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Topic 1: MATH1081 Problem Solutions

This document contains solutions to math problems involving sets. Some key points: - Sets A and B are equal, as they contain the same elements. Set A is a proper subset of set B. - There are 8 subsets of set A. The Cartesian product of sets A and B contains 12 elements. - 34 people in a class play at least one instrument, so 6 play none. - One statement about set relations is proven true, while another is shown false by a counterexample. - Several problems are solved using set algebra laws and properties to simplify expressions involving unions, intersections, complements and differences of sets.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
235 views18 pages

Topic 1: MATH1081 Problem Solutions

This document contains solutions to math problems involving sets. Some key points: - Sets A and B are equal, as they contain the same elements. Set A is a proper subset of set B. - There are 8 subsets of set A. The Cartesian product of sets A and B contains 12 elements. - 34 people in a class play at least one instrument, so 6 play none. - One statement about set relations is proven true, while another is shown false by a counterexample. - Several problems are solved using set algebra laws and properties to simplify expressions involving unions, intersections, complements and differences of sets.

Uploaded by

jake
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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MATH1081 Problem Solutions

Callum Brannon
Term 3 2021

Topic 1

1. Are any of the sets A = {1, 1, 2, 3}, B = {3, 1, 2, 2}, C = {1, 2, 1, 2, 4, 2, 3} equal?

Solution. Yes, sets A and B are equal since they have the same elements, namely, 1,2, and 3.

2. Show that
A = {x ∈ R| cos(x) = 1}
is a subset of
B = {x ∈ R| sin(x) = 0}.
Is the A a proper subset of B? Give reasons.

Solution. Let x ∈ A. Then x ∈ R and cos(x) = 1. Hence

x = 2kπ where k ∈ Z,

and therefore
sin(x) = sin(2kπ) = sin(0) = 0.
Which shows that x ∈ A =⇒ x ∈ B and thus A ⊆ B. Now consider x = π and since

sin(π) = 0,

then x ∈ B. However cos(π) = −1 and so x ∈ / A, which means that there exists at least one element in B
that is not in A and therefore A is a proper subset of B or A ⊂ B.

3. a) List all the subsets of the set A = {a, b, c}.


b) List all the elements of A × B where A = {a, b, c, } and B = {1, 2}.

a) ∅, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}
b) (a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 2), (c, 1), (c, 2)

1
4. Given the sets X = {24k + 7|k ∈ Z}, Y = {4n + 3|n ∈ Z}, Z = {6m + 1|m ∈ Z}, prove that X ⊆ Y
and X ⊆ Z but Y 6⊆ Z.

Solution. Let x ∈ X

11. In a class of 40 people studying music: 2 play violin, piano and recorder, 7 play at least violin and
piano, 6 play at least piano and recorder, 5 play at least recorder and violin, 17 play at least violin,
19 play at least piano, and 14 play at least recorder. How many play none of these instruments?

Solution. Drawing a venn diagram and putting in the information we see that 34 people play at least one
of these instruments in total. So there are 6 people who play none of these instruments.

12. Prove the following statements if they are true and give a counter-example if they are false.

a) For all sets A, B and C, if A ∩ C ⊆ B ∩ C and A ∪ C ⊆ B ∪ C then A ⊆ B.


b) For all sets A, B and C, (A ∪ B) ∩ C = A ∪ (B ∩ C).

a) Solution. Let x ∈ A and so x ∈ A ∪ C which means that x ∈ B ∪ C since A ∪ C ⊆ B ∪ C. Now begin


with cases.

Case 1, x ∈ B. In this case we have shown that x ∈ A =⇒ x ∈ B and we are done.

Case 2, x ∈ C. If x ∈ C then x ∈ A ∩ C which means that x ∈ B ∩ C since A ∩ C ⊆ B ∩ C. Therefore,


x ∈ B and so we have deduced that in this case x ∈ A =⇒ x ∈ B and we are done.

Hence, in both cases we have shown that A ⊆ B and the statement in true.

b) Solution. Consider the sets A = {1, 2}, B = {1, 2, 3}, and C = {1}. So,

(A ∪ B) ∩ C = {1, 2, 3} ∩ {1} = {1},

whilst,
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = {1, 2} ∪ {1} = {1, 2}.
Hence the statement is not true for all sets A, B, and C.

