2 4
2 4
and so this map f is well defined. As ∀x, x0 ∈ A, and ∀g ∈ G/A, f (g)(xx0 ) = g(xx0 )g −1 =
gxg −1 gx0 g −1 = f (g)(x)f (g)(x0 ), f (g) is a homomorphism from A into A. To see that f (g is an
epimorphism, we pick x ∈ A. Then x0 = g −1 (x) ∈ A. Thus x = f (e)(x) = f (g)(x0 ), and so f (g) is
onto. The same argument also indicates that f (g) is one to one. Hence f (g) is in aut(A).
2. If H, K are subgroups of G such that H K, show that K ≤ NG (H).
Proof: Note that NG (H) = {g ∈ G : gH = Hg}. Since H K, ∀k ∈ K, kH = Hk, and so
k ∈ NG (H).
3. If a group G contains an element a having exactly two conjugates, then G has a proper normal
subgroup N 6= {e}.
Proof: Let G acts on Ω = G by conjugation. Then the orbit aG has exactly two elements. Therefore
[G : Ga ] = |aG | = 2, and so N = Ga G. If N = {e}, then |G| = 2. It follows that G ∼ = Z2 , and
so G is abelian. But if G is abelian, every conjugate class has exactly one element, contrary to the
assumption that G has an element a with exactly two conjugates.
CG (H) = {g ∈ G : ∀h ∈ H, gh = hg}.
1
Proof: Recall that NG (H) = {g ∈ G : gH = Hg}. Thus ∀c ∈ CG (H), and ∀h ∈ H, ch = hc, and so
cH = Hc. Thus c ∈ NG (H).
7. Let G be a group, and let In(G) be the set of all inner automorphisms of G. Show that
In(G) Aut(G).
Proof: Let φ ∈ Aut(G). For each ginG, let σg ∈ In(G) be such that ∀x ∈ G, σg (x) = gxg −1 . Then
∀x ∈ G,
φ(σg )φ−1 (x) = φ(gφ−1 (x)g −1 ) = φ(g)x(φ(g))−1 = σφ(g) (x).
11. Let G be a group containing an element a not of order 1 or 2. Show that G has a nonidentity
automorphism.
Proof: Consider the automorphism φ(x) = x−1 . We can verify that this is an automorphism
(Exercise I-2.2). As a is not of order 1 or 2, φ(a) 6= a, and so φ is not the identity map.
2
For any τ1 , τ2 ∈ Sm , Φ(τ1 τ2 ) = τ1 τ2 τ10 τ20 . Since {1, 2, ..., m} and {10 , 20 , ..., m0 } are disjoint, τ2 and
τ10 are disjoint and so Φ(τ1 τ2 ) = τ1 τ2 τ10 τ20 = τ1 τ10 τ2 τ20 = Φ(τ1 )Φ(τ2 ). Hence Φ is a homomorphism.
Let e, e0 denote the identity of Sm and An , respectively. It remains to show that Ker(Φ) = {e}.
Suppose that for some σ ∈ Sm , Φ(σ) = e0 . As Φ(σ) = σσ 0 , and as σ and σ 0 are on disjoint sets of
elements, we must have σ = e, which proves that Φ is a monomorphism.
13. If H < G and H ≤ G such that [G : H] < ∞, then G has a normal subgroup N with
[G : N ] < ∞.
Proof: Since [G : NG (H)][(NG (H) : H] = [G : H] < ∞, [G : NG (H)] = m < ∞. Thus there are m
conjugates of H: H1 , · · · , Hm . Use the fact that
to get
[G : ∩m m m
i=1 Hi ] ≤ Πi=1 [G : Hi ] = [G : H] < ∞.
−1
Note that N = ∩m i=1 Hi = ∩x∈G xHx G.
Remark: One can also obtain N by letting G act on the set of all left cosets of H in G. Then the
kernel of the action if N .
14. If |G| = pn, with p > n, p prime, and H is a subgroup of order p, then H G.
Proof: Let Ω be the set of left cosets of H in G. Let G acts on Ω by left multiplication, and let
N = Ker(G/Ω) be the kernel of the action. Then N G.
Recall that N = {n ∈ G : ∀aH ∈ Ω, (ga)H = aH}. Therefore, ∀n ∈ N , nH = n(eH) = eH = H,
and so N ≤ H. If N = H, then H = N G, and the proof is completed.
Therefore, we assume that N 6= H, and so |N | < |H|. By Lagrange Theorem, |N | is a factor
of |H| = p. Since p is a prime, we must have N = {e}. Therefore, G is isomorphic to a subgroup
of Sn0 , where n0 = |Ω| = [G : H] = (np)/p = n. By Lagrange Theorem again, np = |G| is a factor
of |Sn | = n!. But p > n is a prime, and so (pn)|n! is impossible. This contradiction shows that we
must have H = N .
Supplemental Problems
3
Claim 2 G = XY . ∀g ∈ G. Then gX = y i X, for some integer i, as G/X = hyi. It follows by Claim
1, that for some integer j, g = y i xj = xj y i ∈ XY . This proves G = XY .
Claim 3 X G and Y G. This follows from the fact that G is abelian.
Claim 4 X ∩ Y = {e}. Suppose that g = xj = y i ∈ X ∩ Y , for some integers 0 ≤ i, j ≤ p − 1. Then
y i = X, and so p|i. Since 0 ≤ i ≤ p − 1, we must have i = 0, and so g = e.
By Claims 1-4, G ∼=X ×Y ∼ = Zp × Zp .