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CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you have completed this chapter you will be able to:
 Define what is theory
 Explain the role of theory in educational research
 Justify the need for review of literature
 Identify criteria for good review of literature
 Critique a research article

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

 Introduction  Steps in Developing a

 What is Theory? Review of Literature
 Confirming and  Common Weaknesses
Disconfirming a Theory  Evaluating Research
 What is the Review of Articles
Literature?
 Summary
 Importance of the
Review of Literature Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Readings
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Chapter 2: Theory and Review of Literature

INTRODUCTION

Without some viable theory to serve as a guide, many

studies address trivial questions or contribute nothing to
the slow accumulation of knowledge needed for
advancement of a science of education.

[W. Borg & M. Borg .1983. Educational Research: An Introduction. New

York: Longman. 79-80]

Do you agree with the statement by W. Borg and M. Borg? Theory has not been
properly understood by some graduate students. Some students are of the opinion that
theory is not relevant to practice. Oftentimes, we hear students remark that a particular
course is “too theoretical” or they prefer courses that are “practical oriented and not too
theoretical”. Some go to the extent to denounce theory as useless! Actually, this reflects
a lack of understanding on what is theory and what is practice or practical. According to
W. Borg and M. Borg, theory serves as a guide for research to avoid investigating
phenomena that is irrelevant and does not contribute to our understanding.

WHAT IS THEORY?

A theory is a large body of interconnected propositions about how some portion

of the social world operates (Kidder, 1980). It is statement or set of statements that
explain and predict phenomena. It is a statement of a relationship between two or more
events. The more ‘powerful’ a theory is, the more events can be explained by it. Theories
consist of generalisations and in the physical sciences some of them are called laws.(for
example, Archimedes Principle, Boyle’s Law).

 According to Social Learning Theory by Albert Bandura; the observer will imitate
the model's behaviour if the model possesses characteristics such as talent,
intelligence, power, good looks, or popularity, that the observer finds attractive or
desirable.
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Chapter 2: Theory and Review of Literature

 According to the Theory of Meaningful Learning by David Ausubel, learning

takes place when the learner subsumes new information with old information or
one’s cognitive structure.

 According to B.F. Skinner’s Theory of Reinforcement, a learner will repeat

performance of a task if he or she is reinforced with a system of rewards or
punishment.

Note that each of these theories explain learning and the variables or factors that
determines learning. Assuming that each of these theories are true we can predict that
learning will take place when a student connects new information with old information, is
reinforced through a system of rewards and reproduce a modelled behaviour if it brings
pleasure. However, many areas of education have virtually no theoretical foundation and
have to rely on other behavioural sciences, such as psychology, sociology, anthropology
and social psychology.
Can a theory be 'true'? Not necessarily. The scientific method makes it impossible
to conclude that a theory in the behavioural sciences to be definitely true. It is possible
only to disconfirm or confirm a hypothesis or theory. We cannot say that we have
verified a theory because there is always the possibility that at some future research will
disconfirm it or that some other theory will account for the same results. Theories,
therefore, are always tentative. They represent the best of our knowledge for the time
being but they do not represent some absolute truth. They await revision of replacement"
(Borg and Borg, 1983).

CONFIRMING OR DISCONFIRMING A THEORY

Children at the pre-operational stage are not able to

Theory perform conservation task

Hypothesis Five year old children are unable to perform

transformation of liquid quantity tasks

Observation Present subjects with 2 identical

glasses (A&B) with equal amounts
of water. Pour water from glass A
into a narrow glass (C). Is A=C?

Confirmation Accept or Reject the

hypothesis. If accept the
hypothesis then the theory is
confirmed.
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Chapter 2: Theory and Review of Literature

Figure 1 Confirming or Disconfirming a Theory

Let us take an example of a theory and examine how we go about confirming or

disconfirming it. According to Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development, "Children
at the pre-operational stage (age 0-5) are not able to perform conservation tasks".
Conservation is defined as the ability to recognise that an object remains unchanged
when its volume or length has undergone a transformation with nothing added or taken
away. From this broad theory a hypothesis is derived which is small version of the theory
(see Figure below). Then, an experiment is set up in which young children are shown two
identical containers (A and B) with the same amount of water. Than, the water from
container B is poured into a flat container C (see Figure 2.2). Children are asked whether
the amount of water in container A is the same as container C (Is A = C?). Based on these
observations, the researcher concludes whether to confirm or disconfirm the theory. If the
theory is confirmed, children are unable to perform conservation task. In other words,
children replied that container C had more water. If the theory is disconfirmed, than the
majority of children answered that the amount of water in container A and C is the same.

