to fully understand how the human brain and mind
created and related to language:
79
ESP 2021
Saussure set out to model language in purely linguistic terms, free of
psychology, sociology, or anthropology. That is, Saussure was trying precisely not
to say what goes on in your or my mind when we understand a word or make up a
sentence. Saussure was trying to de-psychologies linguistics.
STRUCTURAL LINGUISTICS is an approach to LINGUISTICS which
treats language as an interwoven structure, in which every item acquires identity and
validity only in relation to the other items in the system. All linguistics in the 20c is
structural in this sense, as opposed to much work in the 19c, when it was common
to trace the history of individual words. Insight into the structural nature of language
is due to the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, who compared language to a
game of chess, noting that a chess piece in isolation has no value and that a move by
any one piece has repercussions on all the others. An item's role in a structure can be
discovered by examining those items which occur alongside it and those which can
be substituted for it.
The structural approach developed in a strong form in the US in the second
quarter of the century, when the prime concern of American linguists was to
produce a catalogue of the linguistic elements of a language, and a statement of the
positions in which they could occur, ideally without reference to meaning. Leonard
BLOOMFIELD was the pioneer among these structuralisms, attempting to lay down
a rigorous methodology for the analysis of any language. Various Bloomfieldians
continued to refine and experiment with this approach until the 1960s, but from the
late 1950s onwards, structural linguistics has sometimes been used pejoratively,
because supporters of generative linguistics (initiated by Noam CHOMSKY) have
regarded the work of the American structuralisms as too narrow in conception. They
have argued that it is necessary to go beyond a description of the location of items to
produce a grammar which mirrors a native speaker's intuitive knowledge of
language. In the 1950s as structural linguistics were fading in importance in
linguistics, Saussure's ideas were appropriated by several prominent figures in
continental philosophy, and from there were borrowed in literary theory, where they
are used to interpret novels and other texts. However, several critics have charged
that Saussure's ideas have been misunderstood or deliberately distorted by
continental philosophers and literary theorists. For example, Searle maintains that,
in developing his deconstruction method, Jacques Derrida altered one of Saussure's
80
ESP 2021
key concepts: "The correct claim that the elements of the language only function as
elements because of the differences they have from one another is converted into the
false claim that the elements are "constituted on" (Derrida) the traces of these other
elements.

A revolution in language learning, the need for courses tailored to learner‘s specific
requirements asked for new ideas in the study of a language. Traditionally, the aim
of linguistics was to describe the rules of English usage, i.e., the grammar, but
language methodologists, such Strevens (1998:99) directed attention from defining
the formal features of language usage to discovering the ways in which language is
actually used in real communication. The author‘s major finding was that ―the
language we speak and write varies considerably, and in a number of ways from one
context to another‖. Since language varies depending on the situation of use, features
of specific situations will be detected and they will make the basis of the learner‘s
course/textbook. Unlike the preceding, teaching methodology experience, whose
main emphasis would fall on the English language per se, with the new teaching
requirements the learner‘s needs started to represent the teacher‘s target. Therefore
the direction of study went from the learner to the language and not vice versa. If,
we consider, for only different specializations (medicine, humanities, physics,
geology, business etc.) but also different sub-fields of a main specialization needed
different communicative functions in terms of syntax, morphology, semantics,
phonology, vocabulary and discourse (Douglas, 2002).

The linguistic needs of a lab assistant in a hospital would be different from

the needs of a nurse, a receptionist, a ward boy and an X-ray technician. These
precise linguistic needs were the key factors in determining the type of curriculum
necessary for ESP courses. According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987), fifth stage
of ESP growth was marked with the mental processes which implied the use of
language and ESP curricula focused on developing the skills and strategies learners
needed to acquire a second language instead of depending upon the surface form of
the language. The focus shifted to the underlying strategies that would help the
learner extract meaning from the external forms. Hutchinson and Waters (1987)
quoted the ability to guess meaning of a word from the context as an example of
applying underlying strategies to the external form of the lexical items. They
suggested that all ESP curricula should involve the learners from the beginning to
81
ESP 2021
determine their learning needs and LS so that they might be able to effectively
apply underlying strategies to achieve their learning objectives. Discussing the
question whether ESP courses were more successful than General English courses
in preparing students for working or studying in English, "war stories and
romances‖(Dudley-Evans and St. John, 1998 cf. Bowyers, 1980) presented various
reports about the success of different ESP courses during 1970's and 1980's.
Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998, p. 25) mentioned Foley (1979) who also
discussed "the ESP Program at the University of Petroleum and Minerals in Saudi
Arabia‖ and provided "concrete evidence for the validity of the ESP approach". It
has been stated that early stages of ESP were strongly linked with "Register
Analysis, Discourse and Rhetorical analysis, Skills-Based Approaches and the
Learning-Centered Approach‖ (Dudley-Evans and St. John, 1998, p. 30) but after
achieving maturity, no dominating movement has existed in ESP and many different
approaches and a willingness to mix different types of material and methodologies
have.

TRANSFORMTIONAL GENERATIVE GRAMMAR

In the 1950s the school of linguistic thought known as

transformational-generative grammar received wide acclaim through the
works of Noam Chomsky. Chomsky postulated a syntactic base of language
(called deep structure), which consists of a series of phrase-structure rewrite
rules, i.e., a series of (possibly universal) rules that generates the underlying
phrase-structure of a sentence, and a series of rules (called transformations)
that act upon the phrase-structure to form more complex sentences.
The end result of a transformational-generative grammar is a surface
structure that, after the addition of words and pronunciations, is identical to
an actual sentence of a language. All languages have the same deep
structure, but they differ from each other in surface structure because of the
application of different rules for transformations, pronunciation, and word
insertion. Another important distinction made in transformational-generative
grammar is the difference between language competence (the subconscious
control of a linguistic system) and language performance (the speaker's
actual use of language). Although the first work done in transformational-

82
ESP 2021
generative grammar was syntactic, later studies have applied the theory to
the phonological and semantic components of language.
Concept of a 'transformational generative grammar.' A generative
grammar is essentially one that 'projects' one or more given sets of
sentences that make up the language one is describing, a process
characterizing human language's creativity. Modified in its theoretical
principles and methods over succeeding years by many linguists, principally
in the USA, a transformational generative grammar attempts to describe a
native speaker's linguistic competence by framing linguistic descriptions as
rules for 'generating' an infinite number of grammatical sentences.
"A generative grammar, as understood by Chomsky, must also be
explicit; that is, it must precisely specify the rules of the grammar and their
operating conditions." (Streven Roger Fischer, A History of Language.
Reaktion Books, 1999) "Simply put, a generative grammar is a theory of
competence: a model of the psychological system of unconscious
knowledge that underlies a speaker's ability to produce and interpret
utterances in a language‖, a good way of trying to understands point is to
think of a generative grammar as essentially a definition of competence is a
set of criteria that linguistic structures must meet to be judged acceptable.
According to Linguistics for Non-Linguists (Allyn and Bacon: 2000:94).
Transformational Generative Grammar Theory‖ was presented by
Noam Chomsky is about structure (Syntax) of sentences in a language. This
theory tells us how syntax is formed and learned. Syntax: The study and
organization or arrangement of sentences in a language is called Syntax.
This theory explains arrangement and organization of sentences. It means
how correct and well-formed sentences are made or formed. First generation
takes place and then transformation takes place. Generation or Generative
Grammar: ―A particular type of grammar which would have a very
explicit system of rules specifying what combinations of basic elements
would result in well-formed sentences.‖ It means that Generation Grammar
is a set of basic principles and explicit rules which deals with the formation
of sentences.

83
ESP 2021
LANGUAGE VARIATION AND REGISTER ANALYSIS

A Language for Specific Purposes (LSP) has been primarily used to

refer to two areas within applied linguistics:

1. One focusing on the needs in education and training.

2. One with a focus on research on language variation across a
particular subject field LSP can be used with any target language
needed by the learners as a tool for specific purposes, and has often
been applied to English (English for Specific Purposes, or ESP).

