Aust. J.

Rural Health (2002) 10, 129–135

Original Article
Blackwell Science, Ltd

CURRENT HEALTH SCENARIO IN

RURAL INDIA
Ashok Vikhe Patil,1 K. V. Somasundaram2 and R. C. Goyal2
1International
Association of Agricultural Medicine and Rural Health and 2Department of Community
Medicine, Rural Medical College of Pravara Medical Trust, Maharashtra, India

ABSTRACT: India is the second most populous country of the world and has changing socio-political-
demographic and morbidity patterns that have been drawing global attention in recent years. Despite several growth-
orientated policies adopted by the government, the widening economic, regional and gender disparities are posing
challenges for the health sector. About 75% of health infrastructure, medical man power and other health resources
are concentrated in urban areas where 27% of the population live. Contagious, infectious and waterborne diseases
such as diarrhoea, amoebiasis, typhoid, infectious hepatitis, worm infestations, measles, malaria, tuberculosis,
whooping cough, respiratory infections, pneumonia and reproductive tract infections dominate the morbidity pattern,
especially in rural areas. However, non-communicable diseases such as cancer, blindness, mental illness, hyper-
tension, diabetes, HIV/ AIDS, accidents and injuries are also on the rise. The health status of Indians, is still a cause for
grave concern, especially that of the rural population. This is reflected in the life expectancy (63 years), infant
mortality rate (80/1000 live births), maternal mortality rate (438/100 000 live births); however, over a period of time
some progress has been made. To improve the prevailing situation, the problem of rural health is to be addressed both
at macro (national and state) and micro (district and regional) levels. This is to be done in an holistic way, with a
genuine effort to bring the poorest of the population to the centre of the fiscal policies. A paradigm shift from the
current ‘biomedical model’ to a ‘sociocultural model’, which should bridge the gaps and improve quality of rural life,
is the current need. A revised National Health Policy addressing the prevailing inequalities, and working towards
promoting a long-term perspective plan, mainly for rural health, is imperative.
KEY WORDS: commercialisation of health, communicable diseases, health infrastructure, health policy, health
seeking behaviour, rural health.

INTRODUCTION been implemented, nearly 716 million rural people (72%

of the total population), half of which are below the
India is drawing the world’s attention, not only because of poverty line (BPL) continue to fight a hopeless and con-
its population explosion but also because of its prevailing stantly losing battle for survival and health. The policies
as well as emerging health profile and profound political, implemented so far, which concentrate only on growth
economic and social transformations. of economy not on equity and equality, have widened
After 54 years of independence, a number of urban the gap between ‘urban and rural’ and ‘haves and
and growth-orientated developmental programs having have-nots’. Nearly 70% of all deaths, and 92% of deaths
from communicable diseases, occurred among the poorest
Correspondence: Dr Ashok Vikhe Patil, President: Inter- 20% of the population.
national Association of Agricultural Medicine and Rural Health, However, some progress has been made since inde-
c/o Pravara Medical Trust, Loni 413 736, Ahmednagar pendence in the health status of the population; this is
District, Maharashtra, India. E-mails: [email protected] reflected in the improvement in some health indicators.
or [email protected]
Under the cumulative impact of various measures and a
Accepted for publication January 2002. host of national programs for livelihood, nutrition and
130 AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF RURAL HEALTH

