Principles of Crop Science

MODULE 2
Basics of
Plant Nutrition

Learning
Objectives 1. Enumerate the essential nutrients and its functions to
plant growth and development
At the end of the 2. Identify the nutrient mobility, deficiency and excess
symptoms in plants
module, the learner
3. Discuss the basics in nutrient uptake by plants
must be able to:

Like all organisms, higher green plants need nutrients for their growth and
development. Nutrients are indispensable as plant constituents, for biochemical
reactions, and for the production of organic materials referred to as photosynthates
by photosynthesis. In agriculture, optimal crop nutrition is an important prerequisite
for obtaining high yields and good-quality produce. The nutrients required are
obtained by plants both from soil reserves and external nutrient sources.

LESSON 1. The Essential Nutrients and its Functions to Plants

Plant contains more than 90% elements, but only 16 elements are recognized as
essential. These essential elements are classified into two broad categories –
macronutrients and micronutrients. Macronutrients play a major role in plant
structure and utilized in large amounts by plants while micronutrients are principally
involved in enzymatic process and are needed in minute amounts by plants.
Macronutrients – C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S
Micronutrients – Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B, Mo, Cl
These elements are essential because:
 In absence of the element, plants cannot complete its life cycle
 Element is a constituent of compounds essential for plants
 Element is directly involved on metabolism of plants

Out of the 16 elements, carbon (c) and oxygen are obtained from the gas CO2,
and hydrogen (H) is obtained from water (H2O). These three elements are required in
large quantities for the production of plant constituents such as cellulose or starch.

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The other 13 elements are called mineral nutrients because they are taken up in
mineral (inorganic) forms.

Table 1. The elements required for healthy plant growth, excluding carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen, which are incorporated in photosynthesis (Fitter & Hay,
2002).

Element Symbol Taken up Function

by plant as
(absorbable
form)
Nitrogen N NO3-, NH4+ Constituent of amino acids and hence proteins
amino acids
Potassium K K+ Balances electric charge in cells;
osmoregulation
Phosphorus P H2PO4- Nucleic acids, ATP, membranes
Calcium Ca Ca 2+
Component of many molecules; cell wall and
membrane integrity and function; second
messenger. In base-rich soils, both Ca and Mg
are present in plant tissue at very high
concentrations
Magnesium Mg Mg2+ Part of chlorophyll molecule; required for
many enzyme reactions; control of cation-
anion balance
Sulfur S SO4 2-
Component of many primary and secondary
plant metabolites including some amino acids
Iron Fe Fe 3+
Operation of redox systems
Manganese Mn Mn2+ Redox processes; enzyme activation
Zinc Zn Zn 2+
Enzyme functioning; membrane structure
Boron B B(OH)3 Uncertain: cell walls, lignification
Copper Cu Cu2+ Redox reactions
Molybdenu Mo MoO4 2-
Enzymes of N metabolism
m
Nickel Ni Ni2+ Enzymes of N metabolism
Chlorine Cl Cl- Various but poorly defined; deficiency rarely
observed as requirement is ~200µg-1
Sodium Na Na+ Only in halophytes and plants with C4
photosynthesis; can accumulate to very high
levels in plants on saline soils
Cobalt Co Co2+ Only in legumes (required for N-fixation)
Silicon Si Si(OH)4 Not physiologically essential except possible in
a few species, but ecologically essential for
grasses in providing support and deterrence to
grazers

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Other Beneficial Nutrients

Several elements other than the essential nutrients have beneficial functions in
plants. Although not essential, beneficial nutrients can improve the growth of some
crops in some respects. Some of these nutrients can be of great practical importance
and may require external addition:

 Nickel (Ni): a part of enzyme for breaking urea in the soil, imparts useful role
in disease resistance and seed development.
 Sodium (Na): for beets, partly able to replace K (uptake as Na+).
 Cobalt (Co): for N fixation in legumes and for other plants (uptake as C0 2+).
 Silicon (Si): for stalk stability of cereals particularly rice (uptake as silicate
anion).
 Aluminium (Al): for tea plants (uptake as AP+ or similar forms).

As humans and domestic animals require several nutrients in addition to those

required by plants, these additional nutrients should also be considered in food or
feed production, and their deficiencies corrected by appropriate inputs. In addition to
plant nutrients, the elements essential for humans and domestic animals are: Cobalt
(Co), selenium (Se), chromium (Cr) and iodine (I).