A third approach, content or theme-based language instruction (CBI)

has also been confused with LSP. These several uses of the label of LSP
have caused some confusion internationally. LSP is a widely applied
approach to second or foreign language teaching and training that addresses
immediate and very specific needs of learners who need that language as a
tool in their education, training or job. Needs analysis is the underlying
"driver" for the development of LSP programs. For example, English native
speaking nurses who work in hospitals with a high percentage patient whose
native language is Spanish might have to study Spanish for the very specific
purpose of communication between nurses and patients.
Students are encouraged to take active roles in their own learning and
question what they have been taught. This is likened to negotiated syllabus
about which Hyland (2009) writes, "A negotiated syllabus means that the
content of a particular course is a matter of discussion between teacher and
students, according to the wishes and needs of the learners in conjunction
with the expertise, judgment, and advice of the teacher. Language use varies
in many dimensions. Three major dimensions are the following: Regional:
dialect variation, Social: socialist or class dialect variation, Functional:
register or functional style variation.
The term `Lect', a back-formation from `dialect', is sometimes used to
cover the notion of language variant. Language users‘ move around in the
`variety space' defined by these three dimensions and the `territory' in
variety space which is covered by a single user is known as his `idiolect'.
The movement of language users along the dimensions of regional
84
ESP 2021
and dialect variation is relatively restricted. Few speakers command more
than a couple of dialects or languages. But, in contrast, the variation of
language with different functional contexts of use is startlingly varied -
formal and informal, public and private, written and spoken, professional
and trade languages.
The dimension of functional variation is quite dominant, though
speakers are often quite unaware of it, and respond more immediately to
dialectal and socialist variation. Speakers tend have a language, a dialect and
a socialist which is associated with the circumstances of their birth and
upbringing. But switches in language and dialect or socialist tend to
correlate closely with switches in functional context, in addition to the basic
indexical function of social classification.
At the level of languages, an instructive example is English in the
late 20th century. English is used by a large community of native speakers
in well-to- do Western societies, who accept that they fundamentally speak
the same language, though different areas are associated with different
dialects, and some of these dialects have become accepted as standard
languages (south- eastern educated British; mid-West American; Canadian;
Australian; South African. English is also used as a native language, and
non-native standard language, in ex-colonies of the British Empire. English
is also used as a trade language by non-native speakers, in the form of a
pidgin language and, in societies for which a pidgin has become a native
language in the course of two or more generations, also creole languages.
Some of these characterizations of the varieties of English point to the
notion of `register', the variation of language with type of use, rather than
with the origin- marking features user. The creation and the development of
a new branch in the study of English, English for specific purposes or ESP
from now on, represent the effect of the worldwide interest in this language.
Among the factors paving the way for the creation of this academic subject,
Kennedy and Bolitho (1984:1) include.

The introduction of governmental mass education programmes

with English as the first, and sometimes only, foreign language; the need of
English as a common medium of communication as a consequence of the
85
ESP 2021
growth of business and increased occupational mobility.

The facilitation of access to scientific and technical literature.

Hutchinson and Waters (2003:69) show a long-term retrospective view on
causes resulting in the birth of E.S.P., when they present nearly the same
factors, which, in turn, suggest a cause-effect relationship: the enormous and
unprecedented expansion in scientific, technical and economic activity on an
international scale. Two forces were dominating the new post-war world
technology and commerce, whose relentless progress soon generated a
demand for an international language and, due to the economic power of the
U.S. it was English which was granted this role.
The emerging of a new mass of people wanting to learn English – the key
to international currencies of technology and commerce. This mass of people
joined together particularly new generations of learners who knew specifically
what they were to learn and why the Oil Crises of the early 1970s involved a
massive flow of funds and western expertise into the oil-rich countries. Therefore,
English suddenly turned into big business‘ and, on the other hand, commercial
pressures began to exert an influence in the acquisition of this language. Time and
money constraints created a need for cost-effective courses with accurately
specific goals, the need for several countries to update their knowledge. Therefore,
E.S.P. came into being and gradually developed into a multilayered language
approach primarily based on learners‘ specific needs required by their professions
or occupations. The domain labeled E.S.P. was proven to have a universal
dimension through the concept of language for specific purposes and a language-
specific perspective through the insights explored into various European
languages. Out of these mention will be made of French, German, Russian and
Spanish. The Romanian specialists have shown a certain interest in approaches to
terminologies rather than in the study of what is generally known as limbajele
funcţionale (see, for one example, Coteanu, Stilistica funcţionalăa limbii române).
Their interest is focused more on practical aspects than onpurely theoretical ones
(see, for another illustration, Trif 2006, Andrei 2003, Stoichiţoiu 2008).

86
ESP 2021

FUNCTIONAL OR NATIONAL GRAMMAR

Grammar is the set of structural rules that govern the composition

of clauses, phrases, and words in any given natural language. The term
refers also to the study of such rules, and this field includes morphology,
syntax, and phonology, often complemented by phonetics, semantics, and
pragmatics. The term "grammar" is often used by non-linguists with a very
broad meaning indeed; as Jeremy Butterfield puts it: "Grammar is often a
generic way of referring to any aspect of English that people object to.
However, linguists use it in a much more specific sense. Every speaker of a
language has, in his or her head, a set of rules for using that language. This
is a grammar, and—at least in the case of one's native language—the vast
majority of the information in it is acquired not by conscious study or
instruction, but by observing other speakers; much of this work is done
during infancy. Language learning later in life, of course, may involve a
greater degree of explicit instruction. The term "grammar" can also be used
to describe the rules that govern the linguistic behavior of a group of
speakers. The term "English grammar", therefore, may have several
meanings. It may refer to the whole of English grammar—that is, to the
grammars of all the speakers of the language—in which case, the term
encompasses a great deal of variation. Alternatively, it may refer only to
what is common to the grammars of all, or of the vast majority of, English
speakers (such as subject–verb–object word order in simple declarative
sentences). Or it may refer to the rules of a particular, relatively well-
defined variety of English (such as Standard English).

"An English grammar" is a specific description, study or analysis of

such rules. A reference book describing the grammar of a language is called
a "reference grammar" or simply "a grammar." A fully explicit grammar
that exhaustively describes the grammatical constructions of a language is
called a descriptive grammar. Linguistic description contrasts with linguistic
prescription, which tries to enforce rules of how a language is to be used.
Grammatical frameworks are approaches to constructing grammars. The

87
ESP 2021

most known among the approaches is the traditional grammar which is

traditionally taught in schools. The standard framework of generative
grammar is the transformational grammar model developed in various ways
by Noam Chomsky and his associates from the 1950s onwards.

The formal study of grammar is an important part of education for

children from a young age through advanced learning, though the rules
taught in schools are not a "grammar" in the sense most linguists use the
term, particularly as they are often prescriptive rather than descriptive.
Syntax refers to linguistic structure above the word level (e.g. how
sentences are formed)—though without taking into account intonation,
which is the domain of phonology. Morphology, by contrast, refers to
structure at and below the word level (e.g. how compound words are
formed), but above the level of individual sounds, which, like intonation, are
in the domain of phonology No clear line can be drawn, however, between
syntax and morphology. Analytic languages use syntax to convey
information that is encoded via inflection in synthetic languages. In other
words, word order is not significant and morphology is highly significant in
a purely synthetic language, whereas morphology is not significant and
syntax is highly significant in an analytic language.