shelter, life expectancy rose from 33 years at Independ- The majority of rural deaths, which are preventable,
ence in 1947 to 62 years in 1998. Infant mortality are due to infections and communicable, parasitic and
declined from 146/1000 live births in 1961 to 72/1000 respiratory diseases. Infectious diseases dominate the
in 1999. The under 5 years mortality rate (U5MR) morbidity pattern in rural areas (40% rural: 23.5%
declined from 236/1000 live births in 1960 to 109/1000 urban). Waterborne infections, which account for about
in 1993.1 Interstate, regional, socioeconomic class, and 80% of sickness in India, make every fourth person dying
gender disparities remain high. These achievements of such diseases in the world, an Indian. Annually,
appear significant, yet it must be stressed that these 1.5 million deaths and loss of 73 million workdays are
survival rates in India are comparable even today only attributed to waterborne diseases.2
to the poorest nations of sub-Saharan Africa. Three groups of infections are widespread in rural
The rural populations, who are the prime victims of areas, as follows.
the policies, work in the most hazardous atmosphere and 1. Diseases that are carried in the gastrointestinal tract,
live in abysmal living conditions. Unsafe and unhygienic such as diarrhoea, amoebiasis, typhoid fever, infec-
birth practices, unclean water, poor nutrition, subhuman tious hepatitis, worm infestations and poliomyelitis.
habitats, and degraded and unsanitary environments are About 100 million suffer from diarrhoea and cholera
challenges to the public health system. The majority of every year.3
the rural population are smallholders, artisans and 2. Diseases that are carried in the air through coughing,
labourers, with limited resources that they spend chiefly sneezing or even breathing, such as measles, tubercu-
on food and necessities such as clothing and shelter. They losis (TB), whooping cough and pneumonia. Today
have no money left to spend on health. The rural peasant there are 12 million TB cases (an average of 70%).
worker, who strives hard under adverse weather condi- Over 1.2 million cases are added every year and
tions to produce food for others, is often the first victim of 37 000 cases of measles are reported every year.3
epidemics. 3. Infections, which are more difficult to deal with,
This present paper attempts to review critically the include malaria, filariasis and kala-azar. These are
current health status of India, with a special reference to often the result of development. Irrigation brings with
the vast rural population of the beginning of the twenty- it malaria and filariasis, pesticide use has produced a
first century. resistant strain of malaria, the ditches, gutters and
culverts dug during the construction of roads, and
HEALTH PRACTICES AND PROBLEMS IN expansion of cattle ranches, for example, are breeding
RURAL INDIA places for snails and mosquitoes. About 2.3 million
episodes and over 1000 malarial deaths occur every
Rural people in India in general, and tribal populations year in India.3 An estimated 45 million are carriers
in particular, have their own beliefs and practices regarding of microfilaria, 19 million of which are active cases
health. Some tribal groups still believe that a disease is and 500 million people are at risk of developing
always caused by hostile spirits or by the breach of some filaria.3
taboo. They therefore seek remedies through magico- Every third person in the world suffering from leprosy
religious practices. On the other hand, some rural people is an Indian. (Nearly 1.2 million cases of leprosy, with
have continued to follow rich, undocumented, traditional 500 000 cases being added to this figure every year.4)
medicine systems, in addition to the recognised cultural Malnutrition is one of the most dominant health
systems of medicine such Ayurveda, unani, siddha and related problems in rural areas. There is widespread pre-
naturopathy, to maintain positive health and to prevent valence of protein energy malnutrition (PEM), anaemia,
disease. However, the socioeconomic, cultural and political vitamin A deficiency and iodine deficiency. Nearly 100
onslaughts, arising partly from the erratic exploitation of million children do not get two meals a day. More than
human and material resources, have endangered the natu- 85% of rural children are undernourished (150 000 die
rally healthy environment (e.g. access to healthy and every year).1
nutritious food, clean air and water, nutitious vegetation, A recent survey by the Rural Medical College, Loni
healthy life styles, and advantageous value systems and (unpublished data), in the villages of Maharashtra State,
community harmony). The basic nature of rural health which is one of the progressive states, has revealed some
problems is attributed also to lack of health literature alarming facts. Illness and deaths related to pregnancy
and health consciousness, poor maternal and child health and childbirth are predominant in the rural areas, due to
services and occupational hazards. the following.
RURAL HEALTH IN INDIA: A. V. PATIL 131

