Laser Beam Welding PDF

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 27
At a glance
Powered by AI
The document discusses laser beam welding which is a fusion welding process that uses a laser as a heat source to join metal materials. It provides details about the principles, applications, advantages and disadvantages of laser beam welding.

Laser beam welding is a fusion welding process in which two metal pieces are joined together by the use of laser. The laser beam provides a concentrated heat source, focused to the cavity between the two metal pieces to be joined.

Advantages of laser beam welding include precision, narrow heat affected zone, ability to weld dissimilar and hard to weld materials, automation, and high depth to width ratio of welding.

LASER BEAM WELDING

A SEMINAR REPORT
SUBMITTED BY

AKSHAY JOSHY

Reg. No. 18021389


In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of

DIPLOMA

IN

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
AT

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING


GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
KOOVAPPADY, PERUMBAVOOR
NOVEMBER 2020

1
CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. AKSHAY JOSHY, Reg No 18021389 worked under my supervision
during the year 2020-2021 on the seminar entitled “LASER BEAM WELDING”. This
seminar is being presented in partial fulfillment for the award of Diploma in Mechanical
Engineering by the Department of Technical Education, Kerala.

Staff in charge Head of Department

Date:
Place: Koovappady

Internal Examiner External Examiner

2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am very glad to present a seminar report on “LASER BEAM WELDING” as the partial
fulfillment of the award of Diploma in Mechanical Engineering. I express my sincere thanks
to Mr. SIVAN MV (HOD Mechanical Engineering), Mr. Ravish M.V (Lecturer in Mechanical
Engineering), Mr. AVARACHAN K.P (Lecturer in Mechanical Engineering), Mr. SURESH
KUMAR M.P (Lecturer in Mechanical engineering), Mr. SHANAS BASHEER (Lecturer in
Mechanical Engineering) and other staff members for the guidance and constant inspiration.

I take this opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude towards those who helped me in
various ways for preparing this report. I am also thankful to my parents and friends who had
encouraged &inspired me with their blessings and suggestions.

AKSHAY JOSHY

Sixth Semester Mechanical Engineering

3
ABSTRACT

Laser beam welding is a fusion welding process in which two metal pieces are joined together
by the use of laser. The laser beam provides a concentrated heat source, focused to the cavity
between the two metal pieces to be joined. It is based on keyhole or penetration mode welding.

Laser beam welding of metals with high surface power densities results in a comparatively
small weld pool. Despite the minimal local expansion in the pool, various forces and effects
arise. An initial overview of these processes is presented in order to understand the welding
process, followed by a detailed examination of the different possibilities of influencing the
weld pool. For this purpose, a detailed overview of the relevant research has been prepared.
This is followed by a detailed presentation of our current research on influencing the weld pool
for Laser welding of dissimilar joints using ultrasound.

4
TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER NO TITTLE PAGE NO


Certificate 2
Acknowledgement 3
Abstract 4
Table of content 5
List of figures 6
1. Chapter 1 7
2. Chapter 2 9
3. Chapter 3 14
4. Chapter 4 16
5. Chapter 5 18
6. Chapter 6 22
7. Chapter 7 23
8. Chapter 8 24
9. Chapter 9 25
10. Chapter 10 26

5
LIST OF FIGURES

TITTLE PAGE NO

Laser Beam 9

Elements Of Laser 14

Principles Of Laser 16, 17


Generation

Laser Welding 19

Keyhole Mode Welding 20, 21

6
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO WELDING
Welding is a fabrication process that joins materials, usually metals or thermoplastics, by using
high heat to melt the parts together and allowing them to cool, causing fusion. Welding is
distinct from lower temperature metal-joining techniques such as brazing and soldering, which
do not melt the base metal.

In addition to melting the base metal, a filler material is typically added to the joint to form a
pool of molten material (the weld pool) that cools to form a joint that, based on weld
configuration (butt, full penetration, fillet, etc.), can be stronger than the base material (parent
metal). Pressure may also be used in conjunction with heat or by itself to produce a weld.
Welding also requires a form of shield to protect the filler metals or melted metals from being
contaminated or oxidized.

Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas flame (chemical),
an electric arc (electrical), a laser, an electron beam, friction, and ultrasound. While often an
industrial process, welding may be performed in many different environments, including in
open air, under water, and in outer space. Welding is a hazardous undertaking and precautions
are required to avoid burns, electric shock, vision damage, inhalation of poisonous gases and
fumes, and exposure to intense ultraviolet radiation.

Until the end of the 19th century, the only welding process was forge welding,
which blacksmiths had used for millennia to join iron and steel by heating and hammering. Arc
welding and oxy-fuel welding were among the first processes to develop late in the century,
and electric resistance welding followed soon after. Welding technology advanced quickly
during the early 20th century as world wars drove the demand for reliable and inexpensive
joining methods. Following the wars, several modern welding techniques were developed,
including manual methods like shielded metal arc welding, now one of the most popular
welding methods, as well as semi-automatic and automatic processes such as gas metal arc
welding, submerged arc welding, flux-cored arc welding and electroslag welding.
Developments continued with the invention of laser beam welding, electron beam
welding, magnetic pulse welding, and friction stir welding in the latter half of the century.
Today, as the science continues to advance, robot welding is commonplace in industrial
settings, and researchers continue to develop new welding methods and gain greater
understanding of weld quality.

7
ADVANTAGES OF WELDING
• They are lighter.
• Cost of welded joint is lower.
• They are tight and leak proof.
• Their production time is less.
• There is no problem of stress concentration.
• It has good appearance.
• Their strength is high.
• It is easy to do in many parts which is difficult to riveting.

8
CHAPTER 2
LASER BEAM

Laser is acronym for the phenomenon called light amplification by simulated emission of
radiation. In laser, light amplification takes place through simulated emission of
electromagnetic radiation. The phenomenon was first developed by Albert Einstein. However,
the first laser was made possible only in 1960 by Maiman. Since then laser has seen various
developments. Laser is special over other source of light because they emit light coherently.
This is popularly known as ‘pencil beam’ as spatial coherence is expressed through the output
being a narrow low diameter beam which is diffraction-limited. The application of laser beam
in material processing is given in Fig. 2. Temporal or longitudinal coherence describes a
polarized wave at a single frequency correlated between value of a wave and itself. Temporal
coherence tells us how monochromatic a source is. It characterizes how well a wave can
interfere with itself at a defined time. A beam emerged by thermal energy or other incongruous
light source generally has a instantaneous amplitude and phase which change arbitrarily
concerning time and position. So it has a short coherence length.

The properties of a laser beam that have significant effect on material processing include
divergence, coherence, monochromaticity, brightness, stability, size and mode. These are
discussed below.

9
PROPERTIES OF LASER BEAM

Beam divergence

Beam divergence may be defined as the characteristics of a light beam that results in an increase
in its cross-sectional area with increase in distance from source. Light from an ordinary source
is distributed uniformly in all directions. So its divergence is considered to be high enough. But
in case of laser, the cross-section remains almost constant throughout the path travelled. Hence
divergence is very low. The low divergence and thus almost parallel nature of a laser beam
facilitates the beam to be focused to a very small radius. The laser source can be concentrated
to a diameter of its wavelength. So, large amount of energy is generated at that point. For
welding, it is very much necessary to have a highly focused beam. So, a low divergence beam
is important for such operation.

Monochromaticity

The monochromatic beam contains only a single wavelength. Lasers are said to be
monochromatic because unlike conventional source of light they possess a beam of single wave
length. Conventional sources of light have broad band emission. Monochromaticity is very
much important in laser welding of materials as it determines the degree to which a laser beam
can be focused. A monochromatic beam can be focused sharply than a broad bandwidth beam,
as radius at the point of focus can be equivalent to the wavelength of beam.

Beam coherence

Beam Coherence is a condition of light beam when a fixed phase relationship exists between
two points of the same wave or between two waves. Laser beam has well defined beam
coherence. The coherence phenomenon varies with space and time. So both coherence i.e.
spatial coherence and temporal coherence are considered. Spatial coherence occurs in the
condition where the phase difference between two points on a wave front of an electromagnetic
field remains constant with time. Even a single beam is 10 spatially incoherent; this usually
describes constant phase relationships between two beams of light. Temporal coherence refers
to the condition where the phase difference between the two wave front of a light at a given
point and time at the same point with next periodic time remains constant with time. The laser
source is then temporally coherent over time.