DISCOURSE (RHETORIC) ANALYSIS

Discourse Analysis as a research method. Indeed, rather than

providing a particular method, Discourse Analysis can be characterized as a
way of approaching and thinking about a problem. In this sense, Discourse
Analysis is neither a qualitative nor a quantitative research method, but a
manner of questioning the basic assumptions of quantitative and qualitative
research methods. Discourse Analysis does not provide a tangible answer to
problems based on scientific research, but it enables access to the
ontological and epistemological assumptions behind a project, a statement, a
method of research, or - to provide an example from the field of Library and
Information Science - a system of classification. In other words, Discourse

88
ESP 2021
Analysis will enable to reveal the hidden motivations behind a text or
behind the choice of a particular method of research to interpret that
text. Expressed in today's more trendy vocabulary, Critical or Discourse
Analysis is nothing more than a deconstructive reading and interpretation of
a problem or text (while keeping in mind that postmodern theories conceive
of every interpretation of reality and, therefore, of reality itself as a text.
Every text is conditioned and inscribes itself within a given discourse, thus
the term Discourse Analysis). Discourse Analysis will, thus, not provide
absolute answers to a specific problem, but enable us to understand the
conditions behind a specific "problem" and make us realize that the essence
of that "problem", and its resolution, lie in its assumptions; the very
assumptions that enable the existence of that "problem". By enabling us to
make these assumption explicit, Discourse Analysis aims at allowing us to
view the "problem" from a higher stance and to gain a comprehensive view
of the "problem" and ourselves in relation to that "problem".

Discourse Analysis is meant to provide a higher awareness of the

hidden motivations in others and ourselves and, therefore, enable us to solve
concrete problems - not by providing unequivocal answers, but by making
we ask ontological and epistemological questions. Though critical thinking
about and analysis of situations/texts is as ancient as mankind or philosophy
itself, and no method or theory as such, Discourse Analysis is generally
perceived as the product of the postmodern period. The reason for this is
that while other periods or philosophies are generally characterized by a
belief-system or meaningful interpretation of the world, postmodern theories
do not provide a particular view of the world, other that there is no one true
view or interpretation of the world. In other words, the postmodern period is
distinguished from other periods (Renaissance, Enlightenment, Modernism,
etc.) in the belief that there is no meaning, that the world is inherently
fragmented and heterogeneous, and that any sense making system or belief
is mere subjective interpretation - and an interpretation that is conditioned
by its social surrounding and the dominant discourse of its time. Postmodern
theories, therefore, offer numerous readings aiming at "deconstructing"

89
ESP 2021
concepts, belief-systems, or generally held social values and assumptions.
Critical thinking, however, is older than postmodern thought, as the
following quote by John Dewey illustrates. Dewey defined the nature of
reflective thought as "active, persistent, and careful consideration of any
belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that
support it and the further conclusion to which it tends" (Hutchinson &
Water: 2003: 1933:9). When critically evaluating a research project or text,
one should, therefore, not limit oneself to postmodern theories. Discourse
Analysis can be applied to any text, that is, to any problem or
situation. Since Discourse Analysis is basically an interpretative and
deconstructing reading, there are no specific guidelines to follow. The
purpose of Discourse Analysis is not to provide definite answers, but to
expand our personal horizons and make us realize our own shortcomings
and unacknowledged agendas/motivations - as well as that of others. In
short, critical analysis reveals what is going on behind our backs and those
of others and which determines our actions. For example, Discourse
Analysis applied to the theory of Library Science, would not argue for or
against the validity and "truth" of a certain research method (qualitative or
quantitative), statement, or value (i.e. the Library Bill of Rights, or policies
concerning free speech). Rather, discourse analysis would focus on the
existence and message of these texts and locate them within a historical and
social context. In this manner, Discourse Analysis aims at revealing the
motivation and politics involved in the arguing for or against a specific
research method, statement, or value. The concrete result will be the
awareness to the qualities and shortcomings of each and the inception of an
informed debate. Though this debate will never be settled, it allows for the
correction of bias and the inclusion of minorities within the debate and
analyzed discourse. Rhetoric is the study of potential misunderstanding.
Being able to do a rhetorical analysis has several benefits, not the least of
which is that, when you are in the midst of a conflict, you can figure out
what the conflict is really about (the "stasis"), what the various arguments
are, and how those arguments are put together. A rhetorical analysis can

90
ESP 2021
focus on any one of those things (author(s), audience(s), textual strategies,
immediate context, and larger context), but it is more common to focus on
one of the relationships (e.g., how the author's intention is formed by the
background, or how the author's intention shapes textual strategies, or how
the textual strategies reflect the background, or how the context is shaped by
the background). The more pieces and relationships the analysis tries to
cover, the longer and more complicated the analysis has to be, so make sure
to limit your analysis. Rhetorical analyses generally work with texts that
have an author or set of authors (but it is not impossible to look at how
audiences are affected by random events). One can examine either the
actual author or the implied author. People tend to assume that they are
one and the same, but they usually are not. The actual author is the person
(or persons) who wrote the text, and implied author is the ethos implied by
the text—the author the reader imagines from the text itself. The distinction
is most obvious in something like a political speech—the politician says "I"
but the speech was written by someone else. (So, the actual author is the
speechwriter, but the implied author is the "I" of the speech.) Ghostwritten
books are in the same category. If, for instance, you decided to write a legal
letter, you might have an attorney write or draft it, but the letter would have
your name signed to it (so you and the attorney are the actual author, but the
implied author would be the person implied in the text). Even things which
appear to have a single author may have been strongly influenced by other
people—readers or editors who made suggestions, for instance. Finally,
even when a text was written by a single author, there can be a large
difference between who the person really is and who the person seems to be
from the text. People who, in real life, are cranky, mean-spirited, and
belligerent may come off in a text as kindly, open-minded, and generous.
Thus, my point is that the actual and implied author are not always the
same. To make assertions about the actual author, you need historical-
biographical information, but you can make assertions about the implied
author just from the text. (This is confusing, I know, but will probably
become clearer in class.) Many of you have probably had teachers

91
ESP 2021
(especially in high school) who emphasized the actual author, and therefore
required historical-biographical research. But, for reasons we can talk about
in class, if you want, I generally discourage historical-biographical research
as time-consuming, complicated, and inefficient. Instead, stress the textual
author and textual analysis. An author has a variety of intentions in regard to
a text—that is, an author wants the text to have a certain effect on some
audience. To call it "a certain effect" might be misleading, as that might
sound as though I'm saying there is only one effect, and that is rarely the
case. In fact, it is not uncommon for an author to have multiple, even
contradictory, intentions, and this is especially likely if "the" author is more
than one person. To take the example mentioned above—a letter written
both by an attorney and client who actually signs it—the primary intention
of the attorney might be to represent the legal situation accurately, while the
client might have the primary intention of intimidating the audience. These
varied intentions might be obvious in the text—e.g., the parts written by the
attorney might look very different from the parts written by the client—but
they might not.

THEORIES OF LEARNING
One of the most important aspects that have been addressed
frequently in the literature on ESP is learning needs. This should not be a
surprise for each and every specific domain would impose its own needs,
and it goes without saying that the needs required for a specific field and the
methodology for serving these needs on the ground do not work with
another field which would defiantly dictate its own requirements. All
language teaching must be designed for the "specific learning and language
use purposes of identified groups of students" (Mackay and Mountford,
2001: 69). Thus, a systematic analysis of these specific learning needs and
language use purposes (communication needs) is a pre-requisite for making
the content of a language program relevant to the learners' needs. The
definition of purposes is essentially a decision that should lead to a situation
where ESP assumes a valued place in the school/university curriculum,
particularly if the target population (learners who will be taught ESP) are

92
ESP 2021
aware of the ways in which this component of the language teaching
program is likely to help them achieve immediate learning needs and
potential professional needs. Such definition should also yield a more
systematic approach, among teachers, to syllabus design, methodology of
teaching and assessment practices. A general approach that is oriented
towards integrating language and the content of students' disciplines of
specialization is likely to produce course content and a methodology of
teaching that emphasize the needs of learners and that provide ample
opportunities to use the language in meaningful situations. ESP has been
particularly guilty on language analysis.

Language learning is conditioned by the way in which the mind

observes, organises and stores information. The key to successful language
learning and teaching lies not in the analysis of the nature of language but in
understanding the structure and processes of the mind. If we wish to
improve the techniques, methods and content of language teaching must try
and base what do in the classroom on sound principles of learning.

