Injection molding

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An injection molding machine

Injection molding (British English: moulding) is a manufacturing process for producing parts
from both thermoplastic and thermosetting plastic materials. Material is fed into a heated barrel,
mixed, and forced into a mold cavity where it cools and hardens to the configuration of the mold
cavity.[1] After a product is designed, usually by an industrial designer or an engineer, molds are
made by a moldmaker (or toolmaker) from metal, usually either steel or aluminum, and
precision-machined to form the features of the desired part. Injection molding is widely used for
manufacturing a variety of parts, from the smallest component to entire body panels of cars.

Contents
[hide]

 1 Process characteristics
 2 History
 3 Applications
 4 Examples of polymers best suited for the process
 5 Equipment
o 5.1 Mold
o 5.2 Mold design
o 5.3 Effects on the material properties
o 5.4 Tool materials
o 5.5 Geometrical possibilities
o 5.6 Machining
o 5.7 Cost
 6 Injection process
o 6.1 Injection molding cycle
o 6.2 Different types of injection molding processes
  7 Process troubleshooting
o 7.1 Molding trial
o 7.2 Molding defects
o 7.3 Tolerances and surfaces
 8 Lubrication and cooling
 9 Power requirements
 10 Inserts
 11 Gallery
 12 See also
 13 Notes
 14 References
 15 External links

[edit] Process characteristics

 Utilizes a ram or screw-type plunger to force molten plastic material into a mold cavity
 Produces a solid or open-ended shape that has conformed to the contour of the mold
 Uses thermoplastic or thermoset materials
 Produces a parting line, sprue, and gate marks
 Ejector pin marks are usually present
[2]

[edit] History
The first man-made plastic was invented in Britain in 1861 by Alexander Parkes. He publicly
demonstrated it at the 1862 International Exhibition in London, calling the material he produced
"Parkesine." Derived from cellulose, Parkesine could be heated, molded, and retain its shape
when cooled. It was, however, expensive to produce, prone to cracking, and highly flammable.

In 1868, American inventor John Wesley Hyatt developed a plastic material he named Celluloid,
improving on Parkes' invention so that it could be processed into finished form. Together with
his brother Isaiah, Hyatt patented the first injection molding machine in 1872.[3] This machine
was relatively simple compared to machines in use today. It worked like a large hypodermic
needle, using a plunger to inject plastic through a heated cylinder into a mold. The industry
progressed slowly over the years, producing products such as collar stays, buttons, and hair
combs.

The industry expanded rapidly in the 1940s because World War II created a huge demand for
inexpensive, mass-produced products. In 1946, American inventor James Watson Hendry built
the first screw injection machine, which allowed much more precise control over the speed of
injection and the quality of articles produced. This machine also allowed material to be mixed
before injection, so that colored or recycled plastic could be added to virgin material and mixed
thoroughly before being injected. Today screw injection machines account for the vast majority
of all injection machines. In the 1970s, Hendry went on to develop the first gas-assisted injection
molding process, which permitted the production of complex, hollow articles that cooled
quickly. This greatly improved design flexibility as well as the strength and finish of
manufactured parts while reducing production time, cost, weight and waste.

The plastic injection molding industry has evolved over the years from producing combs and
buttons to producing a vast array of products for many industries including automotive, medical,
aerospace, consumer products, toys, plumbing, packaging, and construction.[4]

[edit] Applications
Injection molding is used to create many things such as wire spools, packaging, bottle caps,
automotive dashboards, pocket combs, and most other plastic products available today. Injection
molding is the most common method of part manufacturing. It is ideal for producing high
volumes of the same object.[5] Some advantages of injection molding are high production rates,
repeatable high tolerances, the ability to use a wide range of materials, low labor cost, minimal
scrap losses, and little need to finish parts after molding. Some disadvantages of this process are
expensive equipment investment, potentially high running costs, and the need to design moldable
parts.