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LESSON 2. Nutrient Mobility, Deficiency and Excess Symptoms in Plant

Mobility of Nutrients in Plants

Mineral nutrient are classified on the basis of their mobility within a plant and
their tendency to re-translocate during deficiencies (Taiz & Zeiger, 2010)

Mobile nutrients Immobile nutrients

Nitrogen Calcium
Potassium Sulfur
Magnesium Iron
Phosphorus Boron
Chlorine Copper
Sodium
Zinc
Molybdenum

If an essential element is mobile, deficiency symptoms tend to appear first in

older leaves. Deficiency of an immobile essential element will become evident first in
younger leaves. Table 2 presented the symptoms in plant if a certain nutrient is
deficient or excess in plants.

Nutrient deficiency and excess symptoms in plants

Ideally, deficiencies are determined by soil testing and/or plant tissue analysis.
Soil testing is the best way to accurately determine whether primary nutrient levels
are optimum for plant survival and growth. Sometimes, though, visual symptoms can
be used to identify possible nutrient deficiency

Table 2. Nutrient deficiency and excess symptoms in plants

Element Symptoms
Deficiency Excess
Nitrogen Stunted growth and shorter Causes succulent, but often-
internodes, small pale yellow leaves. spindly growth, dark green
Plant may be a light green. Older color. Decreased disease
leaves affected first. Reds and purples tolerance. If very lush, low or
may intensify in some plants. no flowering and fruit set.
Phosphorus Red or purplish color (anthocyanin Shows up as micronutrient (Zn,
pigment) in leaves, especially Fe, or Co) deficiency; high P
undersides. Death of tissue or necrosis also interferes with N
may follow. Root growth poor. Lower absorption.
stems may be purplish. Plants may

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exhibit stunting and delayed maturity.

Loss of lower leaves. May exhibit
reduced flowering. Deficiency is often
a problem in cool soils in early spring.
Potassium Bronzing and dying of leaf margin. May create an N deficiency.
Some spotting between veins; Very high K levels can create a
chlorotic with brown spots throughout magnesium deficiency.
leaf. Tendency to wilt readily.
Stunted internodes and roots.
Calcium Newest leaves hooked. Inhibition of Interferes with Mg absorption.
bud growth; Terminal bud dies. New High Ca usually causes high
leaves are yellow, while older leaves pH, which in turn creates
dark green. Cupping of mature leaves. micronutrient deficiencies.
Magnesium Mottled yellowing between veins of Interferes with calcium
older leaves while veins remain green. uptake.
Yellow areas may turn brown and die.
Yellowing may also occur on older
leaves. Leaves may turn reddish
purple due to low P metabolism.
Decreased seed production.
Deficiencies most likely on leached
sandy soils and where high levels of N
and K have been applied.
Sulfur General yellowing of the whole plant, S excess: Usually from air
starting with the younger leaves. pollution so is difficult to
Plants may be light green. Plants may control.
be stunted and exhibit delayed
maturity. Deficiencies most likely on
sandy soils that are low in organic
matter.
Manganese Yellow to white colored leaves, but Brown spotting of leaves.
with green veins. First noted on new Shows up as Fe deficiency.
growth. May have a typical "gray Found under very acid
speck" symptom. conditions.
Iron Yellow or white areas on youngest
leaves. Older leaves remain green.
Veins typically green. Little or no
necrosis of chlorotic tissue. Twig
dieback.
Boron Youngest leaves become light green Blackening or death of tissue
and may be distorted. Terminal between veins
(apical) bud may die. Internal
breakdown and external necrosis of
stems and roots. Reduced flowering
and failure to set seed.
Molybdenum Narrow leaves with interveinal

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yellowing on older leaves. New leaves

green at first, becoming mottled as
they expand. Twisted leaves
(whiptail).
Zinc Spotting of older leaves, usually Appears as Fe deficiency.
yellow to white between veins Interferes with Mg.
(interveinal chlorosis). Early loss of
twigs. Distorted or puckered leaf
margins. Reduction in size of leaves
("little leaf") and in internodes.
Copper Twisted stems and leaves, lodging.