Figure 2. The Learning Model Munby

The heart of the model is the Communicative Needs Processor (C.

N. P.). Information about the learner, the participant, is fed into the C. N. P.
which consists of a number of categories. After these categories have been
worked through, we finish up with a profile of needs a description of what
the learner will be expected to do with the language at the end of the course.

93
ESP 2021
The syllabus defines what we expect the students to be able to do at the end
of the course and will therefore provide specifications for the final
examination.
The Starting point for all language teaching should be an
understanding of how people learn. Language can only be properly
understood as a reflection of human thought processes.In psychology and
education, a common definition of learning is a process that brings together
cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for
acquiring, enhancing, or making changes in one‘s knowledge, skills, values,
and world views. Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the
learning takes place.Explanations of what happens constitute learning
theories is an attempt to describe how people and animals learn, thereby
helping us understand the inherently complex process of learning. The
theories do not give us solutions, but they do direct our attention to those
variables that are crucial in finding solutions. There are so many theories of
learning but there are only three main categories or philosophical
frameworks under which learning theories fall: behaviorism, mentalism and
cognitivism. Behaviorism focuses only on the objectively observable
aspects of learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain
brain-based learning. And mentalism views learning as a process in which
the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts.

NEED ANALYSIS

The term needs analysis generally refers to the activities that are
involved in collecting information that will serve as the basis for developing
a curriculum that will meet the needs of a particular group of students.
Dudley & Evans (1998:87) offer definitions of different types of needs and
accounts of various problems and limitations in making use of this concept,
including ways in which we might usefully distinguish between needs
identified by analysts and those expressed or experienced by learners. In his
state-of-the-art article, Nunan (1999:65) gives a thorough overview of needs
analysis in language teaching, including its history, theoretical basis,

94
ESP 2021
approaches to needs analysis, etc. Needs analysis was firmly established in
the mid-1970s as course designers came to see learners' purposes rather than
specialist language as the driving force behind ESP. Early instruments,
notably Munby‘s (1978) model, established needs by investigating the target
situation for which learners were being prepared. Munby‘s model clearly
established the place of needs as central to ESP, indeed the necessary
starting point in materials or course design. However, his model has been
widely criticized for two apparently conflicting reasons: (i) its over-fullness
in design, and (ii) what it fails to take into account (that is, socio-political
considerations, logistical considerations, administrative considerations,
psycho-pedagogic, and methodological considerations).

A needs analysis one must first answer the following crucial

question: "Will the students use English at university or in their jobs after
graduation?" If the answer is no, then ESP is not a reasonable option for the
university's English language program. The university will have to justify its
existence and improve the program via other means. If the answer is yes,
however, then ESP is probably the most intelligent option for the university
curriculum. Definition of needs vary depending on the purpose of analysis
but all take the learner as a focus of analysis. "Need" as something that is
recognized but it is not in any sense "discovered", and its "existence" de-
rives from whatever criteria are thought to be relevant in making the
diagnoses. This implies that in order to recognize "needs" one would have to
carry out some kind of assessment or evaluation of the existing situation and
the diagnosis of assessment results would reveal some deficiency. Several
approaches to needs analysis have been proposed. A "critical approach", to
needs analysis in the area of writing skill for ESL students in which students
are trained to develop their skills to evaluate topics through writing
assignments. The assignments for the students were taken from topics
discussed in the psychology lectures. Among others, students were assigned
either individually or in small groups to review lecture notes, write
questions about the psychology lectures for class discussions, rewrite
questions for meaning and revision, write research papers on a particular

95
ESP 2021
topic discussed in the psychology class. The specifications of learners' target
needs are designed to equip learners to maintain themselves in most
everyday situations, including situations for which they have not been
specifically trained. Although specifications of needs cover those situations
that adequately serve learner needs at this level. Self-directed learning"
approach to learner needs. This approach is based on the principle that to
teach the learner to learn is to enable him to carry out the various steps
which make up the learning process. This "autonomy" of the learner enables
appropriate solutions to be found for the problems of differences in the
needs thus, narrowing considerably the gap between what the learner wants
to learn and what he does in fact learn.

According to Holliday (2009:64) proposes an ethnographic approach

to needs analysis. It involves institutional factors in the process of needs
analysis. Needs analysis as bases of curriculum design will be realistic if
there are means for implementing it. In this case, the institution where the
analysis is carried out, and the administration staff need to provide supports,
access, and resources that are necessary for implementation, such as access
to study documents, interviews or visits to offices. Needs analysis approach
is a tool for syllabus design which provides a detailed profile of learners and
what they need to be able to do after the course or what they need to study
during the course. In addition, the analysis also provides a specification of
language skills, functions and forms that are required in order to carry out
communication types as described in the needs profile. In the analysis there
are eight parameters used to label the learner's needs: purposive domain,
setting, interaction, instrumentality, dialect, target level, communicative
event, and communicative key.

Holliday proposes a "systemic approach" to needs analysis. This

work was done as part of the project for Council of Europe. As the name
suggests, the analysis involves administrators who are involved in teaching,
teachers and learners - all parties that are involved in language learning.
This approach places the learner as the center of the system and decisions

96
ESP 2021
concerning objectives, assessment and curriculum are de-signed with
reference to the learner's resources. The information for needs analysis is
collected from the learner, the teaching institution, the user-institution and
society.

Learner-centered approach to analyze the learner needs in language

teaching. He recognizes that learners have individual characteristics and
differences and that the differences should be addressed accordingly through
appropriate instructions. In the learning process, the instruction is designed
in such a way to meet individual needs and to allow each individual to
develop his or her potentials. The learner needs, abilities and interests
determine the form and design of the language curriculum. This learner-
centered language teaching is based on the premise that every learner is
uniquely different and that all learners do not learn a foreign language
equally well with the same pace. Therefore, learning materials, mode of
learning and time allocations are adapted to suit different individual
preferences, provides a table which accommodates learners' differences with
eight different patterns of learning arrangements and modifications to meet
individual learning needs. The discussions of the importance of needs
analysis focus on its roles as a starting point or a guide for course design,
syllabus design, materials selection, assessment or even classroom activities,
needs assessment is important for decision planners to design the course.
Assessment of a course needs involvement of learners‘ changes concerning
learner needs may have to be made during the course with consultation of
the learners. Needs analysis is a tool for course designer. This presupposes a
"language training situation with reasonably specific occupational or
educational objectives involving a reasonably homogeneous group of
learners". Given the information about learner needs a course designer will
be able to produce a specification of language skills, functions, and forms as
required in the learner needs profile. Mackay, R., & Munford, A. (2001: 51)
suggest that differentiates "goal-oriented" definition from "process oriented
―definition of needs. The former refers to what the learner needs to
the language once he or she has learned it, while the latter refers to what

97
ESP 2021
the

98
ESP 2021
learner needs to do to actually acquire the language. This definition points to
the importance of recognizing the present condition of the learner as far as
language learning is concerned, and the target situation where the learner
will be required to use the language. The "goal-oriented" definition has to
do with program aims while the ―process-oriented" definition relates to
pedagogic objectives.
Hutchinson and Waters (2003: 82) make a distinction between
"target needs" and ―learning needs". The target need refers to what
the learner needs to do in the target situation and the learning need refers to
what the learner needs to do in order to learn. They further subcategorize
target need into (1) necessities; what the learner has to know in order to
function effectively in the target situation (2) lacks; the discrepancy between
necessity and what the learner already knows, (3) wants; what the learner
actually wants to learn or what they feel they need. The learner's "wants
―may or may not to conform those perceived by the teachers or
course designers. The learning need is equated to the route of learning. This
concerns things such as how learners learn the language, why they learn it,
what resources are available to help them learn.
Need analysis as the gap between what is and what should be, what
is could be equated to the current state of learner's knowledge and skills and
the "what should be" could be interpreted as the target situation
requirements. The needs analysis that is established for a particular group of
students will be influenced by the ideological preconceptions of the analyst.
A different group of analysts working with the same group of students but
with different views on teaching and learning would be highly likely to
produce a different set of needs. Types of needs are differentiated with
reference to the purpose of learning the language, individual differences or
the social roles of language in a wider context.
Evans (1998:63) asserts that differentiates four types of needs. First,
formal needs which refer to the need to meet the institution requirements
such as to pass an exam. Second, actual or obligation need which refers to
what a student has to do with the language once he has learned it. Third,