[edit] Examples of polymers best suited for the process

Most polymers may be used, including all thermoplastics, some thermosets, and some
elastomers.[6] In 1995 there were approximately 18,000 different materials available for injection
molding and that number was increasing at an average rate of 750 per year. The available
materials are alloys or blends of previously developed materials meaning that product designers
can choose from a vast selection of materials, one that has exactly the right properties. Materials
are chosen based on the strength and function required for the final part, but also each material
has different parameters for molding that must be taken into account.[7] Common polymers like
epoxy and phenolic are examples of thermosetting plastics while nylon, polyethylene, and
polystyrene are thermoplastic.[8]

[edit] Equipment
Paper clip mold opened in molding machine; the nozzle is visible at right
Main article: Injection molding machine

Injection molding machines consist of a material hopper, an injection ram or screw-type plunger,
and a heating unit.[2] They are also known as presses, they hold the molds in which the
components are shaped. Presses are rated by tonnage, which expresses the amount of clamping
force that the machine can exert. This force keeps the mold closed during the injection process.
Tonnage can vary from less than 5 tons to 6000 tons, with the higher figures used in
comparatively few manufacturing operations. The total clamp force needed is determined by the
projected area of the part being molded. This projected area is multiplied by a clamp force of
from 2 to 8 tons for each square inch of the projected areas. As a rule of thumb, 4 or 5 tons/in2
can be used for most products. If the plastic material is very stiff, it will require more injection
pressure to fill the mold, thus more clamp tonnage to hold the mold closed.[9] The required force
can also be determined by the material used and the size of the part, larger parts require higher
clamping force.[10]

[edit] Mold

Mold or die are the common terms used to describe the tooling used to produce plastic parts in
molding.

Since molds have been expensive to manufacture, they were usually only used in mass
production where thousands of parts were being produced. Typical molds are constructed from
hardened steel, pre-hardened steel, aluminum, and/or beryllium-copper alloy. The choice of
material to build a mold from is primarily one of economics; in general, steel molds cost more to
construct, but their longer lifespan will offset the higher initial cost over a higher number of parts
made before wearing out. Pre-hardened steel molds are less wear-resistant and are used for lower
volume requirements or larger components. The typical steel hardness is 38–45 on the Rockwell-
C scale. Hardened steel molds are heat treated after machining. These are by far the superior in
terms of wear resistance and lifespan. Typical hardness ranges between 50 and 60 Rockwell-C
(HRC). Aluminum molds can cost substantially less, and, when designed and machined with
modern computerized equipment, can be economical for molding tens or even hundreds of
thousands of parts. Beryllium copper is used in areas of the mold that require fast heat removal
or areas that see the most shear heat generated.[11] The molds can be manufactured either by CNC
machining or by using Electrical Discharge Machining processes

 Injection molding die with side pulls

"A" side of die for 25% glass-filled acetal with 2 side pulls.
 

Close up of removable insert in "A" side.

"B" side of die with side pull actuators.

Insert removed from die.

[edit] Mold design

Standard two plates tooling – core and cavity are inserts in a mold base – "family mold" of five
different parts

The mold consists of two primary components, the injection mold (A plate) and the ejector mold
(B plate). Plastic resin enters the mold through a sprue in the injection mold, the sprue bushing is
to seal tightly against the nozzle of the injection barrel of the molding machine and to allow
molten plastic to flow from the barrel into the mold, also known as the cavity.[12] The sprue
bushing directs the molten plastic to the cavity images through channels that are machined into
the faces of the A and B plates. These channels allow plastic to run along them, so they are
referred to as runners.[13] The molten plastic flows through the runner and enters one or more
specialized gates and into the cavity[14] geometry to form the desired part.

The amount of resin required to fill the sprue, runner and cavities of a mold is a shot. Trapped air
in the mold can escape through air vents that are ground into the parting line of the mold. If the
trapped air is not allowed to escape, it is compressed by the pressure of the incoming material
and is squeezed into the corners of the cavity, where it prevents filling and causes other defects
as well. The air can become so compressed that it ignites and burns the surrounding plastic
material.[15] To allow for removal of the molded part from the mold, the mold features must not
overhang one another in the direction that the mold opens, unless parts of the mold are designed
to move from between such overhangs when the mold opens (utilizing components called
Lifters).