Plants exhibit many shades of greenness but a medium to dark green colour is
usually considered a sign of good health and active growth. Chlorosis or yellowing of
leaf colour can be a sign of a marginal deficiency and is often associated with
retarded growth. Chlorosis is a light green or rather yellowish discoloration of the
whole or parts of the leaf caused by a lower content of chlorophyll. Because the cells
remain largely intact, the chlorotic symptoms are reversible, i.e. leaves can become
green again after the missing nutrient is added.
A severe deficiency results in death of the tissue. Necrosis is a brownish
discoloration caused by decaying tissue, which is destroyed irreversibly. Necrotic
leaves cannot be recovered by addition of the missing nutrient, but the plant may
survive by forming new leaves. Deficiency symptoms can serve as a guide for
diagnosing limiting nutrients and the need for corrective measures. However,
chlorotic and necrotic leaves might also result from the toxic effects of nutrients,
pollution and also from disease and insect attacks. Therefore, confirmation of the
cause is important before corrective measures are taken.
On the other hand, application to plants of amounts of nutrients much in
excess of their need may be harmful. This is more likely to occur in practice with
micronutrients which are required by plants in very small quantities; their excessive
application may produce toxicity and affect the normal growth and development of
plants. Toxicity of micronutrients causes characteristics symptoms which are specific
for each nutrient but varies from crop to crop.
It is therefore important to guard against over-application of nutrients,
especially those which are required by crops in minute quantities.

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Nitrogen deficiency in maize Phosphorus deficiency in maize

Potassium deficiency in soybean Magnesium deficiency in maize

Calcium deficiency in cacao Zinc deficiency in maize

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Sulphur deficiency in rice Copper deficiency in wheat

Iron deficiency in berseem Manganese deficiency in soybean

(Trifolium alezandrinum)

Boron deficiency in sugarbeet Molybdenum deficiency in sugarbeet

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LESSON 3. Nutrient Uptake in Plants

Plants normally absorb nutrients through their roots, but they can also absorb
some quantity through leaves if applied to them in solution. The nutrients enter the
plant roots as ions  very minute, ultramicroscopic particles carrying electrical
charges. Ions may carry a positive electrical charge when they are called cations;
these include ammonium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, manganese. Negatively
charged ions are called anions and include phosphate, nitrate, and sulphate.

Nutrient Demand and Supply

Plants require nutrients in balanced amounts depending on their stage of

development and yield levels. For optimal nutrition of crops, a sufficient
concentration of the individual nutrients should be present in the plant leaves at any
time. An optimal nutrient supply requires:
 sufficient available nutrients in the root zone of the soil
 rapid transport of nutrients in the soil solution towards the root surface
 satisfactory root growth to access available nutrients
 unimpeded nutrient uptake, especially with sufficient oxygen present
 satisfactory mobility and activity of nutrients within the plant

The Law of the Minimum and its Implications

In plant nutrition, there is a law known as Liebig's law of the minimum. It is

named after its author, Justus von Liebig, who said that the growth of a plant is
limited by the nutrient that is in shortest supply. Once its supply is improved, the
next limiting nutrient controls plant growth.
This concept has been depicted in many
ways. One is to imagine a barrel with staves of
different heights. Such a barrel can only hold
water up to the height of its shortest stave (Figure
1). The barrel can be full only when all its staves
are of the same size. A plant can also produce to
its full potential when all nutrients are at an
optimal level, i.e. without any deficiencies or
excesses. In order to produce high yields, plant
nutrition requires a continuous effort to eliminate
minimum factors and provide balanced nutrition in
the optimal range. Even if the law of the minimum
is only a guiding rule, it serves as a useful basis for
nutrient management.
Figure 1. Liebig’s Law of Minimum
illustrated by the barrel concept

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Nutrient uptake in time and contents

The pattern of nutrient uptake follows a sigmoid curve in most cases, being
first low in the early stages of crop growth, increasing rapidly when dry matter
production is maximal and then declining towards crop maturity (Figure 2). During
vegetative growth, the daily nutrient uptake increases as growth progresses and
reaches a maximum during the main growing period. N, P and K are mainly taken up
during active vegetative growth for high photosynthetic activity. During the final
stages of growth as the plant approaches its reproductive phase before maturity,
nutrient uptake decreases.

Figure 2. Percentage (%) of nutrient uptake at different growth stages of potato plant (Jia
et.al, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427528.2018.1486932)

Perennial plants retrieve most of the nutrients from the leaves before leaf fall
and relocate these for future use. In certain plants, such as jute, a considerable
proportion of the absorbed nutrients are returned to the soil through leaf shedding
before the crop matures. The highest concentrations of nutrients are found in leaves
at early growth stages, and the lowest in leaves near harvest. This decrease in
nutrient concentration over time is because of the transfer to other organs and also
what is called the dilution effect, which results from a larger increase in dry matter
than in nutrient content.