99
ESP 2021
hypothetical future need which refers to the need to become a better
professional in the future, and forth, want, which refers to what a student
feels want to door to learn. The first and the forth are types of needs during
the process of learning or ―process-oriented" type, while the second
and third are types of needs that are "future oriented". Types of learner
needs based on individual differences within the framework of learner-
centered language teaching. Learners should be placed properly based on
their age, level of language proficiency, maturity, time available. This
requires the institution to make flexible educational arrangements to allow
all learners‘ access to learning that is appropriate to the types of needs they
have. In this way, the content and mode of learning will be influenced by the
options available at their disposal. The types of modifications of learning
resources are made accordingly to meet the kinds of individual differences
with regard to time, goals, mode, or expectations of learning. He also said
that identifies two types of needs. First, objective need, which is derivable
from factual information about the learner, use of language in daily
communication, current language proficiency and language difficulties.
Second, subjective need. Referring to cognitive and affective needs in
learning such as personality, confidence, attitude, wants and expectations in
learning. The objective needs are accessible through data collection such as
tests, identifying subjective needs is difficult because of the "elusive nature
of the variables". The societal need refers to the need of the community as a
whole to acquire and use English for international communication, for trade,
technology, cultural purposes etc. The educational need is the need of an
individual to use English in the community. In an EFL setting, this need can
be differentiated into general and specific educational needs. The first is
related to the cultural, intellectual and affective development of the
individual learner. The second is related to specific skills that learners are
expected to master such as listening, speaking, reading or writing, or to skill
which can be described in terms of language functions. The crucial role that
needs analysis plays in syllabus and course design. Teachers can use
published materials, adapt or write in house materials. Whatever option is

100
ESP 2021
taken, the assessment of student needs has to be taken into consideration.
The importance of needs as a guide in syllabus development, materials and
examination. The first step in any language teaching project must surely be
to design a syllabus that will reflect the language needs and wishes of the
learner concerned, and that will accord with a responsible theory of
language learning. Needs analysis should be the starting point for devising
syllabus, course materials and classroom activities is considered as the first
step that any course planner should take. Many well-intentioned language
programs have foundered because either no consideration was given to the
actual use the learner intended to make of the language or because the list of
uses drawn up by the course designer was based on imagination rather than
an objective assessment of the learner's situation, and proved to be in
accurate and in many cases entirely inappropriate to his real need.
According to Nunan (2002:76), formal needs analysis is relatively new to
the field of language teaching. However, informal needs analyses have been
conducted by teachers in order to assess what language points their students
needed to master. In fact, the reason why different approaches were born
and then replaced by others is that teachers have intended to meet the needs
of their students during their learning. From the field of language teaching
the focus of this paper will be on ESP. Clearly, the role of needs analysis in
any ESP course is indisputable. Needs analysis is the first step in course
design and it provides validity and relevancy for all subsequent course
design activities.

101
ESP 2021
CHAPTER VII

THE ROLE OF ESP TEACHER

A teacher that already has experience in teaching English as a

Second Language (ESL), can exploit her background in language teaching.
She should recognize the ways in which her teaching skills can be adapted
for the teaching of English for Specific Purposes. Moreover, she will need
to look for content specialists for help in designing appropriate lessons in
the subject matter field she is teaching. As an ESP teacher must play many
roles. You may be asked to organize courses, to set learning objectives, to
establish a positive learning environment in the classroom, and to evaluate
student s progress.

English for Specific Purposes: This term refers to the teaching of a

specific genre of mostly technical English for students with specific goals,
careers or fields of study. Examples include English for Academic Purposes
(students will enter an English-speaking university), English for Business &
Management, or Hotel & Catering English (for hotel and tourism
professionals). ESP teachers are all too often reluctant dwellers in a strange
and uncharted land. Focusing on three problems which we have found
consistently arise in discussions with teachers of ESP:
The lack of an ESP orthodoxy to provide a ready - made
guide.2.The new realms of knowledge the ESP teacher has to cope
with3.The change in the status of English Language Teaching. We
shall consider each of t hese and offer some suggestions as
to how a learning approach can help. ESP is a style of teaching, as they
all are, that has positive and negative aspects. Coming from a background
unrelated to the discipline in which they are asked to teach, ESP teachers are
usually unable to rely on personal experiences when evaluating materials
and considering course goals. They are also unable to rely on the views of
learners who tend not to know what English abilities are required by the
profession they hope to enter. The result is that many ESP teachers become

102
ESP 2021
slaves to the published textbooks available, even when the textbook they are
using aren‘t perfectly suited for the needs of the student. There are many
resources available on the net and websites that offer information but how
much background reading does the ESP teacher need? In order to meet the
specific needs of the learners and adopt the methodology and activities of
the target discipline, the ESP Practitioner must first work closely with field
specialists (Carter,D., 2003: 87).
An ESP teacher is should remember that they are not specialists in
the field, but in teaching English. Every time that person enters the
classroom they should understand that our subject is English for the
profession, and not the profession in English. They should help the students,
who generally know their subject much better, develop the skills which are
essential for them in understanding, using, and/or presenting authentic
information in their profession. A professional ESP teacher must be able to
easily switch from one professional field to another without being obliged to
spend months on getting started.
Teaching English for Specific Purpose for teacher in the classroom
has mainly been focused on leaning General English skills with more
specific English, needed for a specific profession for example, and being
taught only as and when it is needed. Some people argue that specific
English should be introduced earlier and this will help motivate pupils and
also keep the English taught within a professional and cultural environment
that is relevant to the people learning it. English for a specific purpose was
developed to meet the needs of individual learners and their specific needs,
and is designed for specific disciplines. It makes some, but not exclusive use
of the underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves,
namely Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL). It is centered on
the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar, lexis,
register, study skills, discourse and genre (Anthony 2005) ESP is designed
for adult learners in a professional work situation. It could, however, be for
learners at a secondary school level, but is generally with intermediate or
advanced students. However, it seems that more and more secondary

103
ESP 2021
schools are trying to meet the needs of their students? Future professions
these days. Also, a lot of effort has been made to build a bridge between
secondary and higher education. Despite many failures, this link has
sometimes proved productive, meaning that those involved in the link
changed the exam purpose of GE to the more challenging and particular
purpose of ESP. It may be argued though that in some cases the idea has
been to pass a particular exam; then we would have to consider whether the
exam itself has really been a Specific purpose English exam.
The ESP teacher ends up performing five different roles including
teacher, collaborator, course designer and materials provider, researcher,
and evaluator. The first role as teacher? Is synonymous with that of the
general English teacher. It is in the performing of the other four roles that
differences begin to emerge (Anthony, 2005). English for Specific Purposes
(ESP) is a young and developing branch of EFL in Russia. As Bell
(1998:32) shows, for many years ESP instruction was limited to training
special lexicon and translating numerous texts. Of course, such methods did
not reflect students' interests and resulted in low learner motivation and poor
participation. With the spread of the student-centered approach in Russia
and the continued increase of international contacts in various spheres,
much attention has been paid to the design of ESP courses that can prepare
students for professional communication. However, developing new courses
along such lines raises the issue of training teachers. Designing a course that
can best serve learners' interests and needs is an obstacle for many
instructors. How can teachers develop a new course? Where should they
start? What can be done about students' poor motivation? How teaching
materials should be selected? These are some of the questions that are often
asked by many teachers. Therefore, the purpose of teaching method is to
suggest a framework for an ESP course-development process that will help
teachers with some of the problems they may come across in designing a
new ESP course.