Sides of the part that appear parallel with the direction of draw (The axis of the cored position
(hole) or insert is parallel to the up and down movement of the mold as it opens and closes)[16] are
typically angled slightly with (draft) to ease release of the part from the mold. Insufficient draft
can cause deformation or damage. The draft required for mold release is primarily dependent on
the depth of the cavity: the deeper the cavity, the more draft necessary. Shrinkage must also be
taken into account when determining the draft required.[17] If the skin is too thin, then the molded
part will tend to shrink onto the cores that form them while cooling, and cling to those cores or
part may warp, twist, blister or crack when the cavity is pulled away.[18] The mold is usually
designed so that the molded part reliably remains on the ejector (B) side of the mold when it
opens, and draws the runner and the sprue out of the (A) side along with the parts. The part then
falls freely when ejected from the (B) side. Tunnel gates, also known as submarine or mold gate,
is located below the parting line or mold surface. The opening is machined into the surface of the
mold on the parting line. The molded part is cut (by the mold) from the runner system on
ejection from the mold.[19] Ejector pins, also known as knockout pin, is a circular pin placed in
either half of the mold (usually the ejector half), which pushes the finished molded product, or
runner system out of a mold.[20]

The standard method of cooling is passing a coolant (usually water) through a series of holes
drilled through the mold plates and connected by hoses to form a continuous pathway. The
coolant absorbs heat from the mold (which has absorbed heat from the hot plastic) and keeps the
mold at a proper temperature to solidify the plastic at the most efficient rate.[21]

To ease maintenance and venting, cavities and cores are divided into pieces, called inserts, and
sub-assemblies, also called inserts, blocks, or chase blocks. By substituting interchangeable
inserts, one mold may make several variations of the same part.

More complex parts are formed using more complex molds. These may have sections called
slides, that move into a cavity perpendicular to the draw direction, to form overhanging part
features. When the mold is opened, the slides are pulled away from the plastic part by using
stationary “angle pins” on the stationary mold half. These pins enter a slot in the slides and cause
the slides to move backward when the moving half of the mold opens. The part is then ejected
and the mold closes. The closing action of the mold causes the slides to move forward along the
angle pins.[22]

Some molds allow previously molded parts to be reinserted to allow a new plastic layer to form
around the first part. This is often referred to as overmolding. This system can allow for
production of one-piece tires and wheels.

Two-shot or multi-shot molds are designed to "overmold" within a single molding cycle and
must be processed on specialized injection molding machines with two or more injection units.
This process is actually an injection molding process performed twice. In the first step, the base
color material is molded into a basic shape. Then the second material is injection-molded into the
remaining open spaces. That space is then filled during the second injection step with a material
of a different color.[23]

A mold can produce several copies of the same parts in a single "shot". The number of
"impressions" in the mold of that part is often incorrectly referred to as cavitation. A tool with
one impression will often be called a single impression(cavity) mold.[24] A mold with 2 or more
cavities of the same parts will likely be referred to as multiple impression (cavity) mold.[25] Some
extremely high production volume molds (like those for bottle caps) can have over 128 cavities.

In some cases multiple cavity tooling will mold a series of different parts in the same tool. Some
toolmakers call these molds family molds as all the parts are related.[26]

[edit] Effects on the material properties

The mechanical properties of a part are usually little affected. Some parts can have internal
stresses in them. This is one of the reasons why it is desirable to have uniform wall thickness
when molding. One of the physical property changes is shrinkage. A permanent chemical
property change is the material thermoset, which can't be remelted to be injected again.[27]

[edit] Tool materials

Tool steel or beryllium-copper are often used. Mild steel, aluminum, nickel or epoxy are suitable
only for prototype or very short production runs.[28] Modern hard aluminum (7075 and 2024
alloys) with proper mold design, can easily make molds capable of 100,000 or more part life.
[citation needed]

[edit] Geometrical possibilities

The most commonly used plastic molding process, injection molding, is used to create a large
variety of products with different shapes and sizes. Most importantly, they can create products
with complex geometry that many other processes cannot. There are a few precautions when
designing something that will be made using this process to reduce the risk of weak spots. First,
streamline your product or keep the thickness relatively uniform. Second, try and keep your
product between 2 to 20 inches.
The size of a part will depend on a number of factors (material, wall thickness, shape,process
etc.). The initial raw material required may be measured in the form of granules, pellets or
powders. Here are some ranges of the sizes:[28]

Method Raw materials Maximum size Minimum size

Injection molding (thermo-plastic) Granules, pellets, powders 700 oz. Less than 1 oz.
Injection molding (thermo-setting) Granules, pellets, powders 200 oz. Less than 1 oz.

