Contents

 1 Description

 2 History

 3 Van de Graaff generators on display

 4 Comparison with other high voltage generators

 5 Patents

 Applications

 Bibliography
Introduction to Van de Graaff generator
,

Van de Graaff generator

A Van de Graaff generator is an electrostatic generator which uses a

moving belt to accumulate very high amounts of electrical potential on a

hollow metal globe on the top of the stand. It was invented by

American physicist Robert J. Van de Graaff in 1929. The potential

difference achieved in modern Van de Graaff generators can reach 5

megavolts. A tabletop version can produce on the order of 100,000

volts and can store enough energy to produce a visible spark.

A Van de Graaff generator operates by transferring electric charge

from a moving belt to a terminal. First invented in 1929, the Van de

Graaff generator became a source of high voltage for accelerating

subatomic particles to high speeds, making it a useful tool for

fundamental physics research.

Schematic view of a classical Van de Graaff-generator.

1) hollow metal sphere

2) upper electrode

3) upper roller (for example an acrylic glass)

4) side of the belt with positive charges

5) opposite side of the belt with negative charges

6) lower roller (metal)

7) lower electrode (ground)

8) spherical device with negative charges, used to discharge the main

sphere

9) spark produced by the difference of potentials

A simple Van de Graaff-generator consists of a belt of silk, or a similar

flexible dielectric material, running over two metal pulleys, one of

which is surrounded by a hollow metal sphere.[1] Twoelectrodes, (2) and

(7), in the form of comb-shaped rows of sharp metal points, are

positioned respectively near to the bottom of the lower pulley and

inside the sphere, over the upper pulley. Comb (2) is connected to the

sphere, and comb (7) to the ground. A high DC potential (with respect

to earth) is applied to roller (3); a positive potential in this example.

As the belt passes in front of the lower comb, it receives negative

charge that escapes from its points due to the influence of the

electric field around the lower pulley, which ionizes the air at the

points. As the belt touches the upper roller (6), it transfers some

electrons, leaving the roller with a negative charge (if it is insulated

from the terminal), which added to the negative charge in the belt

generates enough electric field to ionize the air at the points of the

upper comb. Electrons then leak from the belt to the upper comb and
to the terminal, leaving the belt positively charged as it returns down

and the terminal negatively charged. The sphere shields the upper

roller and comb from the electric field generated by charges that

accumulate at the outer surface of it, causing the discharge and

change of polarity of the belt at the upper roller to occur practically

as if the terminal were grounded. As the belt continues to move, a

constant charging current travels via the belt, and the sphere

continues to accumulate negative charge until the rate that charge is

being lost (through leakage and corona discharges) equals the charging

current. The larger the sphere and the farther it is from ground, the

higher will be its final potential.

Another method for building Van de Graaff generators is to use

the triboelectric effect. The friction between the belt and the rollers,

one of them now made of insulating material, or both made with

insulating materials at different positions on the triboelectric scale,

one above and other below the material of the belt, charges the rollers

with opposite polarities. The strong e-field from the rollers then

induces a corona discharge at the tips of the pointed comb electrodes.

The electrodes then "spray" a charge onto the belt which is opposite in

polarity to the charge on the rollers. The remaining operation is

otherwise the same as the voltage-injecting version above. This type of

generator is easier to build for science fair or homemade projects,

since it doesn't require a potentially dangerous high voltage source.

The trade-off is that it cannot build up as high a voltage as the other

type, that cannot also be easily regulated, and operation may become

difficult under humid conditions (which can severely reduce

triboelectric effects). Finally, since the position of the rollers can be

reversed, the accumulated charge on the hollow metal sphere can

either be positive or negative.

A Van de Graaff generator terminal doesn't need to be sphere shaped

in order to work, and in fact the optimum shape is a sphere with an

inward curve around the hole where the belt enters. Since electrically

charged conductors have no e-field inside, charges can be added

continuously. A rounded terminal minimizes the electric field around it,

allowing greater potentials to be achieved without ionization of the

surrounding air, or other dielectric gas. Outside the sphere the e-field

quickly becomes very strong and applying charges from the outside

would soon be prevented by the field.