104
ESP 2021

Dudley Evans describes the true ESP teacher or ESP Practitioner

(Swales, 1988) as needing to perform five different roles. These are 1)
Teacher, 2) Collaborator, 3) Course designer and materials provider, 4)
Researcher and 5) Evaluator. The 'first role as 'teacher' is synonymous
with that of the 'General English' teacher. It is in the performing of the other
four roles that differences between the two emerge. In order to meet the
specific needs of the learners and adopt the methodology and activities of
the target discipline, the ESP Practitioner (collaborator) must first work
closely with field specialists. One example of the important results that can
emerge from such a collaboration is reported by Orr (1995). This
collaboration, however, does not have to end at the development stage and
can extend as far as teach teaching, a possibility discussed by Johns et al.
(1988). When team teaching is not a possibility, the ESP Practitioner must
collaborate more closely with the learners, who will generally be more
familiar with the specialized content of materials than the teacher him or
herself. Both 'General English' teachers and ESP practitioners are often
required to design courses and provide materials. One of the main
controversies in the field of ESP is how specific those materials should be
(Course Designer and Materials Provider).

Hutchinson et al. (1987:165) support materials that cover a wide

range of fields, arguing that the grammatical structures, functions, discourse
structures, skills, and strategies of different disciplines are identical. More
recent research, however, has shown this not to be the case. Hansen (1988),
for example, describes clear differences between anthropology and
sociology texts, and Anthony (1998) shows unique features of writing in the
field of engineering. Unfortunately, with the exception of textbooks
designed for major fields such as computer science and business studies,
most tend to use topics from multiple disciplines, making much of the
material redundant and perhaps even confusing the learner as to what is
appropriate in the target field. Many ESP practitioners are therefore left with
no alternative than to develop original materials. It is here that the ESP
practitioner's role as 'researcher' is especially important, with results
leading directly to appropriate materials for the classroom. The final role as
105
ESP 2021

'evaluator' is perhaps the role that ESP practitioners have neglected most to
date. As Johns et al. (1991) describe, there have been few empirical studies
that test the effectiveness of ESP courses. For example, the only evaluation
of the noncompulsory course reported by Hall et al. (1986:158) is that
despite carrying no credits, "students continue to attend despite rival
pressures of a heavy programme of credit courses". On the other hand,
recent work such as that of Jenkins et al. (1993) suggests an increasing
interest in this area of research.

Students' Analysis

It is very important to start the course-developing process with an

analysis of the target group of students: many problems in L2 classes are a
result of teachers not paying attention to learners' interests and ignoring
students as a source of essential information. With the spread of
communicative language teaching (CLT), much emphasis in second
language (L2) methodology has been paid to the learner-oriented
instruction. As a result, needs analysis has been given considerable attention
in making a particular course serve a particular group's interests (Sterm,
1996 :69). However, students can provide much more valuable information
for teachers than an expression of their needs Therefore, a better terms than
needs analysis might be students‘ analysis. Students' analysis can give two
kinds of information.
The first reflects learners' "possession" - their current level in their
L2-ESP, field knowledge in L1 and/or L2, motivation, methods of learning
they have experienced, etc. The second represents what learners want to
achieve - what traditionally has been called "ESP needs". Concept of the
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) in which there are two main stages of
an individual's development. The first stage is what a child or learner can do
by himself. The second stage is his potential, what he can accomplish with
the help of another, more competent person. The distance between two
stages is called the ZPD. Vygotsky also introduced a notion of a mediator - a
person who helps students achieve what they cannot

106
ESP 2021

do by themselves. In the teaching of ESP, the role of mediator will be

placed on the teacher, who will start from students' current stage and bring
them to the second stage of their needs. There may be different ways of
finding information about students‘ needs and previous experience. At the
university and high school levels, it can be done through various
questionnaires, surveys, group discussions, individual talks, etc. For
example, Business English students may be asked to list areas in which
everyone foresees using ESP (for instance, selling insurance, opening bank
accounts, dealing with foreign customers in currency exchange offices,
translating business documents from English into Russian, etc.).
Even though very important, students' data should not be overused.
Finding out this information does not mean that teachers should teach only
what their students want. Of course, teaching cannot take place in isolation.
There are certain things, such as curriculum, institutional guidelines, and
standardization, which cannot and may not be ignored. However, in
developing a new course, students' analysis will help teachers bring together
the required and desired in formulating goals and objectives,
conceptualizing the content of the course, selecting teaching materials, and
course assessment, as we are going to examine in this paper.

Formulation of Goals and Objectives of the Course

Formulating goals and objectives for a particular course allows the

teacher to create a clear picture of what the course is going to be about. The
goals are general statements or the final destination, the level students will
need to achieve. Objectives express certain ways of achieving the goals. In
other words, objectives are teachable chunks, which in their accumulation
form the essence of the course. Clear understanding of goals and objectives
will help teachers to be sure what material to teach, and when and how it
should be taught. In his book D. Nunan (2002:57) gives a clear description
of how one should state objectives. Depending on what is desired,
objectives may sound like the following:

107
ESP 2021

 Students will learn that

 Students will be aware of
 Students will develop

It is also important to state realistic and achievable goals and objectives.

Conceptualizing the Content

Several years ago, ESP teaching in Russia was characterized by the

structural approach. From year to year, different students with the same or
similar majors had to use exactly the same textbooks and syllabuses. But all
students are different and with the rapid development of the world, changes
in students‘ needs and interests are inevitable. Therefore, ideally, in
establishing a learner-centered approach there should be a shift in L2
pedagogy in the selection of the content of the course. This shift should
serve the learners' interests and needs. Conceptualizing the content is not a
context-free process. When taking into account information about the
students, goals, and objectives, teachers need to determine which aspects of
ESP learning will be included, emphasized, integrated, and used as a core of
the course to address students' needs and expectations. There may be
different ways of conceptualizing the content. Teachers can focus on
developing "basic skills", communicative competence, intercultural
competence, vocabulary awareness, etc. For example, an English for
Academic Purposes (EAP) course for Russian high school students who are
going to participate in a foreign exchange program can be conceptualized
around L2 culture.

One of the goals of this course, for instance, is to achieve

intercultural communicative competence. Students are developing language
skills, but it is accomplished through the integration of the sociocultural
component into the teaching various elements of the language. It should also
become clear that even though separated in structural charts, all skills and
aspects of the language are interwoven in the real communication.
Therefore, they should be treated, taught, and tested as one inseparable unit.

108
ESP 2021

Selecting and Developing ESP Materials

For many teachers, selection of teaching materials is based on their

availability. Furthermore, chosen materials determine the content of the
course. Quite often it serves as a justification and explanation of the use of
the same syllabus with different students. In student-centered instruction,
the appropriateness of materials includes student comfort and familiarity
with the material, language level, interest, and relevance. However, in some
situations teachers are dependent on the materials and are required to use the
same textbook over and over again. Potentially there is nothing bad in using
the same teaching materials, if everything is conceptualized through a
learner-centered approach. The same article or audio story can be used for
developing reading or listening comprehension skills, cultural awareness,
expanding vocabulary, etc. Thus, teaching materials are "tools‖ that can be
figuratively cut up into component pieces and then rearranged to suit the
needs, abilities, and interests of the students in the course.

Course Planning

After formulating major objectives and choosing teaching material,

many teachers start planning a new course. There may be different ways of
organizing activities. In CLT the following pattern is traditionally used:
"pre-activity? Activity? Follow up". Teachers start with what students
already know or with a fairly simple task, and then pass to more complex
activities. Another approach to "recycling" materials has recently become
quite popular. Students learn information about the L2 country and then
recycle it in the activity about the L1 country. In this way, the "Dialogue of
Cultures" principle is achieved. It is recommended that teachers be flexible
in course planning, i.e. that they be ready adjust the syllabus and make
slight changes in the course while teaching, so that they can best address
students interests and needs.