A B C

SELF-TEST
1. What is a theory?
2. Why are there few laws in the field of education?
3. What do you mean by confirming of disconfirming a theory?
4. Identify some theories in your field of interest.
5. What are the implications Piaget’s theory of children’s
cognition in the classroom?
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Chapter 2: Theory and Review of Literature

Let us examine another well known theory in psychology which has been used
widely in education. David Clarence McClelland developed a theory of motivation in
1988 which states that a person is motivated to do something because of a desire or need
for achievement, authority or affiliation or a combination of the three characteristics (see
Figure below).

Achievement
Authority/ Power
Motivation (n-ach)
Motivation (n-pow)

Affiliation Motivation
(n-affil)

 Achievement Motivation (represented by ‘n-ach’) includes persons who are driven

by the need or desire to achieve, attain realistic but challenging goals, and advance
in their job.
 Authority / Power Motivation (represented by ‘n-pow’) includes persons who are
driven by the need or desire to be influential, effective and to make an impact.
 Affiliation Motivation (represented by ‘n-affil’) includes persons who are driven by
the need or desire for friendly relationships and are motivated towards interaction
with other people..

ACTIVITY
1. To what extent does McClelland’s Motivation Theory describe your
motivation to do something in your daily life?
2. Briefly explain how you would attempt to confirm or disconfirm
McClelland’s Theory.

[You can find more information about this theory at this site:
Alan Chapman, 1995. David McClleland’s Motivational Needs
Theory. www.businessballs.com/davidmcclleland.htm]

3. Identify some major theories in your area of interest.

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Chapter 2: Theory and Review of Literature

As research is focused in testing behavioural science theory, we gain a better

understanding of the theory, which in turn leads to modification in the theory and
eventually to its acceptance or rejection. It is hoped that this better understanding of
human behaviour will inform practice in terms of what teachers do in the classroom, how
administrators manage and lead their organisations, and most importantly how students
learn and conduct themselves. Theory can provide a rational basis for explaining or
interpreting the results of research. Studies without a theoretical foundation often produce
results that the researcher is at a loss to explain. Also, studies based on theory enable the
researcher to make predictions about a wide range of situations. For example,
McClelland’s theory of motivation could be employed to determine what motivates
teachers, students and school administrators.

WHAT IS THE REVIEW OF LITERATURE?

Until you know what others have done in your area

and what has not been done, you cannot convincingly
carry out research that will contribute to furthering
knowledge in your field. Thus, the literature in any
field forms the foundation upon which all future work
must be built. If you fail to build this foundation
of knowledge provided by the review of literature,
you work is likely to be shallow and naive, and will
often duplicate that has already been done better by
someone else.

(W. Borg & M. Borg (1983). Educational Research: An Introduction.

Longman: New York. p.142)

The review of literature is usually the a standard chapter of the research report,
thesis of dissertation. It is an account of the research done in the field of study. The
review forms an important chapter in a thesis or dissertation where its purpose is to
provide the background to and justification for the research undertaken. It is usual that
the review consists of empirical studies done in the area that is being investigated. It also
includes theoretical positions or proposals related to the study which are not necessarily
empirical in nature.
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Chapter 2: Theory and Review of Literature

The aim of the literature review is to show what has been done in the field and
how your study relates to earlier research. It also indicate the approaches, the samples
used, the variables examined, the statistical procedures used and most important of all,
the findings obtained. The review gives an overview of the findings of various previous
studies. The review traces the general patterns of the findings and the conclusions that
can be made based on the findings. It also provides an insight into how your study is
similar or different from previous studies. For example; Is your study an extension of
what others have done? Are you examining variables that have not been attended to in
earlier studies? Are you attempting to replicate earlier studies in a different cultural
context? Are you applying statistical procedures that have not been attempted by others?
The review of literature requires you to locate, read and evaluate reports of
research as well as reports of opinions and proposals. The review must be extensive and
thorough because you are aiming to obtain a detailed account of the topic being studied.

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE REVIEW OF LITERATURE

 The review of literature is an important part of the research process because:

o it forms the basis of any research and puts your work into perspective
o it gives an understanding of previous work that has been done (seminal
works in the field).
o familiarises you with the personalities doing research in the field and to
demonstrate that you can access such works

 The review of literature helps the student in delimiting the research problem by
setting the parameters. By setting the limits of your study, you avoid being
questioned "why didn't you do this or do that?". You can confidently reply that your
study is confined to studying what you had set out to study. Delimiting the research
problem can be achieved if you read extensively and intensively the problem you
plan to investigate and from the literature specify clearly what is it you want to
study.