2
13. Let A and B be general sets. Determine the containment relation (⊆, ⊇, =, none) that hold between

a) P (A ∪ B) and P (A) ∪ P (B),


b) P (A ∩ B) and P (A) ∩ P (B).

a) ⊇
b) =

14. Let A and B be general sets. Determine the containment relation (⊆, ⊇, =, text that holds between

P (A × B) and P (A) × P (B).

There is no containment relation.

15. Show that A − B = A ∩ B c and hence simplify the following using the laws of set algebra.

a) A ∩ (A − B)
b) (A − B) ∪ (A ∩ B)
c) (A ∪ B) ∪ (C ∩ A) ∪ (A ∩ B)c .

/ A ∩ B which means x ∈ (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c . But


Solution. First, let x ∈ A − B and so x ∈ A. Also, x ∈
x ∈ A and so x ∈ B c . Thus, x ∈ A ∩ B c . Which means that A − B ⊆ A ∩ B c .

On the other hand, let x ∈ A ∩ B c . Which means that x is in A but not in B which is the definition of the
difference of two sets and thus x ∈ A − B which means that A ∩ B c ⊆ A − B.

Therefore, we have shown that A − B = A ∩ B c .

a)

A ∩ (A − B) = A ∩ (A ∩ B c )
= (A ∩ A) ∩ B c
= A ∩ Bc
= A − B.

b)

(A − B) ∪ (A ∩ B) = (A ∩ B c ) ∪ (A ∩ B)
= A ∩ (B c ∪ B)
=A∩U
= A.

3
c)

(A ∪ B) ∪ (C ∩ A) ∪ (A ∩ B)c = (A ∪ B) ∪ (C ∩ A) ∪ (Ac ∪ B c )
= (A ∪ Ac ∪ B ∪ B c ) ∪ (C ∩ A)
= (U ∪ U) ∪ (C ∩ A)
= U ∪ (C ∩ A)
= U.

16. Use the laws of set algebra to simplify

(A − B c ) ∪ (B ∩ (A ∩ B)c ).

Solution.

(A − B c ) ∪ (B ∩ (A ∩ B)c ) = (A − B c ) ∪ (B ∩ (Ac ∪ B c ))
= (A − B c ) ∪ ((B ∩ Ac ) ∪ ∅)
= (A − B c ) ∪ (B ∩ Ac )
= (A ∩ B) ∪ (B ∩ Ac )
= B ∩ (A ∪ Ac ).
=B∩U
= B.

17. Simplify
[A ∩ (A ∩ B c )] ∪ [(A ∩ B) ∪ (B ∩ Ac )]
and hence simplify
[A ∪ (A ∪ B c )] ∩ [(A ∪ B) ∩ (B ∪ Ac )].

Solution.

[A ∩ (A ∩ B c )] ∪ [(A ∩ B) ∪ (B ∩ Ac )] = [(A ∩ A) ∩ B c )] ∪ [B ∩ (A ∪ Ac )]
= (A ∩ B c ) ∪ (B ∩ U)
= B ∪ (A ∩ B c )
= (B ∪ A) ∩ (B ∪ B c )
= A ∪ B.

Therefore, by the principle of duality,

[A ∪ (A ∪ B c )] ∩ [(A ∪ B) ∩ (B ∪ Ac )] = A ∩ B.

4
19. Use the laws of set algebra to prove that for all sets R, P , and Q

(R − P ) − Q = R − (P ∪ Q).

Solution. Begin with

(R − P ) − Q = (R ∩ P c ) − Q
= (R ∩ P c ) ∩ Qc
= R ∩ (P c ∩ Qc )
= R ∩ (P ∪ Q)c
= R − (P ∪ Q).

21. Prove if true or give a counter example if false (for all sets A, B, and C:

A × (B ∪ C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C).

Solution. First, let (x, y) be an ordered pair and (x, y) ∈ LHS. This means that x ∈ A and y ∈ B ∪ C. If
y ∈ B then (x, y) ∈ A × B and thus (x, y) ∈ RHS. A similar argument can be made if y ∈ C and hence we
have shown that A × (B ∪ C) ⊆ (A × B) ∪ (A × C).