[edit] Machining

Molds are built through two main methods: standard machining and EDM. Standard Machining,
in its conventional form, has historically been the method of building injection molds. With
technological development, CNC machining became the predominant means of making more
complex molds with more accurate mold details in less time than traditional methods.

The electrical discharge machining (EDM) or spark erosion process has become widely used in
mold making. As well as allowing the formation of shapes that are difficult to machine, the
process allows pre-hardened molds to be shaped so that no heat treatment is required. Changes to
a hardened mold by conventional drilling and milling normally require annealing to soften the
mold, followed by heat treatment to harden it again. EDM is a simple process in which a shaped
electrode, usually made of copper or graphite, is very slowly lowered onto the mold surface
(over a period of many hours), which is immersed in paraffin oil. A voltage applied between tool
and mold causes spark erosion of the mold surface in the inverse shape of the electrode.[29]

[edit] Cost

The cost of manufacturing molds depends on a very large set of factors ranging from number of
cavities, size of the parts (and therefore the mold), complexity of the pieces, expected tool
longevity, surface finishes and many others. The initial cost is great, however the piece part cost
is low, so with greater quantities the overall price decreases.

[edit] Injection process

Small injection molder showing hopper, nozzle and die area

With injection molding, granular plastic is fed by gravity from a hopper into a heated barrel. As
the granules are slowly moved forward by a screw-type plunger, the plastic is forced into a
heated chamber, where it is melted. As the plunger advances, the melted plastic is forced through
a nozzle that rests against the mold, allowing it to enter the mold cavity through a gate and
runner system. The mold remains cold so the plastic solidifies almost as soon as the mold is
filled.[30]

[edit] Injection molding cycle

The sequence of events during the injection mold of a plastic part is called the injection molding
cycle. The cycle begins when the mold closes, followed by the injection of the polymer into the
mold cavity. Once the cavity is filled, a holding pressure is maintained to compensate for
material shrinkage. In the next step, the screw turns, feeding the next shot to the front screw.This
causes the screw to retract as the next shot is prepared. Once the part is sufficiently cool, the
mold opens and the part is ejected.[31]

[edit] Different types of injection molding processes

sandwich molded toothbrush handle

Although most injection molding processes are covered by the conventional process description
above, there are several important molding variations including:

 Co-injection (sandwich) molding

 Fusible (lost, soluble) core injection molding
 Gas-assisted injection molding
 In-mold decoration and in mold lamination
 Injection-compression molding
 Insert and outsert molding
 Lamellar (microlayer) injection molding
 Low-pressure injection molding
 Metal injection molding
  Microinjection molding
 Microcellular molding
 Multicomponent injection molding
 Multiple live-feed injection molding
 Powder injection molding
 Push-Pull injection molding
 Reaction injection molding
 Resin transfer molding
 Rheomolding
 Structural foam injection molding
 Structural reaction injection molding
 Thin-wall molding
 Vibration gas injection molding
 Water assisted injection molding
 Rubber injection
 Injection_molding_of_liquid_silicone_rubber[32]

For more details about the different types injection processes.[1]

[edit] Process troubleshooting

Optimal process settings are critical to influencing the cost, quality, and productivity of plastic
injection molding. The main trouble in injection molding is to have a box of good plastics parts
contaminated with scrap. For that reason process optimization studies have to be done and
process monitoring has to take place. First article inspection of internal and external geometry
including imperfections such as porosity can be completed using Industrial CT Scanning a 3D x-
ray technology. For external geometry verification only a Coordinate-measuring machine or
white light scanner can be used.

To have a constant filling rate in the cavity the switch over from injection phase to the holding
phase can be made based on a cavity pressure level.
Having a stable production window the following issues are worth to investigate:
The Metering phase can be optimized by varying screw turns per minute and backpressure.
Variation of time needed to reload the screw gives an indication of the stability of this phase.
Injection speed can be optimized by pressure drop studies between pressure measured in the
Nozzle (alternatively hydraulic pressure) and pressure measured in the cavity. Melted material
with a lower viscosity has less pressure loss from nozzle to cavity than material with a higher
viscosity. Varying the Injection speed changes the shear rate. Higher speed = higher shear rate =
lower viscosity. Pay attention increasing the mold and melt temperature lowers the viscosity but
lowers the shear rate too.
Gate seal or gate freeze / sink mark / weight and geometry studies have the approach to
prevent sink marks and geometrical faults. Optimizing the high and duration of applied holding
pressure based on cavity pressure curves is the appropriate way to go. The thicker the part the
longer the holding pressure applied. The thinner the part the shorter the holding pressure applied.
Cooling time starts once the injection phase is finished. The hotter the melted plastics the longer
the cooling time the thicker the part produced the longer the cooling time.