Root Growth and Nutrient Uptake

As plants absorb nutrient primarily through their roots, regardless of the type
of plant, good growth and proliferation of roots is essential for efficient nutrient
uptake. Root growth can be favoured or retarded by soil physical and chemical factors.
Even small roots must be able to permeate the rooting volume of the soil in both
lateral and vertical directions.

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The major portion of nutrients is taken up by the root hairs, which are about 1-
2 mm long and 0.02 mm wide. These are extensions of the epidermal root cells. Root
hairs vastly expand the root surface area. Many plants develop several million of
these hairs with a total length of more than 10 km. Because very close contact with
the soil is required, the amount of fine roots is critical and the number and efficiency
of the root hairs is also important.

Uptake of Nutrients from the Soil Solution

The available nutrient forms in the soil are free to move in the soil solution by
mass flow or diffusion or up and down the soil profile with water movement. The
acquisition of nutrients depends on the size and fineness of the root system, the
number of root hairs, the cation exchange capacity (CEC) of the apparent free space
(AFS), the apoplast, etc. A higher CEC results in greater uptake of divalent cations,
especially Ca2+. A lower CEC results in greater uptake of monovalent cations such as
K+.
The first step in uptake is the entry of the nutrient ion and its passing the outer
layer. Nutrients can enter the cell wall without hindrance. Because of their extremely
small size, they are able to penetrate the cell wall tissue of the root hairs. This tissue
seems to be a free space and is, therefore, called AFS or the apoplast, a place
different from the cytoplast.
The second step in nutrient uptake involves movement of the nutrient ion into
the cytoplast by crossing the membrane. The nutrients must be actively taken up into
the interior of the cell. The energy required for this uptake is delivered by root
respiration, a process that needs oxygen from the soil air and special uptake
mechanisms. Thus, nutrient uptake by roots can be active or passive:
 Nutrients can flow passively through the cell wall (AFS) of the root hairs along
with the water.
 The free flow ends at the membrane surrounding the active cell substance.
 Nutrients are actively transported through the membrane by special ion
carriers.
 Active uptake needs energy from root respiration, which requires sugar and
oxygen
 Cations are taken up in exchange for H+ and anions for bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)
on the root surface.
 Plants can preferentially select nutrients and attempt to exclude unwanted
substances.

The fact that nutrient uptake is an active process explains some of its
peculiarities. Plants not only accumulate nutrients against a concentration gradient,
but they are also able to select from the nutrients at the root surface according to
their requirements. In addition, owing to their selection capacity, they can exclude
unwanted or even toxic substances, but this exclusion capacity is limited.
After uptake into the cytoplast, the nutrients are transported to the next cells
and finally arrive at the xylem, which is the tissue through which water and dissolved
minerals move upward from the roots to the stem and leaves. They move to the

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leaves in these water-transporting vessels where they are used for photosynthesis and
other processes.

Nutrient uptake by leaves

Apart from gaseous forms of nutrients (CO2, SO2, etc.), leaves are able to take
up nutrient ions or even molecules. Although the outer layer of the leaf cuticle
closely protects the plant against water loss, nutrients enter the leaves either via the
stomata, which serve for gas exchange, or mainly via small micropores of the cuticle
and into the apoplast. Foliar application of nutrients is carried out through dilute
solutions in order not to damage the leaf cells by osmotic effects.

Most nutrient 'sources added to the soil involve a monetary expense and, thus,
should be utilised, as far as possible, during the vegetative growth period in order to
obtain a quick return. Balanced and adequate supply of plant nutrients is important
in order to achieve a high degree of nutrient utilisation by crops, which also results in
lower losses. In a wider sense, efficient use of nutrients can only be achieved by
considering the whole production system. The nutrition of the plant must be
integrated into all aspects of crop management.

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REFERENCES

Bromley, B. J. No date. Nutrient Deficeincy Symptoms. https://mgofmc.org/docs/

nutrientdeficiency.pdf
Fitter, A., & Hay, R. (2002). Environmental Physiology of Plants (3rd ed.). London, UK:
Academic Press.
FAO-UN. 1984. Fertilizer and Plant Nutrition Guide. Fertilizer and Plant Nutrition
Sevice Land and Water Development Division. Rome, Italy.
Simson, S.P & M.C. Straus. 2010. Basics of Horticulture. Oxford Book Company, Jaipur,
India

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