On the other hand, let (x, y) ∈ RHS. Now, either (x, y) is an element of A × B or A × C. If (x, y) ∈ A × B
then this means that x ∈ A and y ∈ B. Thus, (x, y) ∈ A × B and hence (x, y) ∈ A × (B ∪ C). Making a
similar argument if (x, y) ∈ A × C and we have shown that (A × B) ∪ (A × C) ⊆ A × (B ∪ C). Therefore,
we have shown that LHS = RHS.

22. Let
Ak = {n ∈ N|k ≤ n ≤ k 2 + 5}
for k = 1, 2, 3, . . . . Find
4
S
a) Ak ;
k=1
90
T
b) Ak ;
k=10

T
c) Ak
k=1

a) Begin with
4
[
Ak = A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 ∪ A4 .
k=1

Now, notice,
A1 = {n ∈ N|1 ≤ n ≤ 6} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
and
A2 = {n ∈ N|2 ≤ n ≤ 9} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.
We can recognise that the union of Ak from k = 1 to 4 will include the natural numbers from 1 to
42 + 5 = 21. And so,
[4
Ak = {i ∈ N|1 ≤ i ≤ 21}.
k=1

5
b) First notice that the sequences {k}, and {k 2 +5} are increasing for all k = 1, 2, 3, . . . . So the intersection
must of Ak must include the smallest element of A90 and the largest element of A10 . From this we an
deduce that
\90
Ak = {i ∈ N|90 ≤ i ≤ 105}.
k=10

c) Consider A1 and A7 .
A1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
and
A7 = {7, . . . , 54}.
Clearly there is no common element and thus

\
Ak = ∅.
k=1

24. Which of the following are functions?



a) f : R → R, f (x) = x2 − 1.
b) f : Z → Z, f (x) = 2x + 1.
c) f : R → R, f (x) = x1 .
d) f : Q → Q, f (x) = q where x = pq , p, q integers.
e) f : Q → Q, f (x) = q where x = pq , p, q integers with q > 0 and no common factor except 1.

a) No, the function is not well-defined for x = 0 as f (0) = −1 ∈ / R.
b) Yes
c) No, the function is not well-defined for x = 0 as f (0) is not defined.
d) No. Consider the ordered pairs (0, 1) ∈ f since f ( 10 ) = f (0) = 1, and (0, 2) ∈ f since f ( 20 ) = f (0) = 2.
Thus, for f contains two ordered pairs with the same first element.
e) Yes

25. Evaluate

a) bπc,
b) dπe,
c) b−πc,
d) d−πe.

a) 3
b) 4
c) −4
d) −3

6
26. Prove that if n is an integer, then   
1 2
n− n − n
3 3
equals either 0 or 1.

Proof. Let n = 3k where k ∈ Z, which gives us


   
1 2
3k − 3k − 3k ,
3 3

which simplifies to,


3k − bkc − b2kc .
Let k = m + q, where m ∈ Z and 0 ≤ q < 1. Now, since n = 3k = 3m + 3q and 3m is an integer then
3q must also be an integer since n is an integer. So if 0 ≤ q < 1 then 0 ≤ 3q < 3. Thus, if 3q is to be an
integer then 3q = 0, 1, 2 and so, our only possible values for q are 0, 13 , and 23 .

Case 1, q = 0.
3m − bmc − b2mc = 3m − m − 2m = 0.
Case 2, q = 31 .    
1 2
3m + 1 − m + − 2m + = 3m − m − 2m = 0.
3 3
Case 3, q = 23 .    
2 4
3m + 2 − m + − 2m + ,
3 3
which is the same as,
 
1
3m + 2 − m − (2m + 1) + = 2m + 2 − (2m + 1) = 1.
3
Thus if n is an integer, then n − 31 n − 32 n only equals 0 or 1.
   

27. Determine which of the following functions are one-to-one, which are onto, and which are bijections.

a) f : Z → Z, f (x) = 2x.
b) f : Q → Q, f (x) = 2x + 3.
c) f : R → Z, f (x) = dxe .
d) f : R → R, f (x) = x − bxc .

a) One-to-one (odd integers not in the range of f )


b) Bijection
c) Onto (Consider the ordered pairs in f, (2.1, 3) and (2.2, 3).
d) Neither, (f (x) ∈ [0, 1) and consider the ordered pairs in f, (1, 0) and (2, 0)).