10
Intensity and brightness

Laser beam has low divergence and high directional properties that facilitates the beam to be
concentrated into a very small region, resulting in high energy density. But in case of an
ordinary bulb light, the beam is radiated in all directions uniformly. Hence, only a small fraction
of the emitted energy is available over a given area. As the distance from source increases, the
intensity of light decreases. Brightness is a basic property of the laser source. The brightness
of a power source at a point is defined as the power emitted per unit surface area per unit solid
angle. Brightness of a light source is always constant. For 1 W laser of line width 1 MHz, the
brightness temperature is of the order of 1019 K.

There are different kinds of laser. Each one has different characteristics that depend on the
active medium used for laser action. Various types of lasers are listed below:

1. Solid state laser

2. Gas laser

3. Liquid dye laser

4. Semiconductor laser

5. Free electron laser

Solid state laser

Solid state lasers normally use a host material made up of glass or insulating material in which
active medium is embedded. Active medium is either dopant or acts as an impurity inside host
material. The active medium present in host material actually participates in laser action but 11
the host material doesn’t participate directly in this process. Instead of interstitial impurity,
substitution impurity comes into picture where the active material substitutes some of the atoms
in the host material. Solid state lasers may be continuous wave or pulsed beam types. At the
same time most of the solid state lasers are controlled in beam mode which makes them
unsatisfactory for various interference based requisitions as their coherence lengths are
generally short. Then again, the significant energy produced in each one pulse makes them
attractive to requisitions that require lot of energy in brief time. Common examples of solid
state lasers incorporate the ruby, Nd:yag and Nd:glass laser.

11
Gas lasers

Gas lasers are the mostly used in the industry so far laser welding is concerned. The power
levels range from several kilowatts to miliwatts. They can be operated either in continuous
mode or in pulsed mode, with output frequencies ranging from ultraviolet to infrared. In gas
laser an electric current is released through a gas to handle coherent light. The gas laser was
the first persistent light laser and the first laser to work on the principle of changing over
electrical energy to a laser light output. Gas lasers utilizing numerous gasses have been
assembled and utilized for some reasons. Basic sorts of gas lasers incorporate Helium–neon
laser, Carbon dioxide laser, Argon ion laser, Copper laser and so on.

Liquid dye laser

Organic dye is used as the lasing medium in a dye laser, usually as a liquid solution. Compared
to gas laser and solid state laser, a dye can usually be used for wider range of wavelengths. The
wide bandwidth helps them to be used for tunable lasers and pulsed lasers. However, different
dies can be used to generate different wavelengths with the same laser. Now-a-days the laser
dyes contain larger organic molecules which fluoresce. To emit stimulated radiation, the dye
molecules are excited by the incoming light. In this state, the dye is transparent to the lasing
wavelength and the molecules emit light by fluorescence. Suddenly the molecules will change
to their triplet state within few micro seconds. In the triplet state, light is emitted by
phosphorescence. The molecules absorb the lasing wavelength, making the dye opaque. Liquid
dye also has extremely high lasing threshold. 12 Flash lamp pumped lasers use a flash for a
very short duration, to deliver the large amounts of energy. Dye lasers with an external flash
lamp can provide enough energy of proper wavelength into the dye with a relatively small
amount of input energy, but in order to keep the triplet molecules out of the beam path the dye
must be circulated at high speeds.

Semiconductor laser

Semiconductor lasers are widely used because they are cheap and compact in size. They consist
of complex multilayer structures. In this laser accuracy should be more and design should be
perfect. In order to generate new and improved designs, their theoretical description is
important. The laser is a carrier inversion system which results in an electromagnetic

12
polarization that drives an electric field. In most cases, the electric field is confined in a
resonator, the properties of which are also important factors for laser performance.

Free electron laser

A free electron laser is a high speed laser that moves very fast in a magnetic field. So, free
electron acts as lasing medium in this case. The free electron laser has the maximum frequency
of all the type. The frequency range can vary from microwave to visible spectrum, ultra violet
and X-ray. In free electron laser, a beam of electrons is accelerated in the pace of light. The
beam passes through an undulator, in which a side to side magnetic field is handled by an
periodic action of magnets with substituting posts over the beam path. The direction in which
beam moves is called longitudinal direction, while its perpendicular direction is called
transverse direction. This show of magnets is prominently known as an undulator or a wiggler
in light of the fact that it drives the electrons in the beam to wiggle transversely along a
sinusoidal way about the hub of the undulator.