Since a Van de Graaff generator can supply the same small current at

almost any level of electrical potential, it is an example of a nearly

ideal current source. The maximum achievable potential is

approximately equal to the sphere's radius multiplied by the e-field

where corona discharges begin to form within the surrounding gas. For

example, a polished spherical electrode 30 cm in diameter immersed in

 air at STP (which has a breakdown voltage of about 30 kV/cm) could be

expected to develop a maximum voltage of about 450 kV.



Van de Graaff-generator for school.

 


Generator without metal sphere.

 


Upper electrode.

 

Lower electrode (with ground).

History

Van de Graaff generator of the first Hungarian linear particle

accelerator. It achieved 700 kV in 1951 and 1000 kV in 1952.

A Van de Graaff generator integrated with aparticle accelerator. The

generator produces the high fields (in the megavolt range) that

accelerate the particles.

The fundamental idea for the friction machine as high-voltage supply,

using electrostatic influence to charge rotating disk or belt can be

traced back to the 17th century or even before (cf. Friction machines

History)

The Van de Graaff generator was developed, starting in 1929, by

physicist Robert J. Van de Graaff at Princeton University with help

from colleague Nicholas Burke. The first model was demonstrated in

October 1929. The first machine used a silk ribbon bought at a five-

and-dime store as the charge transport belt. In 1931 a version able to

produce 1,000,000 volts was described in a patent disclosure. This

version had two 60 cm diameter charge accumulation spheres mounted

on borosilicate glass columns 180 cm high; the apparatus cost only $90

in 1931.

Van de Graaff applied for a patent in December 1931, which was

assigned to MIT in exchange for a share of net income. The patent was

later granted.

In 1933 Van de Graaff built a 40-foot (12 m) model at MIT's Round

Hill facility, the use of which was donated byColonel Edward H. R.

Green.

A more recent development is the tandem Van de Graaff accelerator,

containing one or more Van de Graaff generators, in which negatively

charged ions are accelerated through one potential difference before

being stripped of two or more electrons, inside a high voltage terminal,

and accelerated again. An example of a three stage operation has been

built in Oxford Nuclear Laboratory in 1964 of a 10 MV single ended

"Injector" and a 6 MV EN tandem.

One of Van de Graaff's accelerators used two charged domes of

sufficient size that each of the domes had laboratories inside - one to

provide the source of the accelerated beam, and the other to analyze

the actual experiment. The power for the equipment inside the domes

came from generators that ran off the belt, and several sessions came

to a rather gruesome end when a pigeon would try to fly between the

two domes, causing them to discharge. (The accelerator was set up in

an airplane hangar.)

By the 1970s, up to 14 million volts could be achieved at the terminal of

a tandem that used a tank of high pressure sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)

gas to prevent sparking by trapping electrons. This allowed the

generation of heavy ion beams of several tens of megaelectronvolts,

sufficient to study light ion direct nuclear reactions. The highest

potential sustained by a Van de Graaff accelerator is 25.5 MV,

achieved by the tandem at the Holifield Radioactive Ion Beam Facility

at Oak Ridge National Laboratory

A further development is the pelletron, where the rubber or fabric

belt is replaced by a chain of short conductive rods connected by

insulating links, and the air-ionizing electrodes are replaced by a

grounded roller and inductive charging electrode. The chain can be

operated at much higher velocity than a belt, and both the voltage and

currents attainable are much higher than with a conventional Van de

Graaff generator. The 14 UD Heavy Ion Accelerator at The Australian

National University houses a 15 million volt pelletron. Its chains are

more than 20 meters long and can travel faster than 50 km/hr.[6]

The Nuclear Structure Facility (NSF) at Daresbury Laboratory was

proposed in the 1970s, commissioned in 1981 and opened for

experiments in 1983. It consisted of a tandem Van de Graaff

generator operating routinely at 20 MV, housed in a distinctive building

70 metres high. During its lifetime it accelerated 80 different ion

beams for experimental use, ranging from protons to uranium. A

particular feature was the ability to accelerate rare isotopic and

radioactive beams. Perhaps the most important discovery made on the

NSF was that of super-deformed nuclei. These nuclei, when formed

from the fusion of lighter elements, rotate very rapidly. The pattern

of gamma-rays emitted as they slow down provided detailed

information about the inner structure of the nucleus. Following

financial cutbacks, the NSF closed in 1993.