[edit] Molding trial

When filling a new or unfamiliar mold for the first time, where shot size for that mold is
unknown, a technician/tool setter usually starts with a small shot weight and fills gradually until
the mold is 95 to 99% full. Once this is achieved a small amount of holding pressure will be
applied and holding time increased until gate freeze off (solidification time) has occurred. Gate
freeze off time can be determined by increasing the hold time and then weighing the part when
the weight of the part does not change we then know that the gate has frozen and no more
material is injected into the part. Gate solidification time is important as it determines cycle time
and the quality and consistency of the product, which itself is an important issue in the
economics of the production process.[33] Holding pressure is increased until the parts are free of
sinks and part weight has been achieved. Once the parts are good enough and have passed any
specific criteria, a setting sheet is produced for people to follow in the future. The method to
setup an unknown mold the first time can be supported by installing cavity pressure sensors.
Measuring the cavity pressure as a function of time can provide a good indication of the filling
profile of the cavity. Once the equipment is set to successfully create the molded part, modern
monitoring systems can save a reference curve of the cavity pressure. With that it is possible to
reproduce the same part quality on another molding machine within a short setup time.

[edit] Molding defects

Injection molding is a complex technology with possible production problems. They can be
caused either by defects in the molds or more often by part processing (molding)

Molding Alternative
Descriptions Causes
Defects name
Raised or layered Tool or material is too hot, often caused by
Blister Blistering zone on surface of a lack of cooling around the tool or a faulty
the part heater
Black or brown
burnt areas on the
Air burn/gas part located at Tool lacks venting, injection speed is too
Burn marks
burn/dieseling furthest points from high
gate or where air is
trapped
Masterbatch isn't mixing properly, or the
material has run out and it's starting to
Color streaks Colour streaks Localized change of
come through as natural only. Previous
(US) (UK) color/colour
colored material "dragging" in nozzle or
check valve.
Delamination Thin mica like layers Contamination of the material e.g. PP
formed in part wall mixed with ABS, very dangerous if the part
is being used for a safety critical application
 as the material has very little strength when
delaminated as the materials cannot bond
Mold is over packed or parting line on the
Excess material in
tool is damaged, too much injection
thin layer exceeding
Flash Burrs speed/material injected, clamping force too
normal part
low. Can also be caused by dirt and
geometry
contaminants around tooling surfaces.
Foreign particle Particles on the tool surface, contaminated
Embedded Embedded (burnt material or material or foreign debris in the barrel, or
contaminates particulates other) embedded in too much shear heat burning the material
the part prior to injection
Injection speeds too slow (the plastic has
Directionally "off
cooled down too much during injection,
Flow marks Flow lines tone" wavy lines or
injection speeds must be set as fast as you
patterns
can get away with at all times)
Deformed part by
Poor tool design, gate position or runner.
Jetting turbulent flow of
Injection speed set too high.
material
Caused by the melt-front flowing around an
object standing proud in a plastic part as
well as at the end of fill where the melt-
Small lines on the
front comes together again. Can be
backside of core pins
minimized or eliminated with a mold-flow
Knit lines Weld lines or windows in parts
study when the mold is in design phase.
that look like just
Once the mold is made and the gate is
lines.
placed, one can minimize this flaw only by
changing the melt and the mold
temperature.
Polymer breakdown
Polymer Excess water in the granules, excessive
from hydrolysis,
degradation temperatures in barrel
oxidation etc.
Holding time/pressure too low, cooling
time too short, with sprueless hot runners
Localized depression
Sink marks [sinks] this can also be caused by the gate
(In thicker zones)
temperature being set too high. Excessive
material or thick wall thickness.
Lack of material, injection speed or
Non-fill / Short
Short shot Partial part pressure too low, mold too cold, lack of gas
mold
vents
Moisture in the material, usually when
Circular pattern hygroscopic resins are dried improperly.
Splash mark /
Splay marks around gate caused Trapping of gas in "rib" areas due to
Silver streaks
by hot gas excessive injection velocity in these areas.
Material too hot.
Stringiness Stringing String like remain Nozzle temperature too high. Gate hasn't
 from previous shot
frozen off
transfer in new shot
Lack of holding pressure (holding pressure
is used to pack out the part during the
holding time). Filling too fast, not allowing
Empty space within
Voids the edges of the part to set up. Also mold
part (Air pocket)
may be out of registration (when the two
halves don't center properly and part walls
are not the same thickness).
Mold/material temperatures set too low (the
Knit line / Meld Discolored line
material is cold when they meet, so they
Weld line line / Transfer where two flow
don't bond). Point between injection and
line fronts meet
transfer (to packing and holding) too early.
Cooling is too short, material is too hot,
lack of cooling around the tool, incorrect
Warping Twisting Distorted part water temperatures (the parts bow inwards
towards the hot side of the tool) Uneven
shrinking between areas of the part