13
CHAPTER 3
ELEMENTS OF LASER

Nd:YAG laser medium


The laser rod used in Nd:YAG laser welders and markers is a synthetic crystal of
Yttrium Aluminum Garnet. The YAG material is the “host” material that contains a
small fraction of neodymium, the active element. The substitution of the yttrium ions
with neodymium ions is called doping, and typically the doping percentage is around 1
– 1.5%. The doping level is selected to optimize the lasing effect and prevent excessive
strain on the crystal, as the Nd3+ ion is physically larger than the Y3+ ion. The YAG
crystal is an ideal host for the lasing material Nd3+, being physically hard, stable,
optically isotropic, and has good thermal conductivity that permit laser operation at
high average power levels. Neodymium is an excellent lasing material as it produces
the highest level of powers than any other doping element. The dimensions of the laser
rods are selected for power and optical quality, with the maximum rod size limited to
around 15mm diameter and 200mm in length for reasons of crystal quality and thermal
management.
The Pump Source
The active medium requires external energy input or “pump source” in order for lasing
to occur. The choice of pumping sources depends upon the type of laser medium and
type of laser. The Nd:YAG is a solid state laser, meaning that the medium is a solid
crystal, and it uses light energy as the pump source. The light energy is provided by
flash lamps for pulsed laser welders.

14
Resonator
The design of the resonator has a significant impact on the quality and the spatial power
distribution of the emitted laser beam. The most commonly used resonator design is
composed of two spherical or flat mirrors facing each other. The beam propagation
properties are determined by the curvature of the reflective mirrors, and the distance
these mirrors are apart. Optimization of the mirror curvature and spacing requires
complex analysis, which is further complicated by thermal effects occurring in the laser
rod crystal during laser generation. As the laser absorbs the pump energy, the laser rod
heats up. If the frequency of the pump energy exceeds the thermal relaxation time of
the crystal, the temperature of the crystal increases. This induces temperature gradients
in the laser rod crystal that give rise to thermal lensing, whereby the crystal acts as a
lens to diffract the laser-which reduces power.

15
CHAPTER 4

PRINCIPLE OF LASER GENERATION

The generation of a laser beam is essentially a three step process that occurs almost
instantaneously.
1) The pump source provides energy to the medium, exciting the laser medium atoms such that
electrons held with in the atoms are elevated temporarily to higher energy states. The electrons
held in this excited state cannot remain there indefinitely and drop down to a lower energy
level. In this process, the electron looses the excess energy gained from the pump energy by
emitting a photon. This is called spontaneous emission and the photons produced by this
method are the seed for laser generation.

Fig-1 Spontaneous emission

2) The photons emitted by spontaneous emission eventually strike other electrons in the higher
energy states. “Eventually” is a very short time due to the speed of light and density of excited
atoms! The incoming photon “knocks” the electron from the excited state to a lower energy
level creating another photon. These two photons are coherent meaning they are in phase, of
the same wavelength, and traveling in the same direction. This is called stimulated emission.

Fig-2 Stimulated emission

16
3) The photons are emitted in all directions, however some travel along the laser medium to
strike the resonator mirrors to be reflected back through the medium. The resonator mirrors
define the preferential amplification direction for stimulated emission. In order for the
amplification to occur there must be a greater percentage of atoms in the excited state than the
lower energy levels. This “population inversion” of more atoms in the excited state leads to the
conditions required for laser generation.

Fig-3 Amplification

17
CHAPTER 5

LASER WELDING

Laser welding is a high energy density welding process with specific advantages over
conventional fusion welding processes. Laser welding is characterized with high welding
speed, narrow heat affected zone and low distortion. One of the key features of laser welding
is that without filler materials welding can be done. As the beam can be concentrated at a small
area so it provides a concentrated heat source, allowing for narrow, highly penetrated welds.
The process is frequently used in high volume applications, such as in the automotive industry.