Van de Graaff generators on display

A Van de Graaff generator on display at theMaker Faire, San Mateo, 2008.

The largest air-insulated Van de Graaff generator in the world, built by

Dr. Van de Graaff in the 1930s, is now on permanent display at

Boston's Museum of Science. With two conjoined 4.5 meter

(15 foot) aluminium spheres standing on columns 22 feet (6.7 m) tall,

this generator can often reach 2 MV (2 million volts). Shows using the

Van de Graaff generator and several Tesla coils are conducted two to

three times a day. Many science museums, such as the American

Museum of Science and Energy, have small-scale Van de Graaff

generators on display, and exploit their static-producing qualities to

create "lightning" or make people's hair stand up. Van de Graaff

generators are also used in schools and in science shows.

Comparison with other high voltage generators[edit source | editbeta]

Other classical electrostatic machines like a Wimshurst Machine or a

Bonetti machine[8] can easily produce more current than a Van de

Graaff generator for experiments with electrostatics, and have

positive and negative output. The less-insulated structures, however,

result in smaller voltages.

APPLICATIONS

Most of us have seen the device, known as a Van de Graaff generator,

that makes your hair stand on end. The device looks like a big aluminum

ball mounted on a pedestal, and you can see its effect in the

accompanying image.

Have you ever wondered what this device is, how it works, why it was

invented or how you might build one yourself? Surely it wasn't invented

to make people's hair stand on end ... Or have you ever shuffled your

feet across the carpet on a dry winter day and gotten the shock of

your life when you touched something metal? Have you ever wondered

about static electricity and static cling?

If any of these questions have ever crossed your mind, then get ready

for a great read. In this edition of HowStuffWorks, we'll discuss Van

de Graaff generators and static electricity in general. You'll even learn

how to build your own Van de Graaff generator!

Static Electricity

To understand the Van de Graaff generator and how it works, you need

to understand static electricity. Almost all of us are familiar with

static electricity because we can see and feel it in the winter. On dry

winter days, static electricity can build up in our bodies and cause a

spark to jump from our bodies to pieces of metal or other people's

bodies. We can see, feel and hear the sound of the spark when it

jumps.

In science class you may have also done some experiments with static

electricity. For example, if you rub a glass rod with a silk cloth or if

you rub a piece of amber with wool, the glass and amber will develop a

static charge that can attract small bits of paper or plastic.

To understand what is happening when your body or a glass rod

develops a static charge, you need to think about the atoms that make

up everything we can see. All matter is made up of atoms, which are

themselves made up of charged particles. Atoms have a nucleus

consisting of neutrons and protons. They also have a surrounding "shell"

that is made up electrons. Typically, matter is neutrally charged,

meaning that the number of electrons and protons are the same. If an
 atom has more electrons than protons, it is negatively charged. If it

has more protons than electrons, it is positively charged.

Some atoms hold on to their electrons more tightly than others do.

How strongly matter holds on to its electrons determines its place in

the triboelectric series. If a material is more apt to give up electrons

when in contact with another material, it is more positive in the

triboelectric series. If a material is more apt to "capture" electrons

when in contact with another material, it is more negative in the

triboelectric series.

The following list describes the triboelectric series for many materials

you find around the house. Positive items in the series are at the top,

and negative items are at the bottom:

 Human hands (usually too moist, though) Very positive

 Rabbit fur

 Glass

 Human hair

 Nylon

 Wool

 Fur

 Lead

 Silk

 Aluminum
 Paper

 Cotton

 Steel Neutral

 Wood

 Amber

 Hard rubber

 Nickel, Copper

 Brass, Silver

 Gold, Platinum

 Polyester

 Styrene (Styrofoam)

 Saran Wrap

 Polyurethane

 Polyethylene (like Scotch Tape)

 Polypropylene

 Vinyl (PVC)

 Silicon

 Teflon Very negative

(The above list is adapted from the book Nature's Electricity by

Charles K. Adams.)