1. Very early marriage: 72.5% of women aged 25–49 Two distinct types of health status have been in
years marry before 18, where the literacy rate is 80%. evidence. The ‘rural–urban’ divide depicted in Table 1,
2. Very early pregnancy: 75% married women had their helps in understanding the health status of rural people,
first pregnancy below 18 years of age. which is far behind their urban counterparts. There are
3. All women invariably do hard physical work until late also other divides such as ‘rich–poor’, ‘male–female’,
into their pregnancy. ‘educated–uneducated’, ‘north–south, ‘privileged–under
4. Fifty-one per cent of deliveries are conducted at home privileged’, etc.
by an untrained traditional birth attendant.
5. Only 28% of pregnant women had their antenatal HEALTH POLICY AND INFRASTRUCTURE
checkup before 16 weeks of pregnancy. FOR RURAL AREAS
6. Only 67% of pregnant women had complete antenatal
checks (minimum of three checkups). Inappropriate
7. Only 30% of women had postnatal checkups. The selective health intervention during the colonial
In addition, agricultural- and environment-related period resulted in the so-called ‘modern medicine’ in
injuries and diseases are all quite common in rural areas, India. After independence, the state has chosen to follow
for example: mechanical accidents, pesticide poisoning, these ‘western models’. This system, which is highly
snake, dog and insect bites, zoonotic diseases, skin selective, institutionalised, centralised and top down – not
and respiratory diseases; oral health problems; socio- by oversight but by design – and which treats people as
psychological problems of the female, geriatric and objects rather than subjects, has failed to address the
adolescent population; and diseases due to addictions. needs of the majority, that is to say, the rural poor and
The alarming rate of population growth in rural areas indigenous people. While a significant portion of the
nullifies all developmental efforts. The rural population, country’s medical needs, especially in rural areas, have
which was 299 million in 1951, passed 750 million in May been attended to by the indigenous health systems such
2001. Since 1951, the government has been attempting as Ayurveda, homeopathy, unani, naturopathy and folk
through vertical and imported programs to combat the medicine, it has been conveniently neglected by the
problems, but to no avail. However, the new National policy makers, and planners. The draft of the new National
Population Policy 20005 gave emphasis to an holistic Health Policy 2001, has also not given due importance
approach; for example, improvement in ‘quality of life’ to Indian systems of medicine. The concept of a family
for all, no gender bias in education, employment, child physician with social accountability, which has traditional
survival rates, sound social security, promotion of culturally roots and acceptance from the rural masses, has dimin-
and socially acceptable family welfare methods. ished with the existing policies and value systems.

TABLE 1: The disparity of rural and urban health in India

Sector Indicator Rural Urban Combined Ref. year

1 Population (million) 716.0 286.0 1002.0 2000

2 Birth rate 30.0 22.6 28.3 1995
3 Death rate 9.7 6.5 9.0 1997
4 IMR 80.0 42.0 72.0 1998
5 MMR (per 100 000) 438.0 378.0 408.0 1997
6 Stillbirth rate 10.8 5.3 10.5 1995
7 % Deliveries attended 71.0 27.0 59.0 1995
by untrained people
8 % Deaths attended by 60.0 22.0 54.0 1995
untrained people
9 Total fertility rate 3.8 2.8 3.5 1993
10 % children (12 – 23 months) 31.0 51.0 – 1992 – 1 9 93
who received all vaccinations

Source: Sample Registration System, Government of India, 1997–98 (reproduced with permission).
132 AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF RURAL HEALTH

The present westernised hospital-based medical sanitation workers, health literacy educators, population
education and training, which is supported by public educators, community health guides, community oral health
funding, has proved beyond doubt that new doctors are not guides), the country has been concentrating on producing
inclined to and capable of meeting the needs of the major- specialist doctors.
ity of the public (i.e. rural people), which is where their Some of the rural health technologies propagated are
services are most required. inappropriate, such as ORS packets instead of locally
A recent study conducted by the Rural Medical available water and cooked cereals, sugar–salt solution
College (unpublished data) on the involvement of general and herbal teas, which are culturally accepted by the
practitioners, has revealed the following facts: community.
1. 80% of general practitioners practice western medicine Though the concept of primary health care is appro-
(allopathic medicine) without proper training. priate to rural areas, it remained sound on paper only
2. 73% consider cost to be the most important factor because of the deliberate attempts of health profes-
when prescribing a drug, without considering pharma- sionals. The present system has not left any scope for the
cological properties. involvement of the community, nor for grassroots level
3. 75% were aware of the Government-run Primary health workers to take ownership of the programs and
Health Center (PHC) or village subcentres without integrate them with overall development. The concept of
knowing the names of the medical officer at the PHC; placing a community-selected person from the village,
half (53%) do not know the health workers in their and providing them with essential training so that the
own area. community can cope more effectively with its health
4. About 67% had knowledge of various national health problems, was the centrepiece of the PHC. As a result,
programs but only 33% participated. the basic requirements of decentralised people-
5. Over 68% received information regarding the health based, integrated curative, preventive and promotive
programs through the media, and only 28% received services have been totally undermined by the ‘vertical
information through public health staff. programs’.6
6. About 74% provide family planning services, mainly
oral contraceptives and condoms. General practitioners INEQUALITY AND INADEQUACY
do provide services to pregnant women (65%), but
only 35% registered them. It is unfortunate that while the incidence of all diseases
7. Almost all general practitioners routinely handle are twice higher in rural than in urban areas, the rural
cases of diarrhoea, but only 29% know the exact com- people are denied access to proper health care, as the
position of oral dehydration solution (ORS); amaz- systems and structures were built up mainly to serve the
ingly, none knew the right method to prepare the ORS better off (Table 2).
packet. While the urban middle class in India have ready
While the current need for rural areas is medical access to health services that compare with the best in the
and paramedical manpower, such as social physicians, world, even minimum health facilities are not available to
public health nurses and midwives and paramedical at least 135 million of rural and tribal people, and wher-
workers (e.g. laboratory technicians, rural health and ever services are provided, they are inferior. While the