109
ESP 2021

Evaluating the Course

Course evaluation is the last, but not the least, important stage.
Teachers should evaluate their courses to improve and promote their
effectiveness. Evaluation can be done in two different ways: implicitly and
explicitly. Implicit evaluation takes place during the semester, when
learners, by their grades, participation, and motivation, give clues to the
teacher on how their learning is going on. Explicit evaluation may take
place at the end of the course or after students have experienced it. Using
questionnaires, surveys, talks, etc. teachers ask the students to express their
attitude towards the subject matter, instructional methods, activities, and
teacher‘s role and so on. Evaluation of the course is a brave step for the
teacher. He should be open-minded in hearing and implementing learners'
comments.

Round Up

As we can see, developing a new course is a difficult, but a very

important, process. Before teaching, instructors will need to formulate the
goals and objectives of the course, conceptualize the content, select teaching
materials, plan the course, and be ready to evaluate it. In the center of the
course developing process should a particular group of students the course is
designed for.

Course-development as an On-going Process

Developing a new course is not just planning a course. In teaching,

instructors are constant learners. With professional experience, our views,
teaching concepts, and methodological knowledge are continuously
changing. From year to year, we have different students with different needs
and background. That will inevitably make it necessary and important to
modify every course and adjust it to a particular group of students.
Furthermore, quite often in the classroom things take place in an unexpected
or unplanned way. Flexible teachers are open to making necessary changes

110
ESP 2021

while teaching. They can see what can or should be modified, added, or
changed to make the course reflect students' interests and needs. Therefore,
course development can be seen as an on-going process. .

The responsibility of the teacher

A teacher that already has experience in teaching English as a

Second Language (ESL), can exploit her background in language teaching.
She should recognize the ways in which her teaching skills can be adapted
for the teaching of English for Specific Purposes. Moreover, she will need
to look for content specialists for help in designing appropriate lessons in
the subject matter field she is teaching. As an ESP teacher, you must play
many roles. You may be asked to organize courses, to set learning
objectives, to establish a positive learning environment in the classroom,
and to evaluate student s progress. The concept of special language (which
considers a wide range of topics from register analysis to sentence grammar)
was described in the late 1960s and early 1970s, in the literature mentioned
in the foregoing.
The basic principle of the above mentioned authors was that the
English of a particular field constituted a specific register different from
another. The language teachers‘ aim at the time was to identify lexical and
grammatical features of these registers.The teaching materials focused on
these linguistic features which represented the syllabus. Now that a first
stage in the exploration of English has reached its terminal point, namely the
study of the word structure down to its smallest lexical component, the
E.S.P. teachers decide it is time to move on to a new linguistic level, the
sentence. Therefore, the syllabus should not only give priority to language
forms which had a high frequency of occurrence in science studies/texts,
namely compound nouns, but they should also deal with passives,
conditionals and anomalous finites (modals).

111
ESP 2021

Organizing Courses

You have to set learning goals and then transform them into an
instructional program with the timing of activities. One of your main tasks
will be selecting, designing and organizing course materials, supporting the
students in their efforts, and providing them with feedback on their progress.

Setting Goals and Objectives

The teacher arranges the conditions for learning in the classroom and
set long-term goals and short-term objectives for students‘ achievement.
Your knowledge of students' potential is central in designing a syllabus with
realistic goals that takes into account the students' concern in the learning
situation.

Creating a Learning Environment

The teacher skills for communication and mediation create the

classroom atmosphere. Students acquire language when they have
opportunities to use the language in interaction with other speakers. Being
their teacher, you may be the only English speaking person available to
students, and although your time with any of them is limited, you can
structure effective communication skills in the classroom. In order to do so,
in your interactions with students try to listen carefully to what they are
saying and give your understanding or misunderstanding back at them
through your replies. Good language learners are also great risk-takers, since
they must make many errors in order to succeed: however, in ESP classes,
they are handicapped because they are unable to use their native language
competence to present themselves as well-informed adults. That s why the
teacher should create an atmosphere in the language classroom which
supports the students. Learners must be self-confident in order to
communicate, and you have the responsibility to help build the learner's
confidence.

112
ESP 2021

Evaluating Students

The teacher is a resource that helps students identify their language

learning problems and find solutions to them, find out the skills they need to
focus on, and take responsibility for making choices which determine what
and how to learn. You will serve as a source of information to the students
about how they are progressing in their language learning.

The Responsibility of the Student

What is the role of the learner and what is the task he/she faces? The
learners come to the ESP class with a specific interest for learning, subject
matter knowledge, and well-built adult learning strategies. They are in
charge of developing English language skills to reflect their native-language
knowledge and skills.

A. Interest for Learning

People learn languages when they have opportunities to understand

and work with language in a context that they comprehend and find
interesting. In this view, ESP is a powerful means for such opportunities.
Students will acquire English as they work with materials which they find
interesting and relevant and which they can use in their professional work or
further studies. The more learners pay attention to the meaning of the
language they hear or read, the more they are successful; the more they have
to focus on the linguistic input or isolated language structures, the less they
are motivated to attend their classes. The ESP student is particularly well
disposed to focus on meaning in the subject-matter field. In ESP, English
should be presented not as a subject to be learned in isolation from real use,
nor as a mechanical skill or habit to be developed. On the contrary, English
should be presented in authentic contexts to make the learners acquainted
with the particular ways in which the language is used in functions that they
will need to perform in their fields of specialty or jobs.

113
ESP 2021

B. Subject-Content Knowledge

Learners in the ESP classes are generally aware of the purposes for
which they will need to use English. Having already oriented their education
toward a specific field, they see their English training as complementing this
orientation. Knowledge of the subject area enables the students to identify a
real context for the vocabulary and structures of the ESP classroom. In such
way, the learners can take advantage of what they already know about the
subject matter to learn English.

C. Learning Strategies
Adults must work harder than children in order to learn a new
language, but the learning skills they bring to the task permit them to learn
faster and more efficiently. The skills they have already developed in using
their native languages will make learning English easier. Although you will
be working with students whose English will probably be quite limited, the
language learning abilities of the adult in the ESP classroom are potentially
immense. Educated adults are continually learning new language behavior
in their native languages, since language learning continues naturally
throughout our lives. They are constantly expanding vocabulary, becoming
more fluent in their fields, and adjusting their linguistic behavior to new
situations or new roles. ESP students can exploit these innate competencies
in learning English. To understand the position of E.S.P. within the wider
space of the English language, a few hints to the importance of this
language among the other languages of the world were mentioned at the
outset. The acronym E.S.P. has had an evolution of its own and it is this
etymology presentation which speaks about the stages in the making and the
development of an academic subject with tremendously important practical
consequences.
The demand for the teaching of English for clearly stated aims faced
language teachers with specific demands imposed by the learner‘s personal
needs, by the learning environment, the time learning and individual study
constraints resulted in changes and the introduction of new and efficient

114
ESP 2021

teaching methods as well as new principles for the designing of supportive

materials. This demandalso resulted in the making of a new academic
subject. The building of such an enterprise requires principles, methods,
materials specialist knowledge, dedication and hard work. Language
teaching methodologists are still studying aspects peculiar to languages for
special (theoreticaland practical) fields of activity, they organize scientific
events (such as conferences and seminars) intended to contribute to the
dissemination of group/individual research projects and to find the best way
to teach and assess learner‘s knowledge acquired with a well-defined
purpose on the part of the learner.

The development of E.S.P. may be perceived as a never-ending story

since new fields of activity and research keep appearing and developing and
in a globalized world like ours, knowledge of English is both a must and a
personal advantage on the labour force market. B. Milevica describes the
role of ESP teachers and uses the term practitioner rather than «teacher» to
emphasize that ESP involves much more than teaching. According to B.
Milevica the ESP practitioner is an ESP teacher and consultant, Course
designer and material provider, researcher, collaborator and evaluator. As an
ESP teacher and consultant practitioner has the opportunity to draw on
students knowledge of the content in order to generate communication in the
classroom as students can know more about the content than the teacher and
becomes a consultant if students have to publish in international journals
and need advice in both language and discourse issues.