7
28. a) Let S be the set {n ∈ N|0 ≤ n ≤ 11} and define f : S → S by letting f (n) be the remainder
when 5n + 2 is divided by 12. Is f one-to-one? Is f onto?
b) Repeat part (a) with 5n + 2 replaced by 4n + 2.

a) Bijection
b) Neither

29. Define f : R → R by
f (x) = x2 − 4x + 6.

a) What is the range of f ?


b) Is f onto? Explain.
c) Is f one-to-one? Explain.

a) f (x) ∈ [2, ∞).


b) No. For instance, there does not exist an x ∈ R such that (x, 0) ∈ f.
c) No. Consider the ordered pairs (0, 6) ∈ f and (4, 6) ∈ f. Thus, f contains two ordered pairs with the
same second element and hence not one-to-one.

30. Repeat the above question with g : R → R defined by

g(x) = x3 − x + 1

and h : R → R defined by
h(x) = x3 + x + 1.

First we solve for g.

a) g(x) ∈ R.
b) Yes as Range(g) = R.
c) First, we find the stationary points of g. Differentiating we see that

g 0 (x) = 3x2 − 1.

Setting g 0 (x) equal to 0 and solving we find that

3x2 − 1 = 0
1
x2 =
3
1
x = ±√ .
3
Since g(x) is a cubic we know these must be turning points. Therefore, the function is not one-to-one.

8
Now solving for h.
a) h(x) ∈ R.
b) Yes as Range(h) = R.
c) First, we find the stationary points of h. Differentiating we see that

h0 (x) = 3x2 + 1.

Setting h0 (x) equal to 0 and solving we find that

3x2 + 1 = 0
−1
x2 =
.
3
So there is no x ∈ R such that h(x) = 0. Hence, there are no turning points and since h(x) is continuous
then h is one-to-one.

31. Let Z+ be the set of all positive integers and f : Z+ × Z+ → Z+ be the function defined by
f (m, n) = mn for all (m, n) ∈ Z+ × Z+ . Determine whether f is one-to-one or onto.

Solution. Given any y ∈ Z+ and setting x = (1, y) ∈ Z+ Which mean that f (x) = y and thus f is onto.
To prove f is not one-to-one, consider 4 = 2 · 2 = 4 · 1.

32. Find g ◦ f for each of the following pairs of functions



a) f : R → R, f (x) = 2x − 3 g : R → R, g(x) = x2 + 2,
x−1
b) f : Z → Z, f (x) = 2x + 1 g : {odd integers} → Z, g(x) = 2
.

a) g ◦ f : R → R is given by
p √
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(2x − 3) = (2x − 3)2 + 2 = 4x2 − 12x + 11.

b) g ◦ f : Z → Z is given by
x−1 x−1
(g ◦ f ) = g(f (x)) = g( )=2· + 1 = x − 1 + 1 = x.
2 2

33. Suppose that f : X → Y and g : Y → Z are functions.

a) Show that if f and g are both onto then g ◦ f is also onto.


b) Is it true that if f and g are both one-to-one then g ◦ f is also one-to-one?

a) The function g ◦ f : X → Z is given by

(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = z

where x ∈ X and z ∈ Z. We wish to prove for all z ∈ Z there exists and x ∈ X such that g(f (x)) = z.
Now, since f is onto then for all y ∈ Y there exists and x ∈ X such that f (x) = y. Which means that
for all y there exist an x ∈ X such that g(f (x)) = g(y). Likewise, since g is onto then for all z ∈ Z there
exists a y ∈ Y such that g(y) = z. Thus, we have shown that for all z ∈ Z there exists an x ∈ X such that
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = z. Hence, the function g ◦ f is onto.

9
b) Suppose that f and g are one-to-one functions. That is to say for all x1 , x2 ∈ X then

f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇐⇒ x1 = x2

and similarly for all y1 , y2 ∈ Y then

g(y1 ) = g(y2 ) ⇐⇒ y1 = y2 .