[edit] Tolerances and surfaces

Molding tolerance is a specified allowance on the deviation in parameters such as dimensions,

weights, shapes, or angles, etc. To maximize control in setting tolerances there is usually a
minimum and maximum limit on thickness, based on the process used.[34] Injection molding
typically is capable of tolerances equivalent to an IT Grade of about 9–14. The possible tolerance
of a thermoplastic or a thermoset is ±0.008 to ±0.002 inches. Surface finishes of two to four
microinches or better can be obtained. Rough or pebbled surfaces are also possible.

Molding Type Typical [in] Possible [in]

Thermoplastic ±0.008 ±0.002
Thermoset ±0.008 ±0.002

[edit] Lubrication and cooling

Obviously, the mold must be cooled in order for the production to take place. Because of the heat
capacity, inexpensiveness, and availability of water, water is used as the primary cooling agent.
To cool the mold, water can be channeled through the mold to account for quick cooling times.
Usually a colder mold is more efficient because this allows for faster cycle times. However, this
is not always true because crystalline materials require the opposite: a warmer mold and
lengthier cycle time.[30]

[edit] Power requirements

The power required for this process of injection molding depends on many things and varies
between materials used. Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide states that the power
requirements depend on "a material's specific gravity, melting point, thermal conductivity, part
size, and molding rate." Below is a table from page 243 of the same reference as previously
mentioned that best illustrates the characteristics relevant to the power required for the most
commonly used materials.

Material Specific gravity Melting point (°F)

Epoxy 1.12 to 1.24 248
Phenolic 1.34 to 1.95 248
Nylon 1.01 to 1.15 381 to 509
Polyethylene 0.91 to 0.965 230 to 243
Polystyrene 1.04 to 1.07 338

[edit] Inserts
Metal inserts can also be injection molded into the workpiece. For large volume parts the inserts
are placed in the mold using automated machinery. An advantage of using automated
components is that the smaller size of parts allows a mobile inspection system that can be used to
examine multiple parts in a decreased amount of time. In addition to mounting inspection
systems on automated components, multiple axial robots are also capable of removing parts from
the mold and place them in latter systems that can be used to ensure quality of multiple
parameters. The ability of automated components to decrease the cycle time of the processes
allows for a greater output of quality parts.[35]

Specific instances of this increased efficiency include the removal of parts from the mold
immediately after the parts are created and use in conjunction with vision systems. The removal
of parts is achieved by using robots to grip the part once it has become free from the mold after
in ejector pins have been raised. The robot then moves these parts into either a holding location
or directly onto an inspection system, depending on the type of product and the general layout of
the rest of the manufacturer's production facility. Visions systems mounted on robots are also an
advancement that has greatly changed the way that quality control is performed in insert molded
parts. A mobile robot is able to more precisely determine the accuracy of the metal component
and inspect more locations in the same amount of time as a human inspector.[35]

[edit] Gallery

Lego injection mold, lower side

 