As an ESP teacher practitioner should take some risks in teaching

content. As there are more than hundreds of directions and specialties in
educational establishments, it is rarely possible to use a particular textbook.
As course, designer and material provider ESP practitioners often have to
design the material in accordance with their students‘ needs and also to
assess the effectiveness of the teaching material. ESP practitioners should to
be in touch with the research as ESP is considered to be an academic level.
The ESP practitioner as collaborator means the cooperation of language and
content teachers and conducting team classes. The evaluator is responsible

115
ESP 2021

for testing of students, evaluation

116
ESP 2021

of courses and teaching materials. Evaluation can be used to adapt the

syllabus, taking into account students progress and weakness. Challenging
nature of ESP teaching requires ESP teachers to update their knowledge by
remaining constantly in touch with the research in the different fields of
ESP. Applying skills as a framework of ESP, ESP teachers own the
necessary knowledge and tools to deal with their own students‘
specializations. It should be taken into account that ESP teachers are not
specialists in the field, but in teaching English, they teach English for the
profession but not the profession in English. He/she simply brings the
necessary tools, patterns, and principles of course design to apply them to
new material.

The content material should be design in cooperation by the

professors or experts in the subject and ESP teacher. Thus, the following
can be regarded as an essential points in ESP: − learning should be learner
oriented and based on CLT (Communicative Language Teaching); − all four
language skills should be integrated, language approach should be
holistically, extensive use of authentic, up-to-date, and relevant for the
students‘ specializations texts. Content is the organizing unit of course
design. With this purpose, much work has been done at the University of
Information Technologies in Tashkent. Increasing demand for highly
specialized and experienced specialists in ICT sphere aggravated the issue
of English language proficiency. Dozens of CLIL teachers have been sent to
different leading universities in IT sphere in order to increase their
qualification, share their experiences with their foreign colleagues, and
cooperate with them.

Moreover, the pedagogical stuff of the department of foreign

languages is constantly working on problems of increasing the knowledge of
both English and the specialty. As finding appropriate book for different
directions, which exist at the university, teacher, try to find optimal
decisions to this problem. They work in close cooperation with CLIL
teachers and develop number of methodical manuals and e-books in
different directions. Materials for these manuals are taken from original

117
ESP 2021

books, but exercises are designed on the language-based principle. These

manuals help students to improve their knowledge both in learning

118
ESP 2021

languages and in content. Methodical manuals «IT related English» by G.

N. Suleymanova, «Hardware» by A. Sharipova, «Software» by F. R.
Saidova, «Methodical manual for the direction of Television technologies»
and «Teaching terminology on television technologies» by M. T.
Shakhakimova and G. K. Mutalova, «Methodical manual for 1–2 year
students of the direction of Telecommunication» by S. A. Pidaeva and
dozens of other manuals assist students to learn English along with their
specialty. The department organizes the annual students‘ conference
«Intelligent generation of Uzbekistan» where students write articles about
their inventions and software productions. Students from 5 branches of
TUIT (Fergana, Samarqand, Nukus, Urganch and Karshi branches) also take
active part in this conference. The uniqueness of this conference if students
are good at their specialty and do not know Foreign language there is little
chance to earn prizes which are given to the best three participants. The aim
of the conference is to encourage students to integrate their knowledge on
English and specialty.

119
ESP 2021

REFERENCES

Allyn & Bacon. (2000). Needs Analysis for an International Relations

Department. English for Specific Purposes Cambridge: Harvard
University Press

Altman, H.B (2005). Foreign Language Teaching: Focus on The Learner.

New York: Pergamon Press.

Anthony, L. (2005). ESP: What does it mean? Retrieved from the

World Wide Web on Dec. 5, 2005, on CUE.

Bell. (1998). Mind and society. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Branto (2002), Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second

Language Teaching and Testing. New York:Cambridge
University Press.
Brindley, C. (2001), The Role of Needs Analysis in Adult ESL Programme
Design. InR.K. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Brinton & Snow (2002). A Course in Basic Scientific English. London:

Longman.
Carter, D. (2003). Some Propositions about ESP. English for Specific
Purposes. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Chomsky. (1995). Assessing Language for Specific Purposes.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Cummins. (2002). An Approach to Understanding English for Specific

Purposes - Cambridge: Harvard University Press

Dudley. (2000). Language Teaching and Skill Learning. Oxford: Basil

Blackwell.

120
ESP 2021

Dudley & Evans. (2001). An Overview of ESP in the 1990s. Paper

presented at The Japan Conference on English for Specific
Purposes. Fukushima.

Evans, A., (1998). Developments in ESP: a Multi-Disciplinary

Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Graddol. D. (2001). The Input Hypothesis: issues and applications. N.Y.:

Longman.

Halliday, M. A. K. (2009). The Linguistic Science and Language

Teaching. London: Longman.

Howatt. (2000). The Development of IELTS: A Study of the Effect of

Background Knowlsedge on Reading Comprehension.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A. (2003). English for Specific Purposes: A

Learning Centered Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.

Kennedy and Bolitho. (1998). Teachers as Course Developers.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Mackay, R., & Mountford, A. (Eds.). (2001). English for Specific

Purposes. London: Longman.

Mary J. Schleppegrell. (1999). ESP Text Books: Do They Really Exist?

English for Specific Purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.

Nunan, D. (2002). Syllabus Design. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Markee (1992). A Teachers’ Grammar: The Central Problem of

English. Hove: Language Teaching Publications. London: Longman.

121
ESP 2021

, (2000) English for Specific Purposes: International in Scope, Specific in

Purpose. TESOL Quarterly. London: Longman.

Munby‘s (1987). A Historical Perspective of English for Specific Purposes.

Oxford: Oxford University Press

Sterm. (1998). Study of English for Specific Purpose. TESOL Quarterly.

London: Longman

122
ESP 2021
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Ernita Daulay,S.Pd M.Hum lahir di Medan pada
tanggal 01 Desember 1980. Telah menyelesaikan
pendidikan S-1 di Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa
Inggris – Universitas Negeri Medan (UNIMED)
tamat pada tahun 2003, lalu melanjutkan Studi S-2
Linguistik Terapan Bahasa Inggris pada Program
Pasca Sarjana Universitas Negeri Medan (UNIMED)
tamat pada tahun 2005, kemudian melanjutkan Studi
S-3 pada Prodi Ilmu Linguistik Universitas
Sumatera Utara (USU) Angkatan 2020 - sekarang.
Saat ini penulis adalah Dosen tetap pada Program
Studi Tadris Bahasa Inggris Universitas Islam
Negeri Sumatera Utara (UIN SU) sejak tahun 2009
sampai dengan sekarang. Penulis aktif dan telah
mengikuti beberapa konferensi International
Seminar Language and Art, ISLALE 2019,
Penelitian dan menulis dibeberapa Jurnal dan
sebelumnya penulis pernah menerbitkan Buku
English For Spesific Purpose pada Tahun 2014
Penerbit Naila Pustaka – Yogyakarta.

Email: [email protected]

Afifah Nurul Khoirot Nasution,

M.Hum. lahir di Kisaran pada tanggal 10 Juni
1994. Telah menyelesaikan pendidikan S–1 di
Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris –
Universitas Islam Negeri Sumatera Utara
(UINSU) tamat pada tahun 2015. Lalu
melanjutkan studi Pasca Sarjana Universitas
Negeri Medan (UNIMED) tamat pada tahun
2019. Sekarang penulis adalah seorang Dosen
di Jurusan Tadris Bahasa Inggris Universitas
Islam Negeri Sumatera Utara (UINSU) dan
Seorang tenaga pendidik di salah satu sekolah
di Kota Medan.

Email : [email protected]