To prove g ◦ f is one-to-one we wish to show that for all x1 , x2 ∈ X then

g(f (x1 )) = g(f (x2 )) ⇐⇒ x1 = x2 .

Suppose that
g(f (x1 )) = g(f (x2 ))
and let f (x1 ) = y1 and f (x2 ) = y2 for some y1 , y2 ∈ Y. Then we have that

g(y1 ) = g(y2 ).

Since g is one-to-one then this implies that y1 = y2 or equivalently f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). But f is one-to-one so
this implies that x1 = x2 . We have proved that if g(f (x1 )) = g(f (x2 )) then x1 = x2 and thus this proves
that g ◦ f is one-to-one if f and g are both one-to-one.

34. If f, g : N → N are functions defined by f (n) = 2n and


(
n
2
if n is even
g(n) = n−1
2
if n is odd

show that g ◦ f = ι but f ◦ g 6= ι where ι is the identity function.

Solution. Begin with


g ◦ f = g(f (n)) = g(2n).
Now since 2n is even for all natural numbers n then we have
2n
g(2n) = = n.
2
So, (g ◦ f )(n) = n and hence, g ◦ f = ι is the identity function. Now consider

(f ◦ g)(n) = f (g(n)).

Suppose n is odd so we have that


 
n−1 n−1
f (g(n)) = f =2· = n − 1.
2 2

Thus,
(f ◦ g)(n) 6= n,
and so f ◦ g 6= ι is not the identity function.

10
35. For each of the following bijections find the inverse and the domain and range of the inverse.

a) f : R → R, f (x) = 5x + 3.
b) g : Z → N, (
2|x| − 1 if x < 0
g(x) =
2x if x ≥ 0

a) Since f is a bijection then it has an inverse namely f −1 so

x = f −1 (y) ⇐⇒ y = f (x) where x, y ∈ R


⇐⇒ y = 5x + 3
y−3
⇐⇒ x = .
5
So the inverse of f is f −1 : R → R defined by
x−3
f −1 (x) = .
5
b) Since g is a bijection then it has an inverse, namely g −1 so

x = g −1 (y) ⇐⇒ y = g(x) where x ∈ Z and y ∈ N


(
2|x| − 1 if x < 0
⇐⇒ y =
2x if x ≥ 0

Now begin with cases


Case 1, x < 0. In this case we have that

y = 2|x| − 1
y+1
|x| =
2
−y − 1
x= . (Since x < 0 and so |x| = −x)
2
Notice that for x to be an integer then y + 1 = 2k for some integer k. So we take y = 2k − 1 and thus we
only take odd natural numbers y.
Case 2, x ≥ 0. In this case we have that

y = 2x
y
x=
2
Notice that for x to be an integer then y = 2k for some integer k. So we take y = 2k and thus we only
take even natural numbers y.
So the inverse of g is the function g −1 : N → Z defined by
(
−x−1
if x is odd
g −1 = x 2
2
if x is even

11
36. Suppose that f : R → R is defined by f (x) = 2x2 − 1. Find

a) f (A) if A = {x| − 2 ≤ x ≤ 3},


b) f − 1(B) if B = {y|1 ≤ y ≤ 17}.

a) If A = {x| − 2 ≤ x ≤ 3} then

f (A) = {2x2 − 1| − 2 ≤ x ≤ 3}
= {y ∈ R|0 ≤ y ≤ 17}.

b) If B = {y|1 ≤ y ≤ 17} then

f −1 (B) = {x ∈ R|1 ≤ 2x2 − 1 ≤ 17}


= {x ∈ R| − 3 ≤ x ≤ 1} ∪ {x ∈ R|1 ≤ x ≤ 3}.

37. let f : Z × Z → Z be the function given by

f (m, n) = m2 − n2 .

a) Show that f is not onto.


b) Find f −1 ({8}).

a) Start by supposing f is onto. Then for all a ∈ Z then there exists m, n ∈ Z such that f (m, n) =
m2 − n2 = a. Also suppose that a < −n2 . We can rearrange to obtain

m2 = n2 + a

and taking the square root, √


m = ± n2 + a.
But since a < −n2 then n2 + a < 0 which means we are taking the square root of a negative number and
thus, there does not exist an m ∈ Z such that our equation holds. Hence, by contradiction, f is not onto,
as there exists an a ∈ Z such that for all m, n ∈ Z, f (m, n) = m2 − n2 6= a.

b) Begin by writing

f −1 ({8}) = {m, n ∈ Z|m2 − n2 = 8}


= {m, n ∈ Z|(m − n)(m + n) = 8}

By taking notes of the factors of 8, namely, 1,2,4,8. Splitting into cases and solving simultaneously we
obtain set of possible ordered pairs of (m, n) to be

f −1 ({8}) = {(±3, ±1)}.