The relative position of two substances in the triboelectric series tells

you how they will act when brought into contact. Glass rubbed by silk
causes a charge separation because they are several positions apart in

the table. The same applies for amber and wool. The farther the

separation in the table, the greater the effect.

When two non-conducting materials come into contact with each other,

a chemical bond, known asadhesion, is formed between the two

materials. Depending on the triboelectric properties of the materials,

one material may "capture" some of the electrons from the other

material. If the two materials are now separated from each other,

a charge imbalance will occur. The material that captured the electron

is now negatively charged and the material that lost an electron is now

positively charged. This charge imbalance is where "static electricity"

comes from. The term "static" in this case is deceptive, because it

implies "no motion," when in reality it is very common and necessary for

charge imbalances to flow. The spark you feel when you touch a door

knob is an example of such flow.

Shock Factors

You may wonder why you don't see sparks every time you lift a piece of

paper from your desk. The amount of charge is dependent on the

materials involved and the amount of surface area that is connecting

them. Many surfaces, when viewed with amagnifying device, appear

rough or jagged. If these surfaces were flattened to allow for more

surface contact to occur, the charge (voltage) would most definitely

increase.

Another important factor in electrostatics is humidity. If it is very

humid, the charge imbalance will not remain for a useful amount of

time. Remember that humidity is the measure of moisture in the air. If

the humidity is high, the moisture coats the surface of the material,

providing a low-resistance path for electron flow. This path allows the

charges to "recombine" and thus neutralize the charge imbalance.

Likewise, if it is very dry, a charge can build up to extraordinary levels,

up to tens of thousands of volts!

Think about the shock you get on a dry winter day. Depending on the

type of sole your shoes have and the material of the floor you walk on,

you can build up enough voltage to cause the charge to jump to the

door knob, thus leaving you neutral. You may remember the old "static

cling" commercial. Clothes in the dryerbuild up an electrostatic charge.

The dryer provides a low-moisture environment that rotates, allowing

the clothes to continually contact and separate from each other. The

charge can easily be high enough to cause the material to attract and

"stick" to oppositely charged surfaces (your body or other clothes, in

this case). One method you could use to remove the "static" would be

to lightly mist the clothes with some water. Here again, the water

allows the charge to leak away, thus leaving the material neutral.
It should be noted that when dirt is in the air, the air will break down

much more easily in an electric field. This means that the dirt allows

the air to become ionized more easily. Ionized air is actually air that

has been stripped of its electrons. When this occurs, it is said to

be plasma, which is a pretty good conductor. Generally speaking, adding

impurities to air improves its conductivity. Having impurities in the air

has the same effect as having moisture in the air. Neither condition is

at all desirable for electrostatics. The presence of these impurities in

the air usually means that they are also on the materials you are using.

The air conditions are a good gauge for your material conditions -- the

materials will generally break down like air, only much sooner.

The Generator

Now that you understand something about electrostatics and static

electricity, it is easy to understand the purpose of the Van de Graaff

generator. A Van de Graaff generator is a device designed to create

static electricity and make it available for experimentation.

The American physicist Robert Jemison Van de Graaff invented the

Van de Graaff generator in 1931. The device that bears his name has
the ability to produce extremely high voltages -- as high as 20 million

volts. Van de Graaff invented the generator to supply the high energy

needed for early particle accelerators. These accelerators were known

as atom smashers because they accelerated sub-atomic particles to

very high speeds and then "smashed" them into the target atoms. The

resulting collisions created other subatomic particles and high-energy

radiation such as X-rays. The ability to create these high-energy

collisions is the foundation of particle and nuclear physics.