 The literature also provides insight into the approaches and methodologies adopted
by different researchers. A common mistake made by students is to pay attention to
only the findings of studies. Besides findings, students should also examine the
methodologies used to study the phenomenon you are interested in. There could be
unique approaches adopted which you might want to replicate in the Malaysian
context. For example, in most studies reviewed the sample used tended to be
university students and your study is an attempt to use secondary school students
which could be a unique contribution to the field because you are different.

 Some of the research studies include a section on Recommendations for further

research which indicates whether you are on the right track in studying something
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Chapter 2: Theory and Review of Literature

that has not been explored before. These suggestions are significant because they
express the insight of the researcher after having studied the phenomenon.

SELF-TEST
1. What is the Review of Literature?
2. What is the purpose of the Review of Literature?

STEPS IN DEVELOPING A LITERATURE REVIEW

Step 1: Select a Research Topic

 Choose a topic of current interest – your goal is to summarise and evaluate

findings of a line of research. Pick a research topic about which articles are
continuing to be published.

 Choose a well-researched area – an area that is well-defined and well studied will
give you more lines of research to choose from. A line of research is a series of
studies by the same individual. An area of major research interest will have
several lines of research.

 Narrow your topic – It is far more satisfying, to both the writer and the reader, to
restrict your topic and cover it in depth. Comprehensiveness and narrowness of
topic go hand in hand.

 Write about what interests you – If you are interested in the topic, you are likely
to already know something about it, which will make it easier to gather
information.

Step 2: Collect and Read the Relevant Articles

 Do a preliminary search – visit the library or do an online literature search before

you even decide on a topic.

 Search for helpful activities – Some articles will contribute more than others to
your understanding of a topic. Sometimes you can find a pivotal article that can
serve as a foundation for your study (the References will lead you to other similar
studies).
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Chapter 2: Theory and Review of Literature

 Find readable articles – some areas of research will be harder to understand than
others. Scan the research articles in the topic areas you are considering to decide
on the readability of research in those areas.

 ‘Read, Read, Read’ That is the bottom line of doing a review. People have
different ways of doing a literature review. A common technique used by many
graduate students is to use a ‘Note Card’ (see below). It may be a rather old-
fashioned technique, but has proven to be most effective. Many graduate students
will testify to this, despite advancements in computer technology.

o Read the easier articles first

o Identify (1) the problem statement, (2) the research questions or
hypotheses, (3) method used, (4) the findings, and (5) how the findings
were interpreted.
o Jot down the contents of the article using the following Note Card.

Title: …………………………………………………………………….

Author/s: ………………………………………………………………..

Source: …………………………………………………………………..

Problem Statement: ………………………………………………………

Methodology:…………………………………………………………….

Findings…………………………………………………………………

Conclusion:……………………………………………………………….

Comments;……………………………………………………………….

Note card

Step 3: Write the Review

 Introduce your research questions (what it is, why it is worth examining). Begin
your review with some theme (or point) that you want to emphasise.
[REMEMBER YOU ARE WRITING FOR THE READER and not for yourself].
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Chapter 2: Theory and Review of Literature

 Briefly outline the organisation of the paper. Organisation is of utmost importance

and make the structure known to your reader. For example, tell the reader that you
will present research supporting first one side, then the other. Or if your are
addressing three methodologies, briefly describe them and state that you will
compare the results from the three methods.

 Describe, compare and evaluate studies in terms of the:

o research assumptions
o theories
o hypotheses stated
o research designs used
o variables selected (independent and dependent)
o researcher speculations about future studies

 Discuss implications of studies (your judgement or what the studies show, and
where to go from here).

 Most important of all avoid plagiarism. Give due recognition to the works of other
people. It does not cost anything to acknowledge sources. In fact, it shows the
breadth and depth of your review, and the thoroughness of your work.

COMMON WEAKNESSES

In writing the review of literature, beginning researchers make the following common
errors:

 The presentation is a mere description of various studies without making an effort

to show how the studies are related to the main aim of your study and the research
questions of your study.

 The presentation is a mere listing of the studies without an attempt to show how
each study is similar or different. Use connectives such as: however, on the other
hand, similarly, but and so forth.

 Poor citations. In education it is normal practice to adopt the format proposed in the
manual published by the American Psychological Association (commonly known as
the ‘APA style’).