12
38. Suppose that f is a function from X to Y and A, B are subsets of X, and suppose that S, T are
subsets of Y.

a) What containment relation (if any) is there between


i) f (A) ∪ f (B) and f (A ∪ B),
ii) f (A) ∩ f (B) and f (A ∩ B)?
b) Show that f −1 (S) ∪ f −1 (T ) = f −1 (S ∪ T ).
c) Show that f −1 (S) ∩ f −1 (T ) = f −1 (S ∩ T ).

a) i) = ii) f (A ∪ B) ⊆ f (A) ∪ f (B)

b) We first prove that that LHS ⊆ RHS. First, let x ∈ LHS. This means that either x ∈ f −1 (S) or
x ∈ f −1 (T ). Suppose that x ∈ f −1 (S) and so x ∈ X such that f (x) ∈ S. It follows that f (x) ∈ S ∪ T which
implies that x ∈ f −1 (S ∪ T ). A similar argument can be made for x ∈ f −1 (T ) and so we have shown that
x ∈ LHS =⇒ x ∈ RHS which proves LHS ⊆ RHS.

On the other hand, let x ∈ RHS = f −1 (S ∪ T ).


c) This is true by applying the the principle of duality to part (b).

40. a) Make use of changes of summation index to show that


N
X N
X
3
(k + 1) − (k − 1)3 = (N + 1)3 + N 3 − 1.
k=1 k=1

b) Hence show that


N
X N
k2 = (N + 1)(2N + 1).
k=1
6

a)
N
X N
X N
X +1 N
X −1
3 3 3
(k + 1) − (k − 1) = k − k3.
k=1 k=1 k=2 k=0

Now splitting this sums up we find that


−1 −1
N +1 N N
"N −1 #
X X X X
k3 − k3 = (k 3 ) + N 3 + (N + 1)3 − (k 3 ) + 1 .
k=2 k=0 k=2 k=2

Thus we get
N
X N
X
3
(k + 1) − (k − 1)3 = (N + 1)3 + N 3 − 1.
k=1 k=1

b) By expanding we see that (k + 1) − (k − 1)3 simplifies to 6k 2 + 2. Thus


3

N
X N
X N
X
3 3
(k + 1) − (k − 1) = 6k 2 + 2.
k=1 k=1 k=1

13
Now splitting this sum up and taking a factor of 6 we get that
N
X N
X N
X
6k 2 + 2 = 6 k2 + 2,
k=1 k=1 k=1

and so we see that


N
X
6 k 2 + 2N = (N + 1)3 + N 3 − 1.
k=1

And so
N
X 1 N
k 2 = [(N + 1)3 + N 3 − 2N − 1] = (N + 1)(2N + 1).
k=1
6 6

41. Show that


2 1 1
= −
k(k + 2) k k+2
and hence, that for N ≥ 1
N
X 2 3 1 1
= − − .
k=1
k(k + 2) 2 N +1 N +2

Solution. Begin with


1 1 k+2 k
− = −
k k+2 k(k + 2) k(k − 2)
k+2−k
=
k(k + 2)
2
= .
k(k + 2)
Thus
N N N N
X 2 X1 1 X1 X 1
= − = − .
k=1
k(k + 2) k=1 k k + 2 k=1 k k=1 k + 2
By making a change of summation index we get that
N N N N +2
X 1 X 1 X1 X1
− = − .
k=1
k k=1
k + 2 k=1 k k=3 k

Now taking a partial sum of these two sums we get


N N  
X 1 X 1 1
= +1+ ,
k=1
k k=3
k 2

and,
N +2 N  
X 1 X 1 1 1
= + + .
k=3
k k=3
k N +1 N +2
Combining these two facts we see that
N N +2 N   " N   #
X 1 X 1 X 1 1 X 1 1 1
− = +1+ − + + .
k=1
k k=3
k k=3
k 2 k=3
k N + 1 N + 2