TABLE 2: Health infrastructure: urban versus rural

Rural Urban Total Year

Hospitals 3968 (31%) 7286 (69%) 13 692 1993

Beds 95 315 (20%) 524 118 (80%) 696 203 1993
Dispensaries 12 284 (40%) 15 710 (60%) 27 403 1993
Doctors 440 000 660 000 1 100 000 1994
All systems 440 000 660 000 1 100 000 1994
% allopathy 25% 75% 38%

Source: Duggal R. Health Care Budgets in a Changing Political Economy. Economic and Political Weekly May 1997: 17–24 .
RURAL HEALTH IN INDIA: A. V. PATIL 133

TABLE 3: Patterns of health sector growth in India, 1951– planning, are organised by ill-equipped rural hospitals,
1993 primary health centres and subcentres.
Much has been achieved in the last 54 years. The
1951 1993 first landmark in official health policy of independent
Infrastructure n % rural n % rural India was the acceptance of the Bhore Committee
recommendations of 1946, which laid the foundations of
Hospitals 2 694 39 13 692 31 comprehensive rural health services through the concept
Hospital beds 117 000 23 696 203 20 of primary health care.7 Primary Health Centres were
Dispensaries 6 600 79 27 403 40 established in rural areas from 1952 onwards. The basic
infrastructure is that one PHC covers 30 000 of the
Source: Duggal R. Health Care Budgets in a Changing Political population and one subcentre covers 5000 of the
Economy. Economic and Political Weekly May 1997: 17–24 . population. As of December 2000, there were 2935
Community Health Centers (CHC), 22 975 PHC and 137 271
health care of the urban population is provided by a subcentres to cater to the needs of nearly 650 million
variety of hospitals and dispensaries run by corporate, people.8 It is unfortunate to note that due to regional
private, voluntary and public sector organisations, rural imbalances, the type and quality of services being offered,
healthcare services, mainly immunisation and family adequacy and motivation of the staff, and shortage of

TABLE 4: Pattern of public investment on health and rural health and Indian system of medicine and homeopathy (ISM and H) in
different plan periods

Health Budget as Outlay on PHC and Rural Outlay on ISM and H as

Five Year Plans % of Total Budget Health as % of total Health Budget % of total Health Budget

I (1951 – 1956) 3.30 17.8 0.61

II (1956 – 1961) 3.00 10.2 2.84
III (1961 – 1966) 2.60 18.05 4.34
Annual Plan (1966 – 1969) 2.10 – –
IV (1969 – 1974) 2.10 6.60 4.72
V (1974 – 1979) 1.90 5.40 3.64
VI (1980 – 1985) 1.80 8.54 1.60
VII (1985 – 1990) 1.70 NA 1.27
VIII (1990 – 1995) 1.60 NA NA

NA, Data not available.

Source: Mukhopadhyay A. State of India’s Health, 1998. New Dehli: Voluntary Health Association of India, 1999.