 Hurriedly reviews the literature and relies too heavily upon secondary sources.
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Chapter 2: Theory and Review of Literature

 At times there is evidence to suggest that students have not read the original works
but instead have taken someone's work and cited it as though they had read the
primary source.

 There is also evidence of 'cut and paste' which SHOULD NOT be encouraged. You
must have read the original works and know in detail every study that you cite.

 Articles or reports that are included are not critically evaluated. Critically evaluate
the research questions, the methodology used, the statistics used, the conclusion
arrived at and recommendations made by the researcher [Details about evaluation
of articles is discussed in 2.7]

SELF-TEST
1. ‘Read, Read, Read’. Comment.
2. What are some weaknesses of graduate students when writing
the Review of Literature?

SOURCES

A good literature review requires knowledge of the use of indexes and abstracts,
and the ability to conduct exhaustive bibliographic searches. You should be able to
organise the material meaningfully, describe, critique and relate each source to the
subject of the inquiry, and present the organised review logically, and most importantly
to correctly cite all sources mentioned (Afolabi, 1992). Generally, there are two main
sources of materials:

 Secondary Sources: This includes materials written by an author/s who was not a
direct observer or participant in the events described. If you read a textbook on
‘Educational Psychology’, it would be a compilation of the views and empirical
works of other authors rearranged into a textbook. The textbook is a review of
research done by others and interpreted by the author. This interpretation by the
author of the textbook would be classified as a secondary source (Be aware that
the interpretation may be biased). Secondary sources are useful because they
provide a quick and relatively easy method of getting an overview of current
thinking in the field.

 Primary Sources: This includes material that is a direct description of events by

a person who actually conducted the investigation. Most primary sources are
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Chapter 2: Theory and Review of Literature

found in research journals. However, there are also abundant reports of research
conducted by individuals, groups of individuals and organisations.

How do I search for research articles, research reports, etc.? You can start by referring to
preliminary sources which are references such as indexes and abstracts, that are intended
to help you identify and locate research articles and other primary sources of information.
The following are well-known indexes and abstract in education:

a) Education Index - provides a list of articles published in

education journals and books about education.

b) Psychological Abstracts - contains abstracts of articles appearing in over 900

journals and other sources in psychology and related issues.

c) Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) - transmits the findings of

current educational research to teachers, administrators, researchers and the
public.

d) Resources in Education (RIE) - provides abstracts of papers presented at

education conferences, progress reports and final reports of projects which may
not appear in education journals

e) Current Index to Journals in Education (CIE) - indexes over 800 education

journals and includes more than 1000 articles each month

Specialised Areas

 Child Development Abstracts and Bibliography

 Exceptional Child Education Resources (ECER)

 Education Administration Abstracts

 Physical Education Index

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Chapter 2: Theory and Review of Literature

Another way to obtain information about research done is to examine journals,

handbooks and encyclopaedias that locate and review research for particular topics. The
following are the more well-known materials in education.

 Review of Educational Research - journal published by the American

Educational Research Association (AERA) covering critical issues and
reviews of research literature on important topics and issues

 Review of Research in Education - presents critical essays that survey

and synthesize educational research in important problem areas

 Encyclopedia of Educational Reseach – best single source of information

on educational research with contributions from among leading educational
researchers.

 Handbook of Research on Teaching – contains reviews of various

aspects of research on teaching such as method and techniques of
teaching, teaching specific school subjects, and problems of teaching.

A further source of information are theses and dissertations that have never been
published. The following are important sources which provide abstracts of masters theses
and doctoral dissertations in education.:

 Dissertation Abstracts International – compilation of abstracts of

doctoral dissertations. Under the education section are subtopics such
as adult education, art education, preschool, teacher training and so
forth.
 Master’s Theses in Education – this is a listing of master’s theses in
about 40 major educational topics. It includes name of author, title and
institution.

ACTIVITY

What do you think are some problems graduate students face when
doing the Review of Literature for their theses or research project?
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Chapter 2: Theory and Review of Literature

EVALUATING RESEARCH ARTICLES

As mentioned earlier, in writing your Review of Literature it is essential that you

be able to interpret the works of others. How do you go about evaluating research
articles? The procedure for evaluating research articles is shown in Figure 2.1. You
should keep in mind, that in educational research the findings of previous research tends
to be inconclusive as results are often contradictory. This may leave you at a loss to
decide which, if any, to accept. However, this problem can resolved through a critical
evaluation of previous work in which the strengths and weaknesses of each study are
carefully weighed (Borg and Borg, 1983). The procedure proposed below consists of two
parts: the first relates to DESCRIBING the research article and the second part relates to
CRITIQUING the article or doing a critique of the article.