Van de Graaff generators are described as "constant current"

electrostatic devices. When you put a load on a Van de Graaff

generator, the current (amperage) remains the same. It's the voltage

that varies with the load. In the case of the Van de Graaff generator,

as you approach the output terminal (sphere) with a grounded object,

the voltage will decrease, but the current will remain the same.

Conversely, batteries are known as "constant voltage" devices because

when you put a load on them, the voltage remains the same. A good

example is your car battery. A fully charged car battery will produce

about 12.75 volts. If you turn on your headlights and then check your

battery voltage, you will see that it remains relatively unchanged

(providing your battery is healthy). At the same time, the current will

vary with the load. For example, your headlights may require 10 amps,
 but your windshield wipers may only require 4 amps. Regardless of

which one you turn on, the voltage will remain the same.

There are two types of Van de Graaff generators: one that uses a

high-voltage power supply for charging and one that uses belts and

rollers for charging. Here we will discuss the belts-and-rollers type.

This kind of Van de Graaff generator is made up of:

 A motor

 Two rollers

 A belt

 Two brush assemblies

 An output terminal (usually a metal or aluminum sphere)

When the motor is turned on, the lower roller (charger) begins turning

the belt. Since the belt is made of rubber and the lower roller is

covered in silicon tape, the lower roller begins to build a negative

charge and the belt builds a positive charge. You can understand why

this charge imbalance occurs by looking at the triboelectric series:

Silicon is more negative than rubber; therefore, the lower roller is

capturing electrons from the belt as it passes over the roller.

The Concentration of Charge

It is important to realize that the charge on the roller is much more

concentrated than the charge on the belt. Because of

this concentration of charge, the roller's electric field is much

 stronger than the belt's at the location of the roller and lower brush

assembly. The strong negative charge from the roller now begins to do

two things:

1. It repels the electrons near the tips of the lower brush

assembly. Metals are good conductors because they are basically

positive atoms surrounded by easily movable electrons. The brush

assembly now has wire tips that are positively charged because the

electrons have moved away from the tips, toward the connection at the

motor housing.

2. It begins to strip nearby air molecules of their

electrons. When an atom is stripped of its electrons, it is said to be

plasma, the fourth state of matter. So we have free electrons and

positively charged atoms of air existing between the roller and the

brush. The electrons repel from the roller and attract to the

electronless brush tips while the positive atoms attract to the

negatively charged roller.

The positively charged atomic nuclei from the air molecules try to move

toward the negatively charged roller, but the belt is in the way. So now

the belt gets "coated" with the positive charge, which it then carries

away from the roller.

As long as there is air between the lower roller and brush assembly,

the Van de Graaff generator will continue to charge the belt.

Theoretically, the Van de Graaff generator can continue to charge

forever. Unfortunately, dirt and other impurities in the surroundings

will limit the actual charge that develops on the sphere.

Let's return to the belt. The belt, as we left it, is positively charged

and rolling toward the upper roller and upper brush assembly. Since I

used nylon for my upper roller, it wants to repel the charge on the belt.

The upper brush assembly is connected to the inside of the sphere and

hangs near the upper roller and belt location. The electrons in the

brush move to the tips of the wires because they are attracted to the

positively charged belt. Once the air breaks down as before, the

positive atomic nuclei of air are attracted to the brush. At the same

time, the free electrons in the air move to the belt. When a charged

object touches the inside of a metal container, the container will take

all of the charge, leaving the object neutral. The excess charge then

shows up on the outside surface of the container. Here, our container

is the sphere. It is through this effect that the Van de Graaff

generator is able to achieve its huge voltages. For the Van de Graaff

generator, the belt is the charged object, delivering a continuous

positive charge to the sphere.

One last note before going on to building your own Van de Graaff

generator. Normally, a neutral material is used for the upper roller, so

the belt becomes neutral after the sphere sucks its excess charge
away. Because I've used a nylon upper roller (which is positive on the

triboelectric series), I cause the belt to actually deliver more positive

charge and become negative. This is a technique used for doubling your

current. The belt is positive on one side as it approaches the upper

roller and negative on the other side as it approaches the lower roller.