Lego injection mold, detail of lower side

Lego injection mold, upper side

Lego injection mold, detail of upper side

[edit] See also

Design portal

 Reaction injection molding

 Hobby injection molding
 Fusible core injection molding
 Matrix molding

[edit] Notes
1. ^ Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide pg 240
2. ^ a b Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide pg. 240
3. ^ U.S. patent #133229, dated 19 November 1872.
4. ^ Douglas M. Bryce. Plastic Injection Molding: Manufacturing Process
Fundamentals. SME, 1996. pg. 1–2
5. ^ http://www.yaskawa.com/site/Industries.nsf/applicationDoc/appinjmold.html,
02/27/09
6. ^ http://www.custompartnet.com/wu/InjectionMolding, 02/27/09.
7. ^ Douglas M. Bryce. Plastic Injection Molding: Manufacturing Process
Fundamentals. SME, 1996. pg.6
8. ^ Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide pg. 242
9. ^ Douglas M. Bryce. Plastic Injection Molding: Manufacturing Process
Fundamentals. SME, 1996. pg. 43–44
10. ^ http://www.custompartnet.com/wu/InjectionMolding
11. ^ Donald V. Rosato, Marlene G. Rosato. Concise Encyclopedia of Plastics.
Springer, 2000. pg.176
12. ^ Douglas M. Bryce. Plastic Injection Molding: Manufacturing Process
Fundamentals. SME, 1996. pg.141
13. ^ Douglas M. Bryce. Plastic Injection Molding: Manufacturing Process
Fundamentals. SME, 1996. pg.142
14. ^ Rosato Dominick , Rosato Marlene, and Rosato Donald Injection Molding
Handbook 3rd Ed. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000. pg.15
15. ^ Douglas M. Bryce. Plastic Injection Molding: Manufacturing Process
Fundamentals. SME, 1996. pg.147
16. ^ Rosato Dominick , Rosato Marlene, and Rosato Donald Injection Molding
Handbook 3rd Ed. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000. pg.406
17. ^ Rosato Dominick , Rosato Marlene, and Rosato Donald Injection Molding
Handbook 3rd Ed. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000. pg.332
18. ^ Douglas M. Bryce. Plastic Injection Molding: Manufacturing Process
Fundamentals. SME, 1996. pg.47
19. ^ Rosato Dominick , Rosato Marlene, and Rosato Donald Injection Molding
Handbook 3rd Ed. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000. pg.288
20. ^ Douglas M. Bryce. Plastic Injection Molding: Manufacturing Process
Fundamentals. SME, 1996. pg.143
21. ^ Douglas M. Bryce. Plastic Injection Molding: Manufacturing Process
Fundamentals. SME, 1996. pg.86
22. ^ Douglas M. Bryce. Plastic Injection Molding: Manufacturing Process
Fundamentals. SME, 1996. pg.268
23. ^ Douglas M. Bryce. Plastic Injection Molding: Manufacturing Process
Fundamentals. SME, 1996. pg.174
24. ^ Tony Whelan. Polymer Technology Dictionary Springer, 1994. pg.398
25. ^ Tony Whelan. Polymer Technology Dictionary Springer, 1994. pg.262
26. ^ Rees, Herbert; Catoen, Selecting Injection Molds – Weighing Cost versus
Productivity Hanser Publishers, 2006. pg.114
27. ^ Robert H. Todd, Dell K. Allen, Leo Alting. Manufacturing Processes
Reference Guide Industrial Press Inc., 1994. pg. 243
28. ^ a b Todd, R. H., Allen, D. K., & Alting, L. (1994). Manufacturing Processes
Reference Guide. New York, NY: Industrial Press Inc.
29. ^ http://advantagetool.us/mats/die_casting/
30. ^ a b Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide
31. ^ Injection Molding Handbook 2nd Ed pg 13
32. ^ Injection Molding Handbook 2nd Ed pg 17–18
33. ^ R Pantani, F De Santis, V Brucato, G Titomanlio Analysis of Gate Freeze-Off
Time in Injection Molding. Polymer Engineering and Science, 2004
34. ^ Rosato 2000, p. 439.
35. ^ a b Callister.
[edit] References
 Bryce, Douglas M. Plastic Injection Molding: Manufacturing Process Fundamentals.
SME, 1996.
 Brydson, J, Plastics Materials, Butterworths 9th Ed (1999).
 Callister, William D, Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, John Wiley
and Sons
 HI *Whelan, Tony. Polymer Technology Dictionary Springer, 1994.

[edit] External links

 Injection molding cost estimator
 Injection molding cost estimator (detailed)
 Shrinkage & warpage
 Injection molding interactive animation

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