TABLE 5: Selected public health expenditure ratios, all India

1980 – 1 9 81 1985 – 1 9 86 1991 – 1 9 92 1994 – 1 9 95

Health expenditure as % to total 3.29 3.29 3.11 2.63

government expenditure

Expenditure on medical care as % 43.30 37.82 26.78 25.75

of total health expenditure

Expenditure on disease programs 12.96 11.69 10.59 9.51

as % of total health expenditure

Source: Duggal R. Health Care Budgets in a Changing Political Economy. Economic and Political Weekly May 1997: 17–24.
134 AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF RURAL HEALTH

supplies in the Centres have attributed to gross under- In the case of medical research, a similar trend is
utilisation of the infrastructure. observed. While 20% of research grants are allocated to
It is obvious that there is a marked concentration of studies on cancer, which is responsible for 1% of deaths,
health personnel to maintain the heavy structures, in less than 1% is provided for research in respiratory
the urban areas. Of the 1.1 million registered medical diseases, which accounts for 20% of deaths.
practitioners of various medical systems, over 60%
are located in urban areas. In the case of modern GROWING COMMERCIALISATION OF
system (allopathic) practitioners, as many as 75% are in HEALTH
cities.9 As a result, a large number of unqualified people
(quacks) have set up medical practice in rural areas, The disillusionment and frustration with the growing
and the rural population as a result exerts pressure on ineffectiveness of the government sector is gradually
urban facilities. driving poor people to seek help of the private sector, thus
Curative care, which is the main demand of rural forcing them to spend huge sums of money on credit, or
people, has been ignored in terms of investment and they are left to the mercy of ‘quacks’.
allocation. In addition, the percentage share of health While estimates vary, the government probably
infrastructure for rural areas has declined from 1951 to accounts for no more than 20–30% of total health
1993 (Table 3).10 spending. The share of the private sector has grown
from 14% in 1976 to 67% in 1993. About 67% of all
INADEQUATE PUBLIC HEALTH hospitals, 63% of all dispensaries and 78% of all
EXPENDITURE AND MISALLOCATION OF doctors in India are in the private/corporate sector. Much
PUBLIC MONEY has been experienced and written on the growing priva-
tisation and commercialisation of the medical practices
The total expenditure on health in India is estimated as and their links with drug and medical instrument manu-
5.2% of the GDP; public health investment is only 0.9%, facturers.12 While WHO recommends about 130 essen-
which is by far too inadequate to meet the requirements of tial drugs, as many as 4000 drugs are available on the
poor and needy people.10 Successive 5-year plans allo- Indian market.
cated less and less (in terms of per cent of total budget) to Due to this, ‘buying’ healthcare has gone beyond the
health. A major share of the public health budget is spent reach of the rural poor. Two recent all-India surveys
on family welfare. While 75% of India’s population lives (NSSO 46th round and NCAER, New Delhi), have shown
in rural areas, less than 10% of the total health budget is that medical treatment is the most important cause of
allocated to this sector. Even here the chief interest of the rural indebtedness, next only to dowry.12
primary health care is diverted to family planning and A recent study conducted by the undergraduate
ancillary vertical national programs such as child survival medical students of the Rural Medical College, Loni
and safe motherhood (CSSM) which are seen more as (unpublished data), on the expenditure pattern of rural
statistical targets than as health services. According to families, reveals the following facts.
one study, 85% of the PHC budget goes on personnel 1. 70% of families spend 60% of their annual income on
salaries.11 health.
The lack of commitment to provide health care for 2. 93% of the amount spent on health is on curative and
its citizens is reflected in the inadequacy of the health emergency care.
infrastructure and low levels of financing, and also in 3. Invariably, men receive preferential treatment (56%
declining support for the various healthcare demands of the expenditure).
of the people; especially since the 1980s, when the 4. Adolescents and the elderly are neglected (14% of
process of liberalisation and opening up of the Indian expenditure).
economy to the world markets began. Medical care and 5. Poor families spend a higher percentage of their
control of communicable diseases are crucial areas of income on health than do the rich, as they are forced
concern, both in terms of what people demand as to use the services of the private sector because the
priorities as well as what existing socioeconomic public sector is ill-equipped and unaccountable.
conditions demand. Along with overall public health While a number of health insurance schemes are
spending, allocations to both these subsectors also available to the urban sector, the unorganised rural
showed a declining trend in the 1980s and 1990s masses that do not have insurance coverage are driven
(Table 5).11 into the arms of the exploitative private sector.
RURAL HEALTH IN INDIA: A. V. PATIL 135

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