Process description

The laser produced by the pumping is mainly of continuous wave. A Q-switch is used in order
to produce pulsed waves from continuous type. The beam is delivered either by conventional
beam delivery system to the welding portion or by Fiber optics beam delivery system.

Conventional beam delivery system is simple and consists of a movable reflective mirror with
a convex lens. Generally the mirror is held at 450 to the incoming beam so as to deliver it in
right angle to the original direction. Common materials used for mirrors include copper or
molybdenum without coating or with coating of silicon. Optical fibers are generally used for
transmission of laser beams directly from one location to another location. This system is
generally used in optical communication where the power levels are low. The basic
components of fiber optic system consist of transmitter, transmission line and receiver.

To avoid temperature rise in mirror, beam expander is used. Sometimes for welding in different
positions beam splitter is used which splits the beam in the desired direction. The beam is then
transferred to the convex lens made up of Zn-Se, KCl or GaAs. The convex lens helps the beam
to be concentrated at its focal point where high energy density can be achieved. Varying the
position or the convexity of the lens the focal point position can be varied. So utilizing this
advantageous effect we can generate defocused beam or focused beam at the metal surface and
metal processing can be done accordingly.

The focused beam is concentrated at the joint of the two metals. However, due to small beam
size, lasers are primarily used for butt joint and lap joint configuration. The two metals to be
joined are configured properly on a clamp and the beam is allowed to travel along the joint. In
this process either the worktable is constant and the beam traverses along the joint or the beam

18
emergence is constant and the CNC operated worktable moves accordingly. Fig. 5 shows laser
welding process with process parameters. Fig. 5: Welding process by laser.

The power is supplied and the machining parameters in the laser machine are set carefully.
Then the metals are clamped properly under the beam source. The length of traverse is set in
the machine and the edge of the joint is taken under laser source. The whole system is controlled
by computer. As soon as the start command is given by the computer the traversing of the laser
starts from the one end of the joint and ends at the other end. This completes the laser welding
of the particular metals.

Types of LBW

Conduction mode welding

Conduction mode welding comes into picture at power density less than 106 W/cm2 , in which
vaporization of work piece is minimal. In this process when the laser source is incident on
metallic interface, some of the power gets absorbed by the metal and some reflects back to the
surrounding. The absorbed power melts the surface and welding takes place. So the penetration
of welding completely depends on the power of laser beam and the distance of the initial point
of contact of laser beam. Thus welding takes place through conduction. Convection also helps
in forming weld pool. The conduction mode welding has low welding depth and small aspect
ratio compared to keyhole welding. Coupling efficiency is less in this welding. But weld bead
generated in this welding is very smooth. Laser welding of thin work pieces like foils, wires,

19
thin tubes, enclosures etc. are being done by conduction mode welding . A typical configuration
of conduction mode welding is shown in Fig.

Keyhole mode welding

At very high power density of 106 W/cm2 , keyhole cavity is formed by vaporization of specific
portion of the metal. The keyhole cavity is encompassed by liquid metal which thus
encompassed by strong base material. The liquid material around the keyhole fills the cavity
as the beam is traversed along the joint. The cavity contains vapor, plasma or both. Powers at
play that have a tendency to crumple the keyhole cavity are as follows:

1.Surface tension at the interface between the molten metal and vapor or plasma.
2.Hydrodynamic pressure of the molten metal.

3.Hydrostatic pressure of the molten metal.

The forces are however balanced by

1.Vapor pressure in the cavity that repels the molten metal towards periphery which is greater
than atmospheric pressure by about 10%.

20
2.Ablation pressure of vaporized material as it leaves the keyhole strengthening the vapor
pressure.

When the scan speed is zero or when the beam is stationary, the keyhole cavity grows steadily
due to vaporization. But when the beam starts moving, it is difficult to achieve steady state
condition. So the cavity tends to collapse soon. But under movable condition of the beam the
steady state can be achieved. In this case the beam has to be moved with the cavity at a speed
determined by the beam so as to defend collapsing of the cavity. As the beam proceeds it tends
to push the material behind the cavity which happens due to flow of molten material around
cavity or due to vapor pressure. The driving force for flow of molten material through keyhole
cavity is due to ablation pressure of vapor or surface tension of molten material. But the later
force is greater than the surface tension as the interface temperature is almost same as
equilibrium evaporation temperature. Maximum pressure occurs at vapor-liquid interface and
it decreases gradually to the side of the keyhole. Under steady state condition, the cavity moves
uniformly with all isotherms. Fig. indicates keyhole welding process in equilibrium condition.