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Which simplifies to
3 1 1
− − ,
2 N +1 N +2
and thus we can conclude that for N ≥ 1
N
X 2 3 1 1
= − − .
k=1
k(k + 2) 2 N +1 N +2

15
Topic 2

1. Find the quotient and (non-negative) remainder when

a) 19 is divided by 7,
b) -111 is divided by 11,
c) 1001 is divided by 13.

a) 2, 5 (19 = 2 · 7 + 5)
b) -11, 10 (−111 = −11 · 11 + 10)
c) 77, 0 (1001 = 77 · 13 + 0)

2. Are the following true or false?

7|161, 7|162, 17|68, 17|1001.

True, false, true, false.

3. Which of the following are prime?

17, 27, 37, 111, 1111, 11111.

17, 37

4. Find the prime factorisation of the following

117, 143, 3468, 75600.

177 = 32 · 13;
143 = 11 · 13;
3468 = 22 · 3 · 172 ;
75600 = 24 · 33 · 52 · 7.

5. Find the gcd and lcm of the following pairs

a) 22 · 35 · 53 and 25 · 33 · 52 ,
b) 22 · 3 · 53 and 32 · 7,
c) 0 and 3.

a) 22 · 33 · 52 , 25 · 35 · 53 .
b) 3, 22 · 32 · 53 · 7
c) 3, undefined.

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6. Evaluate 13 mod 3, 155 mod 19, (-97) mod 11.
1, 3, 2.

7. Prove for a, b, c, d ∈ Z, k, m ∈ Z+ that


a) if a|c and b|d then ab|cd,
b) if ab|bd and b 6= 0, then a|d,
c) if a|b and b|c then a|c,
d) if a ≡ c (mod m) and b ≡ d (mod m) then a − b ≡ c − d (mod m),
e) if k|m and a ≡ b (mod m) then a ≡ b (mod k),
f) if gcd(a,b) = d then gcd( ad , db ) = 1,
g) if a ≡ b (mod m) then gcd(a, m) = gcd(b, m).
a) If a|c then there exists an integer m such that c = am. Similarly, d = bn for some n ∈ Z. Multiplying
these two equations we get that mnab = cd. Since m and n are integers then mn is an integer and so ab|cd
by definition.

b) We know that bd = kab for some k ∈ Z by definition. So if b 6= 0, we can divide through by b and
obtain d = ka ⇐⇒ a|d.

c) Pg 5 of the lecture notes.

d) We know that a − c = k1 m and b − d = k2 m for some k1 , k2 ∈ Z by definition. Thus we obtain that


a − c − b + d = k1 m − k2 m.
Rearranging we get
a − b − (c − d) = (k1 − k2 )m.
So since k1 and k2 are integers then k1 − k2 is an integer and so by definition we yield
a − b ≡ c − d (mod m).

e) We know by definition that m = n1 k and a − b = n2 m for some n1 , n2 ∈ Z. Now, first take the case if
m = 0. Then we get that a = b and k = 0, so clearly k|(a − b) ⇐⇒ 0|0. Now assume m 6= 0. Multiplying
our two equations yields
m(a − b) = n1 n2 km ⇐⇒ (a − b) = n1 n2 k. (Since m 6= 0)
So since n1 , n2 ∈ Z, then n1 n2 ∈ Z and so the result is proved.

f) We know that a = m1 d and b = m2 d for some m1 , m2 ∈ Z. Now since d is the greatest common divisor
for a and b then it must contain all factors common to both a and b. It then follow that m1 and m2 must
be coprime. If this needed justification, all one would say is that say m1 and m2 were not coprime and
had a common factor of c ∈ Z then c would divide a and b. But all factors common to both a and b must
be contained in d and this is a contradiction. Now rearranging our equations we have that
a b
= m1 and = m2 .
d d
But m1 and m2 are coprime and it follows that gcd( ad , db ) = 1.

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g) We know by definition that a − b = km for some k ∈ Z. Rearranging we get

a = km + b

and so gcd(a, m) = gcd(m, b).

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