Read the Abstract Read the Read the Methods

Introduction Section

Read the Analysis

or
Read the Discussion Results Section
Section

Figure 2.2 The Five Step Procedure of Evaluating an Article

Step 1: Read the Abstract

 What is the research about? Was the purpose or objectives of the study specified?

 Was the design used described?

 Rationale or reasons for the research

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Chapter 2: Theory and Review of Literature

Step 2: Read the Introduction

Describe:

 Keep in mind that the writer is assuming that the reader is an expert in the field or
at least has some background knowledge about the field.

 References made may be brief because it is assumed you know the people in the
field (e.g. if you are reading about ‘intelligence’ then names like Sternberg,
Gardner, Thurstone, Spearman, should be known to you).

 Writer assumes you know the concepts in the field (e.g. burnout, metacognition,
inductive reasoning, organisational climate).

 The rationale given for the study and why the research questions or hypotheses
were put forward

Critique:

o Is the reason for answering the research question or testing the hypotheses
convincing or just attempting to appeal to your emotion or merely seeking
endorsement from well-know authorities in the field?
o Do the research questions or hypotheses follow logically from theory?
o Is there a tendency to oversimplify theories or studies reviewed?

Step 3: Read the Methods Section

Describe:

 The writer/s should tell about the background of the subjects used, the number of
subjects and the method used to collect data

 The design of the study is described in sufficient detail. Justification for the study
was given.

 Development of the instrument/s is described (or use of someone’s instrument)

and there is mention about pilot-testing the instrument/s and reliability and
validity figures are given.
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Chapter 2: Theory and Review of Literature

Critique:

o How the subjects were selected is clear?

o How the instrument or treatment was administered is adequately
explained?
o Issued of validity and reliability are discussed
o Is the design of the study appropriate? How was it designed to reduce
different types of biases?
o What is the independent variable and dependent variable?
o Were the statistical procedures used appropriate?
o Were the variables operationally defined?
o If the study is an experiment, was the treatment explained in sufficient
detail? Could it have been done in another way?

Step 4: Read the Results or Analysis Section

Describe:

 Connection between the results and the research questions or hypotheses

 Report results relating to the research

questions or hypotheses (whether results
are statistically significant)

 Report other statistically significant

results

Critique:

o Were the results clearly reported? (eg. tables, graphs)

o Do the statistics test the predictions made in the 'Introduction'?

Step 5: Read the Discussion section

Describe:

 Lists the main findings

 Relate findings to what was mentioned in the "Introduction"

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Chapter 2: Theory and Review of Literature

 Speculate about the reasons for the results

Critique:

o Is the author's way the only way to interpret the predicted results?
o Can you explain any of the findings the author/'s did not explain or were
unable to explain?
o What are the weaknesses or limitations identified by the author or which
you found but was not mentioned?

SELF-TEST
1. What are the major aspects of a study will you examine when
describing a research article?
2. When you critique the Methods section and the Results section,
what are you looking for?
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Chapter 2: Theory and Review of Literature

Key Terms
Theory Indexes in education
Confirming a theory Abstracts of research
Disconfirming a theory Dissertation & theses abstracts
Review of Literature Evaluating information
- Importance Critique of research article
- Secondary sources
- Primary sources

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1. Select a research topic in which you are interested and locate a primary and
secondary source related to it. Explain why each is a primary or secondary
source.

2. Locate full-text journals in your areas of interest that are available free
on the internet. Check to see if they are referred journals. Share what you
have found with your coursemates.

3. How will you define plagiarism? What constitutes plagiarism?

3. “Who am I to critique the research of experts in the field, I am only a

student”. Discuss.
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Chapter 2: Theory and Review of Literature

READINGS

Books & Articles

a) W. Borg & M. Borg, (1988), Educational Research: An Introduction. New York:

Longman. Chapter 5:Reviewing the literature. 142-191.

b) Jackson, G. (1980). Methods of integrative review. Review of Educational Research.

vol. 50. 438-460.

Internet Resources

a) The Literature Review: A Few Tips on Conducting It. D. Taylor, University of

Toronto.
http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/litre.html

b) Background Research / The Review of Literature. K. Vaverka & S. Fenn..

http://kancrn.kckps.k12.ks.us/guide/literature.html

c) Tools for Preparing Literature Review – A Web Tutorial

http://www.gwu.edu/~litrev/

d) Literature Review: An Introduction. Academic Grammar.

http://ecdev.hku.hk/acadgrammar/litrev/min.htm