21
CHAPTER 6

APPLICATIONS OF LASER BEAM WELDING

• Electronic, Automotive & Food processing.

• Spot welds.

• Vaccum components are welded easily.

• Medical equipments.

• Carbon steel and ferrous materials are welded.

• In aircraft industry to weld light gauge materials.

• Ideal for automation and robotics.

22
CHAPTER 7

ADVANTAGES

1. The welding formed by laser is clean enough than any other welding. It incorporates very
small contaminates from surrounding.

2. Laser welding has lowest distortion. More the laser stability, lower will be distortion.

3. Laser welding is a faster welding process. A scan speed of 20 m/min can be achieved by
laser welding.

4. The materials which are difficult to be welded van be welded by laser. Aluminum which is
very difficult to be welded can be welded by laser. Very hard materials come in this domain
also.

5. Heat Affected Zone in laser welding is very narrow as a concentrated energy is supplied for
less time by laser.

6. The welding process can be automated

7. Small size products with very narrow interface can be welded successfully by Laser.

8. Laser welding is suitable for heterogeneous materials having different physical properties.

9. It doesn’t require filler material.

10. It doesn’t require vacuum.

11. Laser beam can be supplied to different work stations at a time by using switch device.

12. It is noncontact process. So the least mechanical stress is induced in the work piece.

13. Due to keyhole welding, penetration of welding is the maximum. So depth-to-width ratio
of welding maximizes.

14. Bead width of welding is very narrow compared to other welding process.

15. Very high precision welding. Close tolerance and excellent repeatability.

16. Laser is not affected by the presence of any magnetic field.

17. Electrode is not required. Production cost is less

23
CHAPTER 8

DISADVANTAGES

1.The equipment cost of welding is expensive.


2.Thick metal plates can’t be joined. Up to 5 mm thickness can be welded by laser.
3.Reflection of laser in welding process is hazardous to health.
4.Skilled worker is required for operating laser equipment.
5.Energy conversion efficiency is too low.
6.Energy consumption of the machine is too high.
7.Not portable.

24
CHAPTER 9

CONCLUSION

● More than 90% of the precipitates are vaporized during laser beam welding.

● Both the tensile strength and ductility of the laser beam weldments are lower than the basee
matel properties.

● The toughness value (DT energy) of laser beam weldments are superior to the base plate
values due to the fusion zone purification mechanism and refined structures.

25
CHAPTER 10
REFERENCE

1. Sun Z. AND Ion J.C. Laser welding of dissimilar metal combinations, Journal of Materials
Science, 30 (1995): pp. 4205–4214
2. Hecht J. The history of the X-ray laser, Optics and Photonics News, 19 (2008): pp. 26–33.
3. Rao M.C. A brief introduction to excimer lasers: Fundamental study, International Journal
of Advances in Pharmacy, 2 (2008): pp. 2277-4688
4. Barone M. and Selleri F. Frontiers of fundamental physics. New York, Plenum Press, 1994
5. http://uslugi.engineering-bp.com/pl/ciecie-laserem
6. Kannatey-Asibu E. Principles of laser materials processing. New Jersey, John Wiley and
Sons inc., 2008
7. Zhang H., Tang D.Y. and Zhao L.M. Induced solutions formed by cross polarization
coupling in a birefringent cavity fiber laser, Optical Society of America, 33 (2008): pp. 2317–
2319
8. Duarte F. J. Tunable laser optics. New York, Elsevier Academic, 2003
9. Helbo B. Kristensen A. and Menon A. A micro-cavity fluidic dye laser, Journal of
Micromechanics and Microengineering, 13 (2003): pp. 307-310
10. David F. A brief history of high-power semiconductor lasers, IEEE Journal of Selected
Topics in Quantum Electronics, 6 (2000): pp. 6-8
11. Rongqing H., Alessandro D., Antonio M. and Paolo S. Injection locking in distributed
feedback semiconductor lasers, IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, 21 (1991): pp. 6- 12
12. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free-electron_laser

26
27

You might also like